Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
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Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
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"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"90",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Soybean - Applications and Technology",title:"Soybean",subtitle:"Applications and Technology",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Soybean is an agricultural crop of tremendous economic importance. 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B. Ng obtained his Ph.D. degree from the Memorial University of Newfoundland in Canada. He pursued postdoctoral training at the University of California in San Francisco. He is currently a professor of biochemistry at the School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China. His research interests encompass biologically active proteins and peptides of animal, plant, fungal and bacterial origins; polysaccharide-peptide complexe; polysaccharides;melatonin and derivatives; and natural products. He has supervised a large number of postdoctoral fellows and graduate students.He has published over five hundred papers in international journals and a number of book chapters.Some of these papers are about leguminous lectins, antifungal proteins, ribosome inactivating proteins, protease inhibitors, and peroxidases. 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This requires extensive analysis of developing trends in scientific research in order to offer our readers relevant content. Creating the book catalogue is also based on keeping track of the most read, downloaded and highly cited chapters and books and relaunching similar topics. I am also responsible for consulting with our Scientific Advisors on which book topics to add to our catalogue and sending possible book proposal topics to them for evaluation. Once the catalogue is complete, I contact leading researchers in their respective fields and ask them to become possible Academic Editors for each book project. Once an editor is appointed, I prepare all necessary information required for them to begin their work, as well as guide them through the editorship process. I also assist editors in inviting suitable authors to contribute to a specific book project and each year, I identify and invite exceptional editors to join IntechOpen as Scientific Advisors. 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Kowalski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/935.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65697",title:"Prof.",name:"Marek",surname:"Kowalski",slug:"marek-kowalski",fullName:"Marek Kowalski"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"19739",title:"Antiepileptic Medicinal Plants used in Traditional Medicine to Treat Epilepsy",doi:"10.5772/18469",slug:"antiepileptic-medicinal-plants-used-in-traditional-medicine-to-treat-epilepsy",body:'
1. Introduction
Epilepsy is a disease that affects about 40 million people worldwide (Njamshi et al., 2010). In 1968, the prevalence of epilepsy in Africa was about 4.8 to 40 ‰. In 1996, Diop and collaborators reported in Senegal a prevalence of epilepsy of 21 ‰ (Diop et al., 1996). In 2006, Ngoungou and collaborators estimated the prevalence in sub-Saharan Africa to be two or three time highest than the rate in developed world (Ngounou et al., 2007). In Cameroon, some epidemiological studies on epilepsy have shown that, the prevalence of epilepsy is estimated to vary from 5-136/1000. The highest ones are reported in some villages of the Cameroon Central Province located in the Sanaga and Mbam River Valley (Nchoji Nkwi & Tioko Ndonko, 1989; Dongmo et al., 2000; Preux et al., 2000; Boussinesq et al., 2002; Kamgno et al., 2003; Dongmo et al., 2004; Prischich et al., 2008). Cameroon is one of the countries most affected by epilepsy in Africa and in the world. Thus, epilepsy is among the major public health problems in Cameroon. In Africa and in Cameroon particularly, phytotherapy in traditional medicine still plays an important role in the management of diseases, mainly among populations with very low income (Geoffrey & Kirby, 1996). And phytotherapy relies on the use of a wide variety of plant species. Annona muricata Linn (Annonaceae), Annona senegalensis Pers (Annonaceae), Bidens pilosa Linn (Asteraceae), Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam) Oken (Crassulaceae), Citrus sinenis (Linn) Osbeck (Rutaceae), Clerodendron thomsoniae Balf (Verbenaceae), Daniellia oliveri (Rolfe) Hutch and Dalz (Caesalpiniaceae), Datura stramonium Linn (Solanaceae), Detarium microcarpum Guil et Perr (Caesalpiniaceae), Euphorbia hirta Linn (Euphorbiaceae), Flacourtia indica Willd (Flacourtiaceae), Hymenocardia acida Tul (Hymenocardiaceae), Jatropha gossypiifolia Linn (Euphorbiaceae), Khaya senegalensis A Juss (Desrousseaux) (Meliaceae), Mentha cordifolia Auct (Lamiaceae), Prosopis Africana Guill and Perr (Taub) (Mimosaceae), Ricinus communis Linn (Euphorbiaceae), Securidaca longepedunculata Fres (Polygalaceae), Senna singueana (Delile) Lock 1988 (Caesalpiniaceae), Terminalia glaucescens Planch. ex Benth (Combretaceae), Terminalia mollis Laws (Combretaceae), Tetrapleura tétraptera Taub (Schum Thonn) (Mimosaceae), Trichilia emetica Vahl (Meliaceae) and Vitellaria paradoxa C F Gaertn (Sapotaceae) are plants that are being used empirically in traditional medicine in Cameroon to treat epilepsy and diseases related to the brain like agitations, anxiety, convulsions, dizziness, headaches, insomnia, migraines, pains and schizophrenia according to our traditional Healers and the literature (Abbiw, 1990; Adjanohoun et al., 1984, 1996; Arbonnier, 2000; Berhaut, 1975; Biholong, 1986; Bouquet, 1969; Brenan, 1959; Dalziel, 1937; Hutchinson & Dalziel, 1958; Iwu, 1993; Joyner, 2004; Malgras, 1992; Mutasa et al., 1990; Nwaiwu & Akah, 1986; Pousset, 1989; Raponda-Walker & Silans, 1961; Saulnier, 1998) (Table 1). Though the literature showed a lot of pharmacological studies done
Table 1.
Parts of the plant, form of the medicine and diseases treated in traditional medicine. Adeyemi et al., 2010; Adjanohoum et al., 1984; Adjanouhoun et al., 1996; Adzu et al., 2003; Agassounon et al. 2008; Anete et al., 1998 ; Anuradha et al., 2008; Arbonnier, 2000; Berhaut, 1975; Brenan, 1959 ; Dimo et al., 2002; El-Mahmood et al., 2008; Ezugwu & Odoh, 2003; Gusman-Gutierez & Navarrete, 2009; Iwu, 1993; Joyner, 2004; Lompo et al., 1998; Malgras, 1992; Mutasa et al., 1990; Nazneen et al., 2009; Ogundiya, 2009; Ojewole, 2005; Palgrave, 2003; Pathak et al., 2010; Pousset, 1989; Satyarayana et al., 1996; Sunday et al., 2009; Saulnier, 1998; Seema Zareen, 2006; Worapan et al., 2009.
with these plants, very few were done to study their sedative and anticonvulsant properties. This study was undertaken to evaluate the anticonvulsant and sedative properties of these plants used in the treatment of insomnia and epilepsy in traditional medicine in Africa, particularly in Cameroon.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Animals
Adult male mice (Mus musculus Swiss; 22 2 g; 6 or 8 per group) were used for this study. The animals were housed in standard cages at 25°C, on a 12/12 h light-dark cycle. They were supplied with food and water ad libitum.
Drugs were administered in a volume of 10 ml/kg of mice body weight. The study was conducted in accordance with the nationally (N°.FWA-IRB00001954) and internationally accepted principles for laboratory animal use and care. In diazepam or sodium thiopental- induced sleep tests, mice were divided into negative control group that received distilled water and four test groups that received different doses of the plant extracts. In anticonvulsant tests, there was one more group that received a known anticonvulsant compound and served as a positive control.
2.2. Plant material
A voucher specimen of each plant was authenticated by a botanist, Professor Mapongmetsem Pierre Marie, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Ngaoundéré and deposited at the National Herbarium of Cameroon in Yaoundé.
2.3. Preparation of the extracts
2.3.1. Decoction
10 g of each plant material were macerated for 1 h in an amount of distilled water (25, 50, 75, 100 or 150 ml) according to the plant. The mixture was boiled for 20 min. After cooling, the supernatant (decoction) was collected and filtered. The decoction of each plant was diluted in distilled water to obtain less concentrated solutions. In another experiment, the decoction was dried and the w/w yield of the extract was calculated (table 2). The decoctions were prepared according to the methods close to the ones used in traditional medicine.
2.3.2. Maceration
10 g of dried fruits of Datura stramonium were macerated in 50 ml of distilled water. After 1 h the supernatant was collected, filtered and used in mice. The w/w yield of the extract was obtained (table 2).
2.4. Anticonvulsant tests
2.4.1. N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) test
Six groups of 6 or 8 mice received different treatments. Group I (negative control) was treated with distilled water. Groups II to V (test groups) were treated with 4 doses of the plant extracts. Group VI (positive control) was treated with 3 mg/kg of CGP 37849 i.p. or 33 ηmol/kg of D-AP7 i.p. Mice were injected subcutaneously with NMDA, 75 mg/kg 1 h after administration of the different treatments. They were observed for 30 min. Animals that did not exhibit turning behaviour within the 30 min of observation were declared protected. Turning behaviour was characterised by two consecutive 360° cycles fulfilled by the same animal (Croucher et al., 1982; Ngo Bum et al., 2001; 2009a; 2009b; Schmutz et al., 1990).
2.4.2. Strychnine (STR) test
Six groups of 6 or 8 mice received different treatments as above, except that group VI (positive control) was treated with clonazepam (3 mg/kg, i.p.). Convulsions followed by death were induced in mice by the i.p. injection of 2.5 mg/kg STR nitrate 1 h after administration of the different treatments. The animals which survived more than 10 min after strychnine injection were qualified protected (Ngo Bum et al., 2001, 2009a).
2.4.3. Picrotoxine (PIC) test
Six groups of 6 or 8 mice received different treatments as above, except that group VI (positive control) was treated with clonazepam (0.4 mg/kg, i.p.). Clonic seizures were induced in mice by the i.p. injection of 7.5 mg/kg PIC 1 h after administration of the different treatments. The animals which did not convulse within the 15 min of observation after PIC injection were qualified protected (Lehmann et al., 1988; Ngo Bum et al., 2001).
2.4.4. Pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) test
Six groups of 6 or 8 mice received different treatments as above, except that group VI (positive control) was treated with clonazepam (0.1 mg/kg, i.p.). Clonic seizures were induced in mice by the i.p. injection of 70 mg/kg PTZ 1 h after administration of the different treatments. The animals that did not convulse within the 10 min from the injection of PTZ were qualified protected (Ngo Bum et al., 2001, 2009a, 2009b).
2.4.5. Isonicotinic hydrazide acid (INH) test
Six groups of 6 or 8 mice received different treatments as above, except that group VI (positive control) was treated with diazepam, 10 mg/kg (per os). Animals were injected i.p. with INH 250 mg/kg 1 h after the administration of the different treatments. The time to the onset of clonic or tonic seizures was recorded. (Bernasconi et al., 1988; Ngo Bum et al., 2001).
2.5. Diazepam or sodium thiopental-induced sleep in mice
Five groups of 6 or 8 mice received different treatments. Group I (negative control) was treated with distilled water and groups II to V (test groups) were treated with 4 doses of the plant extracts.The methods described by Beretz et al., (1978) and modified by Rakotonirina et al., (2001) were used. Sleep potentiating effects of the plant were studied in mice that received sodium thiopental or diazepam at a dose of 50 mg/kg (i.p.) 1 hour after the administration of the different treatments. The time between the loss of the straightening reflex and the regain of this reflex measured the sleeping time. The loss or the regain of the straightening reflex was measured by stimulating the external ear. When the mouse anterior paw does not move after stimulation with horsehair, the animal is sleeping. When the mouse is awakened, it moves and shakes its paw.
Angola, Cameroon, Sudan, West Africa, Central Africa
Trichilia emetica
Roots Barks
Epilepsy, anti-parasitic diseases Head aches
Tannins, sterols
Savannah belt, open woodland in Africa
Vitelaria paradoxa
Leaves Leaves + Barks
Decoction
Convulsions, Epilepsy, headaches, stress Head aches
Saponins, alkaloids, tannins, cadiac glycosides
Antimicrobial
Cameroon, Brazil
Table 2.
Quantities of plants powder and distilled water, and part of the plant used to prepare the decoctions. i.p. (intraperitoneal), p.o. (per os).
2.6. Statistical analysis
Three parameters were measured: the protection against chemically-induced seizures, the latency to the onset of seizures (min) in INH test, the latency to the onset of sleep and the sleeping time (min) in the sleep potentiation test. Data of the control groups were compared to data of groups treated with the plants extracts and to data of the positive control groups. The statistical analysis were done using Fisher exact test and Anova followed by Dunnett (REGWQ). P<0.05 was considered significant.
2.7. Chemicals
D-2-amino-7-phosphonoheptanoate, Clonazepam, Isonicotinic hydrazide acid, N-methyl-D-aspartate, penthylenetetrazol, picrotoxine, sodium thiopental and strychnine are from Sigma Chemical, USA. Diazepam is from Roche, France.
3. Results
3.1. Sedative properties
The extracts of twenty one plants increased in a dose-dependent manner the sleeping time induced by sodium thiopental or diazepam. The most potent was Datura stramonium. it multiplied by a factor of 5 the sleeping time of the control group (from 16 ± 7 to 94 ± 25 min at a dose of 70 mg/kg), but this extract was very toxic for animals. The decoctions of eight plants multiplied by a factor of 4 the sleeping time of their control group: Annona senegalensis (from 19 ± 4 to 89 ± 29 min at a dose of 67 mg/kg), Clerodendron thomsoniae (from 19 ± 3 to 94 ± 30 min at a dose of 134 mg/kg), Daniellia oliveri (from 20 ± 8 to 81 ± 13 min at a dose of 198 mg/kg), Hymenocardia acida (from 20 ± 11 to 85 ± 21 min at a dose of 87.6 mg/kg), Securidaca longepedunculata (from 18 ± 3 to 78 ± 14 min at a dose of 66.7 mg/kg), Terminalia mollis (from 17 ± 1 to 84 ± 15 min at a dose of 70 mg/kg), Tetrapleura tetraptera (from 19 ± 3 to 91 ± 15 min at a dose of 84 mg/kg) and Trichilia emetica (from 17 ± 1 to 84 ± 10 min at a dose of 126 mg/kg). The sleeping time of the control groups were multiplied by a factor of 3 by six plants: Flacourtia indica (from 16 ± 12 to 49 ± 3 min at a dose of 100 mg/kg), Jatropha gossypiifolia (from 11 ± 5 to 43 ± 15 min at a dose of 140 mg/kg), Prosopis Africana (from 19 ± 3 to 61 ± 26 min at a dose of 112 mg/kg), Senna singueana (from 24 ± 2 to 86 ± 5 min at a dose of 20 mg/kg),Terminalia glaucescens (from 37 ± 13 to 120 ± 21 min at a dose of 76 mg/kg), and Vitellaria paradoxa (from 25 ± 4 to 84 ± 20 min at a dose of 84 mg/kg). The decoctions of five plants multiplied by a factor of 2 the sleeping time of their control group: Annona muricata (from 31 ± 11 to 71 ± 15 min at a dose of 120 mg/kg), Bidens pilosa (from 31 ± 2 to 80 ± 2 min at a dose of 140 mg/kg), Detarium microcarpum (from 20 ± 6 to 52 ± 12 min at a dose of 111.45 mg/kg), Euphorbia hirta (from 56 ± 16 to 145 ± 10 min at a dose of 140 mg/kg) and Mentha cordifolia (from 10 ± 2 to 24 ± 3 min at a dose of 140 mg/kg). Bryophyllum pinnatum induced a slight increase of the sleeping time. Only Citrus sinenis and Kaya senegalensis could not increase the total sleep time of mice (table 3). Some of those plants also reduced the onset time of sleep (Table 4).
3.2. Anticonvulsant properties
3.2.1. On PTZ- induced convulsions
78.3% of plants extract were effective against PTZ-induced convulsions. Annona muricata, Annona senegalensis, Bidens pilosa, Clerodendron thomsoniae, Daniellia oliveri, Datura stramonium, Detarium microcarpum, Euphorbia hirta, Flacourtia indica, Hymenocardia acida, Mentha cordifolia, Ricinus communis, Securidaca longepedunculata, Senna singueana, Terminalia glaucescens, Terminalia mollis, Tetrapleura tétraptera, Trichilia emetica and Vitellaria paradoxa protected mice against convulsions induced by PTZ (table 5).
3.2.2. On STR- induced convulsions
The percentage of plants extracts that protected mice against STR-induced convulsions was 77.8%. Annona muricata, Bidens pilosa, Daniellia oliveri, Detarium microcarpum, Flacourtia indica, Hymenocardia acida, Jatropha gossypiifolia, Khaya senegalensis, Mentha cordifolia, Prosopis Africana, Securidaca longepedunculata, Senna singueana, Terminalia mollis, Trichilia emetica protected mice against STR- induced convulsions (table 5).
3.2.3. On PIC- induced convulsions
The percentage of plants extracts that protected mice against PIC-induced convulsions was 87.5%. Clerodendron thomsoniae, Flacourtia indica, Mentha cordifolia, Securidaca longepedunculata, Senna singueana, Terminalia glaucescens and Vitellaria paradoxa protected mice against convulsions induced by PIC (table 5).
Table 3.
The effects of the different plants on the onset time of sleep induced in mice by sodium thiopental or diazepam.Data represent the onset time of sleep time. Values are means ± ESM. N = 6 or 8 per dose, *<p 0.05, **<p 0.01, ***<p 0.001 vs control, Anova followed by Dunnett (REGWQ). CON = distilled water, DIAZ = diazepam 50 mg/kg.
3.2.4. On NMDA- induced turning behaviour
The percentage of plants extracts that protected mice against NMDA-induced turning behaviour was 100%. Annona muricata, Bidens pilosa, Bryophyllum pinnatum, Citrus sinenis, Euphorbia hirta, Khaya senegalensis protected mice against turning behaviour induced by NMDA (table 5).
3.2.5. On MES- induced convulsions
The percentage of plants extracts that protected mice against MES-induced convulsions was 25%. Securidaca longepedunculata protected mice against convulsions induced by MES (table 5).
3.2.6. On INH- induced convulsions
The percentage of plants extracts that were effective against INH-induced convulsions in mice was 60%. Ricinus communis, Securidaca longepedunculata, Senna singueana delayed the onset of seizures in INH test (table 5).
3.2.7. Plants efficacy
Flacourtia indica, Ricinus communis, Securidaca longepedunculata, Senna singueana, Terminalia glaucescens showed very good anticonvulsant activities (80 to 100% of protection against PTZ, PIC or INH induced seizures). The other eighteen plants tested protected 50 to 75% of
Table 4.
The effects of the different plants on the total sleep time induced in mice by sodium thiopental or diazepam.Data represent the total sleep time. Values are means ± ESM. N = 6 or 8 per dose, *p< 0.05, **p<0.01, ***p< 0.001 vs control, Anova followed by Dunnett (REGWQ). CON = distilled water, DIAZ = diazepam 50 mg/kg, THIO = sodium thiopental 50 mg/kg.
Table 5.
The effects of the different plants on the convulsions and turning behaviour induced in mice by INH, NMDA, PIC, PTZ and STR.Data represent the percentage of protected mice in different tests. N = 6 or 8 per dose, *p< 0.05, **p<0.01, ***p< 0.001 vs control, Anova followed by Dunnett (REGWQ). CON (negative control) = distilled water, CP (positive control) = clonazepam 0.1 mg/kg for PTZ test, clonazepam 0.4 mg/kg for PIC test, clonazepam 3 mg/kg for STR test, diazepam 10 mg/kg for INH test and D-AP7 33 ηmol/kg or CGP 37849 3 mg/kg for NMDA test.
mice against the induced convulsions. 78% of plants protected both PTZ and STR-induced convulsions. 80.6% of plants protected both PTZ and PIC-induced convulsions. 80.8% of plants protected both STR and PIC-induced convulsions. Finally, 66.7% of plants at the same time protected PTZ, STR and PIC-induced convulsions.
3.2.8. Plants toxicity
Datura stramonium, Ricinus communis and Securidaca longepedunculata were also showed to be toxic. Their extract killed animal in 24h after their administration to mice.
4. Discussion and conclusions
The extracts of twenty one plants (91.3% of plants) increased the sleeping time induced by sodium thiopental or diazepam. The potentiation of the sleep time suggests the presence of sedative properties in the extracts of these plants (Rakotonirina et al., 2001; Ngo Bum et al., 2009a; 2009b). These sedative properties could be related to the presence of some components in the extracts activating the benzodiazepine, barbiturate and/or GABA receptors in the GABAA receptor complex (Rang et al., 1999; Bonin & Orser, 2008; Olkkola & Ahonen, 2008). Diazepam (benzodiazepine) and sodium thiopental (barbiturate) all bind to the GABAA receptor complex. Diazepam potentiates GABA-mediated inhibition via the increase in the affinity of this inhibitory neurotransmitter to its recognition sites within the GABAA receptor complex, by increasing the opening frequency of the chloride ion channel which leads to the enhancement of influx of chloride anions into the neuron and subsequent hyperpolarisation (Czapinsky et al., 2005). While sodium thiopental that act on the barbiturate binding site directly gate the chloride ion channel of the GABAA receptor complex. The sedative properties found here could explain the use of the twenty one plants in traditional medicine in Africa, particularly in Cameroon in the treatment of insomnia. The first eight more potent plants to induced sedation were: Datura stramonium > Clerodendron thomsoniae > Terminalia mollis > Trichilia emetica > Tetrapleura tétraptera > Annona senegalensis > Securidaca longepedunculata > Hymenocardia acida > Daniellia oliveri. Two plants, Citrus sinenis and Kaya senegalensis did not show sedative properties. The results also showed that 95.6% of the tested plants possess anticonvulsant properties by inhibiting convulsions induced chemically or electrically. Five plants (Flacourtia indica, Ricinus communis, Securidaca longepedunculata, Senna singueana, Terminalia glaucescens) showed very good anticonvulsant activities against PTZ, PIC or INH induced seizures.
The effect was moderate for the rest of plants. Tetrapleura tetraptera one of the plants studied showed also anticonvulsant properties in fruits (Nwaiwu, 1986; Ojewole, 2005). The antagonism of INH, PTZ- and PIC-induced seizures suggests the interaction of these plants with the GABA-ergic neurotransmission (De Deyn et al., 1992; Doctor et al., 1982; Löscher & Schmidt, 1988; Salih & Mustafa, 2008; Perez-Saad & Buznego, 2008). GABA is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter substance in the brain and is widely implicated in epilepsy. Inhibition of GABA-ergic neurotransmission or activity has been shown to promote and facilitate seizures, while enhancement of GABA-ergic neurotransmission is known to inhibit or attenuate seizures (Gale, 1992; Li-Ping et al., 2008). Moreover, some studies indicated that PTZ diminishes the GABAergic tone (Mcdonald & Baker. 1977; Ahmadiani, 2003), probably by a competitive antagonist action on the BZD receptors (Rehavi et al., 1982). Correspondingly, drugs that enhance GABAA-receptor neurotransmission, such as BZDs (White, 1997; Ahmadiani et al., 2003) can block seizures induced by PTZ. PIC is known to be a non competitive GABA antagonist exerting his effect by blocking the chloride channel in the GABAA receptor complex. Isoniazide can precipitate convulsions in patients with seizure disorders, and it is regarded as a GABA-synthesis inhibitor (Kale Shubhangi et al., 2010). The antagonism of STR -induced convulsions suggests the presence of anticonvulsant effect through glycine-STR-sensitive receptors (Findlay et al., 2002). Few plants extract antatagonized MES induced convulsions, by probably prolonging neurons sodium channels inactivation (Holmes, 2007). The results show no difference in plants inhibiting convulsions induced by PTZ, PIC and STR. GABA and glycine-STR-sensitive neurotransmission are equally involved. But very few plants produced their anticonvulsant activities by prolonging neurons sodium channels inactivation. Datura stramonium, Ricinus communis and Securidaca longepedunculata were found toxic and therefore they are not suitable to be used to treat people. The toxicity of Ricinus communis could be related to the presence of a very toxic component named ricin (Iwu, 1993). The toxicity of Datura stramonium could be related to its delirants or anticholinergics compounds.
5. Conclusion
The purported anticonvulsant and sedative properties of the medicinal plants are scientifically shown. The ethnopharmacological study on Cameroon anticonvulsant and sedative medicinal plants is accurate in 90% of cases. A great amount of plants extract interacted through GABA and glycine-STR-sensitive neurotransmissions to inhibit convulsions. Many anticonvulsant plants also possess sedative properties. Twenty one plants possess sedative properties, but only eighteen plants could be used in traditional medicine in Africa in the treatment of insomnia. Eighteen plants possess at least moderate anticonvulsant effects, while five plants possess very good anticonvulsant properties. However only twenty medicinal plants could be used in the treatment of epilepsy. Three plants were found very toxic.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Professor AMVAM ZOLLO Paul Henri, Professor Ngounouno Ismaila, and Dr Megueni Clautilde for their support.
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Rakotonirina",authors:[{id:"31580",title:"Prof.",name:"Elisabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Ngo Bum",fullName:"Elisabeth Ngo Bum",slug:"elisabeth-ngo-bum",email:"eli_bum@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"46671",title:"Dr.",name:"Germain",middleName:"Sotoing",surname:"Taïwe",fullName:"Germain Taïwe",slug:"germain-taiwe",email:"taiwe_sotoing@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"46672",title:"MSc.",name:"Fleur",middleName:null,surname:"Moto",fullName:"Fleur Moto",slug:"fleur-moto",email:"fleurclar@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"46673",title:"Prof.",name:"Gwladys",middleName:"Temkou",surname:"Ngoupaye",fullName:"Gwladys Ngoupaye",slug:"gwladys-ngoupaye",email:"nt_gwlad@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"46674",title:"MSc.",name:"Espoir",middleName:null,surname:"Ayissi",fullName:"Espoir Ayissi",slug:"espoir-ayissi",email:"espybass@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"46675",title:"MSc.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Dong",fullName:"Christian Dong",slug:"christian-dong",email:"dong_christian@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"46676",title:"MSc.",name:"Frédéric",middleName:null,surname:"Maidawa",fullName:"Frédéric Maidawa",slug:"frederic-maidawa",email:"maidawayaya@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"46677",title:"MSc.",name:"Gildas",middleName:null,surname:"Djafsia",fullName:"Gildas Djafsia",slug:"gildas-djafsia",email:"soulinagildas@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"46678",title:"MSc.",name:"Leopold",middleName:null,surname:"Nanga",fullName:"Leopold Nanga",slug:"leopold-nanga",email:"leonanga@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"46679",title:"MSc.",name:"Saleh",middleName:null,surname:"Soudi",fullName:"Saleh Soudi",slug:"saleh-soudi",email:"salehsucreh@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"46680",title:"Dr.",name:"Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Rakotonirina",fullName:"Alice Rakotonirina",slug:"alice-rakotonirina",email:"s.rakoto@caramail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"46681",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvère",middleName:null,surname:"Rakotonirina",fullName:"Silvère Rakotonirina",slug:"silvere-rakotonirina",email:"s.rakoto@fustel-yaounde.net",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Materials and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Animals",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Plant material",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Preparation of the extracts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.3.1. Decoction",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.3.2. Maceration",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.4. Anticonvulsant tests",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.4.1. N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) test",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.4.2. Strychnine (STR) test",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.4.3. Picrotoxine (PIC) test",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.4.4. Pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) test",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.4.5. Isonicotinic hydrazide acid (INH) test",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"2.5. Diazepam or sodium thiopental-induced sleep in mice ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"2.6. Statistical analysis ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"2.7. Chemicals",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"3. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"3.1. Sedative properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"3.2. Anticonvulsant properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"3.2.1. On PTZ- induced convulsions",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"3.2.2. On STR- induced convulsions ",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"3.2.3. On PIC- induced convulsions",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"3.2.4. On NMDA- induced turning behaviour",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"3.2.5. On MES- induced convulsions",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"3.2.6. On INH- induced convulsions",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"3.2.7. Plants efficacy",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"3.2.8. Plants toxicity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_28",title:"4. Discussion and conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_29",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_30",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'AbbiwD. 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M.2003Trees of Southern Africa. Struik Publishers, 1-86872-389-5Town South Africa.'},{id:"B59",body:'PathakP.SaraswathyVora. A.SavaiJ.2010In vitro antimicrobial activity and phytochemical analysis of the leaves of Annona muricata. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Researches and Development, 25160974-9446'},{id:"B60",body:'Pérez-SaadH.BuznegoM. T.2008Behavioral and antiepileptic effects of acute administration of the extract of the plant Cestrum nocturnum Lin (lady of the night). Epilepsy and Behaviour, 1233663721525-5050'},{id:"B61",body:'PoussetJ. L.1989Plantes médicinales africaines, utilisation pratique. Ellipses, 2-72988-918-3France.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B62",body:'PreuxP. M.TiemagniF.FodzoL.KandemP.NgouafongP.NdonkoF.MachariaW.DongmoL.DumasM.2000Antiepileptic therapies in the Mi Province in Cameroon. Epilepsia, 4144324391528-1167'},{id:"B63",body:'PrischichF.De RinaldisM..FlaminiaB.EgeoG.SantoriC.ZappaterrenoA.FattouchJ.Di BonaventuraC.BadaJ.GianlucaR.PizzutiA.CardonaF.Sa’aV. V.GiallonardoA. T.D’ErasmoE.PellicciaA.VanacoreN.2008High prevalence of epilepsy in a village in littoral province of Cameroon. Epilepsy Research, 8222002100920-1211'},{id:"B64",body:'RakotonirinaS. V.NgoBum. E.RakotonirinaA.BopeletM.2001Sedative properties of the extract of the rhizome of Cyperus articulatus. Fitoterapia, 72122290367-0326'},{id:"B65",body:'RangH. P.DaleM. M.RitterJ. M.1999Pharmacology. Churchill Livingstone, 0-44305-974-8York, USA.'},{id:"B66",body:'Raponda-WalkerSillans. R.1961Les plantes utiles du Gabon. Edition Sepia, 2-90788-869-2Gabon.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B67",body:'RehaviM.SkolnickP.PaulS. M.1982Effects of tetrazole derivatives on [3H]-diazepam binding: in vitro: correlation with convulsant potency. European Journal of Pharmacoly, 7833533560014-2999'},{id:"B68",body:'SalihM. A.MustafaM. M.2008A substance in broad beans (Vicia faba) is protective against experimentally induced convulsions in mice. Epilepsy and Behaviour, 12125291525-5050'},{id:"B69",body:'SatyanarayaV.KurupadanamG. L.SrimanarayaG.1996Photochemistry of plants. Fitoterapia. 304102610290036-7326X.'},{id:"B70",body:'SaulnierP.1998Plantes médicinales et soins en Afrique, Edition SEPIA, 978-2-90788-892-9Saint-Maur, France.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B71",body:'SchmutzM.PortetC.JekerA.KlebsK.VassoutA.AllgeierH.HeckendornR.FaggG. E.OlpeH. R.Van RiezenH.1990The competitive NMDA receptor antagonists CGP 37849 and CGP 39551 are potent, orally-active anticonvulsants in rodents. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Archives of Pharmacology,\n\t\t\t\t\t342761661432-1912'},{id:"B72",body:'SeemaZ.2006Phytochemical studies on Terminalia glaucescens, Pteleopsis hylodendron and related medical plants. Thèse doctorat Ph.D., Université de Karachi, Pakistan.'},{id:"B73",body:'SundayE.AtawodiOgunbusolaF.2009Evaluation of Anti trypanosomal Properties of Four Extracts of Leaves, Stem and Root Barks of Prosopis africana in Laboratory Animals. Nigerian for experimental biology\n\t\t\t\t\t2121011080795-8080'},{id:"B74",body:'WhiteH. S.1997New mechanisms of antiepileptic drugs, In: Porter, R., Chadwick, D., (Ed.), 130Butterworth Heinemann, 1-93386-416-8USA.'},{id:"B75",body:'WorapanS.SornkanokV.ChudaC.DamriP.SiriprapaA.2008Pharmacognostic Investigation of the Leaves of Mentha cordifolia and its DNA Fingerprints. Thai Pharmaceutical and Health Science Journal, 419140125-4685'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"E. Ngo Bum",address:"",affiliation:'
Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Ngaoundéré, Ngaoundéré, Cameroon
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1. Introduction
Imbalances between generation and consumption cause frequency variations in a power system [1]. To maintain frequency in its nominal value, power systems rely on synchronous machines connected to the grid, which store kinetic energy automatically extracted in response to a sudden power imbalance [2]. However, due to the new environmental policies and the limited fossil fuel reserves, conventional generators are being replaced by renewable energy sources (RES)-based generators [3]. Among the different RES available, the most promising for electrical power generation are PV and wind power installations, which are inverter-interfaced RES (II-RES) [4]. However, the massive penetration of II-RES into the grid can involve several issues that should be taken into account [5]. First, as they depend on weather conditions, these sources are intermittent and uncertain, placing stress on power system operation [6]. Moreover, as they are connected to the grid through inverters which electrically decouple them from the grid [7], the effective inertia of the power system can be reduced [8]. This inertia reduction affects the system reliability, compromising the frequency stability [9]. The rotational inertia is related to both nadir (minimum frequency) and rate of change of frequency (ROCOF) [10]. In fact, larger nadirs and faster ROCOFs are obtained in low rotational inertia power systems, subsequently making them more sensitive to frequency deviations [11, 12]. As a result, over the last decade, several frequency control techniques have been proposed to facilitate the massive penetration of wind and PV resources into the grid [13]. In addition, recent contributions investigated the use of smart inverters with voltage and frequency support to enhance grid stability [14]. Such solutions are commonly referred to as hidden, synthetic or virtual inertia [15].
This chapter focuses on the current and future inertia concept for power systems. A methodology to estimate the current rotational inertia of power systems based on their electricity generation mix is proposed. In addition, the possibilities of wind and PV power plants to contribute to inertia and participate in frequency control are also presented. The rest of the chapter is organized as follows. The inertia analysis and swing equation of generators and current and future power systems are presented in Section 2. In Section 3, the inertia constant estimation methodology is explained, comparing the results to a previous report published by the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity (ENTSO-E). Section 4 reviews different frequency control techniques for PV and wind power plants. Finally, Section 5 gives the conclusion.
2. Inertia analysis in power systems
2.1 Inertial response of a synchronous generator: inertia constant
Rotating masses of a synchronous generator store kinetic energy Ekin following Eq. (1), where J is the moment of inertia and ωr is the rated rotational frequency of the machine [16]:
Ekin=12Jωr2.E1
Moment of inertia Jis a measure of the resistance of an object to changes in its rotational motion [17]. However, in power systems, it is common to express inertia constant H instead of moment of inertia J. Actually, the inertia constant of a generator determines the time interval during which an electrical generator can supply its rated power only by using the kinetic energy stored in its rotating masses. H is defined following Eq. (2), being Sr the rated power [18]:
H=EkinSr=12Jωr2Sr.E2
Work in [10] reviews the inertia constants H of conventional power plants proposed in recent decades, which range between 2 and 10 s.
In power systems, the motion of each turbine-generator group is expressed as Eq. (3), where Tm and Te are the mechanical torque of the turbine and the electromagnetic torque of the generator, respectively:
2Hdωrdt=Tm−Te,E3
However, as P=T⋅ω and considering the initial status as 0:
P=P0+ΔP=T0+ΔT⋅ωr0+Δωr,E4
where ΔP=ΔPm−ΔPe and ΔT=ΔTm−ΔTe. Moreover, for small variations:
ΔP≃T0⋅Δωr+ΔT⋅ωr0,E5
and in steady state:
Tm0=Te0,ωr0=1pu.E6
In consequence, considering small variations around the steady state, Eq. (3) can be rewritten as in Eq. (7) [19]:
2HdΔωrdt=ΔPm−ΔPe.E7
Furthermore, some electrical loads connected to the grid are also frequency-dependent, working as a load resource under frequency deviations (i.e., synchronous machines). In this way, the electrical power of those loads can be expressed as:
ΔPe=ΔPL+D⋅Δωr,E8
where ΔPL is the power change of those loads independent from frequency deviations and D is the damping factor (load-frequency response). Subsequently, by including the damping factor in Eq. (7), it is modified to Eq. (9), which is usually referred to as swing equation and represents the motion of a synchronous generator:
2HdΔωrdt=ΔPm−ΔPL+D⋅Δωr.E9
2.2 Aggregated swing equation: application to power systems
To apply the swing Eq. (9) to a power system, all synchronous generators are grouped in an equivalent rotating mass. This is carried out by determining the equivalent inertia constant Heq of such generators:
Heq=∑i=1SGHi⋅SB,iSB,E10
where Hi and SB,i are the inertia constant and rated power of synchronous generator i, SG is the total number of synchronous generators connected to the grid and SB is the rated power of the power system.
In the same way, loads are reduced to an equivalent one with damping factor Deq. If the power system under analysis is stable, an inaccurate value of Deq will not have a significant impact on the study. However, under disturbance situations, the value of Deq can be a major contribution [20]. As variable frequency drives become more common, the equivalent damping factor is expected to decrease [21].
2.3 Hidden and virtual inertia emulation from RES: modified equivalent inertia constant
In recent decades, several policies have promoted the penetration of RES-based generation units, which have replaced synchronous generators directly connected to the grid [22]. However, as some of them are II-RES (i.e., wind and PV), power systems with a high penetration of those RES require new frequency control strategies that emulate the behavior of conventional power plants under power imbalance conditions [23]. Such techniques are commonly referred to as hidden, synthetic, emulated or virtual inertia [15]. By including this emulation of inertia into power systems, equivalent inertia Heq would be modified. Thus, it would have two different components: (i) synchronous rotating inertia coming from synchronous (conventional) generators HS and (ii) emulated/virtual inertia coming from II-RES HV [24, 25]. Thus, Eq. (10) would become:
Heq=∑i=1SGHi⋅SB,i⏞HS+∑j=1VGHV,j⋅SB,j⏞HVSB,E11
where VG is the number of II-RES connected to the grid through emulation/virtual control methods and HV is the inertia constant of the emulated/virtual generation unit. This modified equivalent inertia expressed in Eq. (11) is graphically illustrated in Figure 1, based on [26]. As can be seen, there are three different links between the generation units and the grid frequency: (i) rotational synchronous inertia from conventional generators, (ii) hidden inertia from VSWT and (iii) virtual inertia from PV. This is because modern VSWT have rotational inertia stored in their blades, drive train and electrical generator [27]. However, due to the inverter and maximum power point tracking (MPPT) strategy, they cannot automatically provide this inertia to the grid [28, 29, 30, 31], being thus considered as ‘hidden’ from the power system point of view [32]. In fact, VSWT have inertia constants comparable to those of conventional generators, as summarized in Figure 2. In consequence, it is considered that the inertia provided by VSWT is ‘emulated’ [33].
Figure 1.
Power system with synchronous, hidden and virtual inertia.
Figure 2.
Inertia constant values H for different wind turbine technologies.
On the other hand, PV has no rotating masses [30]. Thus, PV power plants cannot store kinetic energy and their inertia constant is H≃0 [31]. Consequently, they cannot provide inertia unless it is synthetic/virtual, thus being usually referred to as ‘emulated synthetic/virtual inertia’ provided by such PV power plants [34, 35].
Due to the repercussions of II-RES with regard to the rotating inertia of power systems [36], they should start providing active power support under disturbances [37]. The specific literature includes several technologies that allow II-RES to participate in frequency control by providing additional power under disturbances [38, 39, 40].
3. Inertia estimation for power systems
Energy global statistics are provided by the International Energy Agency (IEA). Considering Eq. (10) and the electricity supply within a year presented in [41], it is possible to calculate the equivalent inertia Heq in different regions of the world. According to each technology, the inertia constant H of conventional units is estimated as the mean value of those presented in [10] (i.e., Hcoal=4 s, Hoil=4 s, Hgas=5 s, Hnuclear=4 s, Hhydro=3.25 s). It is considered that II-RES are not participating in frequency control (i.e., not contributing to the system inertia).
Figure 3 depicts the generation mix change between 1996 and 2016. Over these two decades, the total electricity consumption increased by more than 80%. However, in the same time period, RES electricity generation only increased by 4%. Based on the approach previously described to estimate Heq, Figure 4 depicts the change between the inertia constant for the different continents between 1996 and 2016. As can be seen, the inertia reduction in Asia, the USA and South America was negligible (between 2.5 and 3%), whereas in Europe it decreased by nearly 20%.
Figure 3.
Generation mix in the world: change between 1996 and 2016. (a) Generation mix in 1996. (b) Generation mix in 2016.
Figure 4.
Estimated equivalent inertia constants in the world by continent: change between 1996 and 2016.
In line with the inertia reduction suffered, RES supply in Europe increased by nearly 20% (refer to Figure 5). Actually, ENTSO-E has already focused on the high RES integration-low synchronous inertia problem. In one of their published reports, ENTSO-E estimated the evolution of system inertia for different TYNDP scenarios for 2030 in Europe and certain countries (i.e., the United Kingdom, France and Germany), considering that II-RES do not contribute to inertia [42]. In those estimations, Heq depends on the percentage of hours in a year that II-RES are working. Thus, it is possible to compare the Heq estimated in this chapter with the values obtained by ENTSO-E.
Figure 5.
Generation mix in Europe: change between 1996 and 2016. (a) Generation mix in 1996. (b) Generation mix in 2016.
The transition of Heq in a number of European countries can be seen in Figure 6. In [42], considering RES current generation rate: (i) Heq of Europe is within range 3.8–4.5 s; (ii) Heq of the United Kingdom is within range 3–4 s; (iii) Heq of France is 5 s and (iv) Heq of Germany is 3.5 s. Some discrepancies can be observed. The main cause of these is the values of the inertia constant of conventional plants. In fact, if the maximum value of H for all conventional plants is considered (i.e., Hcoal=5 s, Hoil=5 s, Hgas=5 s, Hnuclear=4 s, Hhydro=4.75 s), the Heq results are nearly the same as those presented in [42].
Figure 6.
Equivalent inertia constants estimated in EU-28: change between 1996 and 2016.
4. II-RES frequency control strategies
4.1 Preliminaries
To maintain frequency within an acceptable range, generation and load in the power system must be continuously balanced [43]. In fact, frequency variations from the nominal value can cause several problems including under-/overfrequency relay operations and disconnection of some loads from the grid, among others [44]. Thus, frequency stability is an essential issue for power systems [45].
With the increase in II-RES, the equivalent inertia constant of power systems is reduced, subsequently obtaining (i) larger frequency deviations after an imbalance and (ii) higher ROCOF [7, 46]. As a consequence, II-RES should start providing active power support under disturbances [37].
4.2 PV power plant frequency control strategies
In order to provide additional active power during imbalanced situations, PV power plants can integrate different solutions, mainly based on two principal approaches: energy storage systems (ESS) or de-loading control strategies. Moreover, the technical challenge is more severe with PV power plants than with wind generation, since PV systems cannot provide any inertial response unless special countermeasures are adopted [47].
With regard to ESS, different solutions have been proposed in the literature to be applied to PV systems. Although the relevant benefits of ESS to power system’s operation is widely recognized, some significant challenges can be identified: (i) the selection of a suitable technology to match the power system application requirements, (ii) an accurate evaluation of the energy storage facilities estimating both technical and economic benefits and (iii) a cost decreasing to a realistically acceptable level for deployment [48]. Among the different ESS, the battery energy storage is considered by some authors as the oldest and most mature ESS [49]. In work [50], it is concluded that the Li-Ion batteries are those that best suit frequency regulation services. Batteries are limited in power, though present a high storage ratio [51, 52, 53]; on the other hand, supercapacitors have high levels of power with low energy storage ratio. As a consequence, the battery-supercapacitor combination is proposed as an interesting ESS solution [54]. Indeed, these technologies can help to solve the problem of the ‘intermittent’ nature of solar PV supply [55]. Additional solutions for PV installations based on supercapacitors can be found in [56, 57]. Flywheels are another solution widely proposed as ESS, being applied from very small micro-satellites to large power systems [58]. Work in [59] points out a great benefit of flywheels backing up solar PV power plants, mainly focused on the cloud passing, which can cope with the high cycles of the flywheel technologies. Indeed, flywheels excel in short duration and high cycle applications [60]. Moreover, flywheels have a high efficiency, usually in the range between 90% and 95%, with an expected lifetime of around 15 years [61]. Different solutions propose hybrid ESS coupled to PV power plants [53], such as a battery hybridization with mechanical flywheel [62].
PV power plants usually work at the maximum power point (MPP) according to ambient temperature T and solar irradiation G [63]. However, they can work below their MPP, having thus some active power reserves (headroom) to supply in case of a frequency deviation. This approach is usually referred to as de-loading technique and is commonly proposed for PV installations [64, 65]. In this way, the PV plant is operated at Pdel, below PMPP, so that some power reserves ΔP=PMPP−Pdel are available [66, 67]. As can be seen in Figure 7, Pdel can be related with two different voltages: (i) over the maximum power point voltage, Vdel,1>VMPP, and (ii) under the maximum power point voltage, Vdel,2<VMPP. However, due to stability problems, the de-loaded voltage corresponds to the higher value Vdel,1 [68]. This Vdel is then added to the MPP controller reference, in order to also de-load the inverter. This controller for de-loaded PV is modified in [69], such that the release of the reserve is directly linked to both (i) the frequency excursion and (ii) the availability of the reserve in the PV system. This controller is also proposed in [70].
Figure 7.
De-loading techniques for PV power plants. (a) Vdel.1 > VMPP. (b) Vdel.2 < VMPP.
4.3 Wind power plant frequency control strategies
Wind power plants can also participate in frequency control by using different solutions. Apart from the use of ESS or working with the de-loading control strategy, wind turbines can provide inertial response as conventional generators due to the rotational inertia of the blades and generator [10].
With regard to ESS, wind power plants can also include batteries [71], supercapacitors [72] and flywheels [73]. ESS are considered an alternative to compensate the lack of short-term frequency response ability of wind power plants [74]. The utility-scale battery ESS helps to reduce the ROCOF, providing frequency support and improving the system frequency response [75]. A battery ESS based on a state-machine-based coordinated control strategy is developed in [76] to support frequency response of wind power plants, including both primary and secondary frequency control. A real-time cooperation scheme by considering complementary characteristics between wind power and batteries is discussed in [77] to provide both energy and frequency regulation, considering the battery life cycle. The combination of battery and supercapacitor is considered in [78] as an effective alternative to improve the battery lifetime and enhance the system economy. In this way, an enhanced frequency response strategy is investigated in [79] to improve and regulate the wind frequency response with the integration of ultra-capacitors. With the aim of smoothing the net power injected to the grid by wind turbines (or by a wind power plant), some authors propose to use flywheels [80, 81]. Flywheels are also proposed to dynamically regulate the system equivalent inertia and damping, enhancing the frequency regulation capability of wind turbines [38, 82] and also the entire grid [83]. A coordinated regulation response of the turbine power reserves and the flywheels while participating in primary frequency control is described in [84]. Finally, other works include not only frequency response but also voltage control by using flywheels [85, 86].
In line with PV installations, wind turbines also work in the MPP according to the wind speed vw. As a consequence, the de-loading technique is considered as a solution to provide additional active power in imbalanced situations with wind turbines, by operating them in a suboptimal point through the de-loaded control mode [87]. Wind turbines have two different possibilities to operate with the de-loading technique (refer to Figure 8) [32]: (i) pitch angle control and (ii) overspeed control. The pitch-angle control increases the pitch angle from β0 to β1 for a constant vw; in this way, the supplied power Pdel is below the maximum power PMPP, being thus a certain amount of power ΔP that can be supplied in case of frequency contingency (Figure 8(a)) [88, 89, 90, 91]. When this additional power ΔP is provided, the pitch angle has to be reduced from β1 to β0. The overspeed control increases the rotational speed of the rotor, shifting the supplied power Pdel towards the right of the maximum power PMPP (Figure 8(b)) [87, 92, 93]. As in the pitch-angle control, Pdel is below PMPP [71]. When the additional power ΔP is supplied, the rotor speed has to be reduced from Ωdel to ΩMPP, releasing kinetic energy [39, 87, 92, 93].
Figure 8.
De-loading techniques for wind power plants. (a) Pitch control. (b) Over-speed control.
In order to provide an inertial response, at least one supplementary loop control is introduced into the power controller to increase the generated power by the wind power plant. This additional loop is only activated under power imbalances (i.e., frequency deviations), supplying the kinetic energy stored in the blades and generator to the grid as an additional active power for a few seconds [94]. The droop control provides an additional active power ΔP proportional to the frequency excursion Δf (see Figure 9), as the primary frequency control of conventional power plants. The increase in the active power output then results in a decrease in the rotor speed [95, 96, 97, 98, 99]. ΔP can be estimated following Eq. (12), being RWT the droop control setting of the wind turbine:
Figure 9.
Droop control for VSWTs. (a) Droop characteristic. (b) Block diagram of droop control.
ΔP=−ΔfRWTE12
The hidden inertia emulation technique is based on emulating the inertial response of traditional synchronous generators. Two possibilities are found in the specific literature, as presented in Figure 10: (i) one loop, where the additional power is proportional to the ROCOF [100, 101, 102], and (ii) two loops, where the additional power is proportional to the ROCOF and the frequency deviation. The second strategy causes the frequency to return to its nominal value [103, 104, 105]. In both cases, the rotor and generator speeds are reduced to release the stored kinetic energy.
Figure 10.
Hidden inertia emulation controllers. (a) One loop. (b) Two loops.
The fast power reserve approach is similar to the hidden inertia emulation technique: an additional power is initially supplied, which makes the rotor speed to decrease. However, in this technique, the additional active power ΔP has been defined as a constant value independent of the system configuration and frequency deviation [106, 107, 108, 109, 110] or variable (depending on the frequency deviation or minimum rotor speed limits) [43, 111, 112]. The rotational speed decrease is then recovered through a recovery period, which can cause a secondary frequency dip due to the sudden decrease of the power generated by the wind power plant. As a consequence, different recovery periods have been proposed in the last decade to avoid this secondary frequency drop [43, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 113, 114], even coordinating this period with ESS [115]. Figure 11 shows the fast power reserve emulation control proposed in [106].
Figure 11.
Fast power reserve emulation technique [106]. (a) P – Ω curve. (b) Power variation.
5. Conclusions
In this chapter, we have conducted an extensive literature review of inertia of power systems. A methodology to estimate the inertia constants of different power systems is proposed and verified with the inertia constant results of ENTSO-E. The contribution of wind and PV power plants as ‘hidden inertia’ and ‘virtual inertia,’ respectively, to participate in frequency control has also been discussed, providing significant information for their participation in frequency control.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Spanish Education, Culture and Sports Ministry (FPU16/04282), Spanish Economy and Competitiveness Ministry and European Union FEDER, which supported this work under Project ENE2016-78214-C2-1-R.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Abbreviations
DFIG
double-fed induction generator
ESS
energy storage systems
ENTSO-E
European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity
FSWT
fixed-speed wind turbine
HAWT
horizontal axis wind turbine
II-RES
inverter-interfaced renewable energy sources
PMSG
permanent magnet synchronous generator
PV
photovoltaic
RES
renewable energy sources
ROCOF
rate of change of frequency
SCIG
squirrel cage induction generator
VSWT
variable speed wind turbine
WPP
wind power plant
\n',keywords:"frequency control, grid stability, inertia, power systems, inverter-interfaced renewable energy sources",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72357.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72357.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72357",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72357",totalDownloads:435,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 18th 2020",dateReviewed:"April 24th 2020",datePrePublished:"May 30th 2020",datePublished:"February 17th 2021",dateFinished:"May 30th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Over recent decades, the penetration of renewable energy sources (RES), especially photovoltaic and wind power plants, has been promoted in most countries. However, as these both alternative sources have power electronics at the grid interface (inverters), they are electrically decoupled from the grid. Subsequently, stability and reliability of power systems are compromised. Inertia in power systems has been traditionally determined by considering all the rotating masses directly connected to the grid. Thus, as the penetration of renewable units increases, the inertia of the power system decreases due to the reduction of directly connected rotating machines. As a consequence, power systems require a new set of strategies to include these renewable sources. In fact, ‘hidden inertia,’ ‘synthetic inertia’ and ‘virtual inertia’ are terms currently used to represent an artificial inertia created by inverter control strategies of such renewable sources. This chapter reviews the inertia concept and proposes a method to estimate the rotational inertia in different parts of the world. In addition, an extensive discussion on wind and photovoltaic power plants and their contribution to inertia and power system stability is presented.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72357",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72357",signatures:"Ana Fernández-Guillamón, Emilio Gómez-Lázaro, Eduard Muljadi and Ángel Molina-Garcia",book:{id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",fullTitle:"Renewable Energy - Technologies and Applications",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",publishedDate:"February 17th 2021",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"153168",title:"Prof.",name:"Emilio",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Lazaro",fullName:"Emilio Gomez-Lazaro",slug:"emilio-gomez-lazaro",email:"emilio.gomez@uclm.es",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Castile-La Mancha",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"154049",title:"Dr.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Molina-Garcia",fullName:"Angel Molina-Garcia",slug:"angel-molina-garcia",email:"angel.molina@upct.es",position:null,institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Cartagena",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"318862",title:"Mrs.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandez-Guillamon",fullName:"Ana Fernandez-Guillamon",slug:"ana-fernandez-guillamon",email:"ana.fernandez@upct.es",position:null,institution:null},{id:"320304",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduard",middleName:null,surname:"Muljadi",fullName:"Eduard Muljadi",slug:"eduard-muljadi",email:"mze0018@auburn.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"Auburn University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Inertia analysis in power systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Inertial response of a synchronous generator: inertia constant",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Aggregated swing equation: application to power systems",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Hidden and virtual inertia emulation from RES: modified equivalent inertia constant",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Inertia estimation for power systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. II-RES frequency control strategies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1 Preliminaries",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2 PV power plant frequency control strategies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.3 Wind power plant frequency control strategies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. 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Review of energy storage system for wind power integration support. Applied Energy. 2015;137:545-553'},{id:"B84",body:'Díaz-González F, Hau M, Sumper A, Gomis-Bellmunt O. Coordinated operation of wind turbines and flywheel storage for primary frequency control support. International Journal of Electrical Power Energy Systems. 2015;68:313-326'},{id:"B85",body:'Ahmadi R, Ghardashi F, Kabiri D, Sheykholeslami A, Haeri H. Voltage and frequency control in smart distribution systems in presence of der using flywheel energy storage system. IET Conference Proceedings. January 2013:1307-1307'},{id:"B86",body:'Ghosh S, Kamalasadan S. An energy function-based optimal control strategy for output stabilization of integrated DFIG-flywheel energy storage system. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid. 2017;8(4):1922-1931'},{id:"B87",body:'Zhang X, Zha X, Yue S, Chen Y. A frequency regulation strategy for wind power based on limited over-speed de-loading curve partitioning. IEEE Access. 2018;6:22938-22951'},{id:"B88",body:'Moutis P, Loukarakis E, Papathanasiou S, Hatziargyriou ND. Primary load-frequency control from pitch-controlled wind turbines. In: 2009 IEEE Bucharest PowerTech; IEEE. 2009. pp. 1-7'},{id:"B89",body:'Ma H, Chowdhury B. Working towards frequency regulation with wind plants: Combined control approaches. IET Renewable Power Generation. 2010;4(4):308-316'},{id:"B90",body:'Moutis P, Papathanassiou SA, Hatziargyriou ND. Improved load-frequency control contribution of variable speed variable pitch wind generators. Renewable Energy. 2012;48:514-523'},{id:"B91",body:'Žertek A, Verbič G, Pantoš M. Optimised control approach for frequency-control contribution of variable speed wind turbines. IET Renewable Power Generation. 2012;6(1):17-23'},{id:"B92",body:'Castro LM, Fuerte-Esquivel CR, Tovar-Hernández JH. Solution of power flow with automatic load-frequency control devices including wind farms. 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IEEE Transactions on Power Systems. 2019;34(1):754-764'},{id:"B102",body:'Liu K, Qu Y, Kim H-M, Song H. Avoiding frequency second dip in power unreserved control during wind power rotational speed recovery. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems. 2018;33(3):3097-3106'},{id:"B103",body:'Morren J, de Haan SWH, Kling WL, Ferreira JA. Wind turbines emulating inertia and supporting primary frequency control. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems. February 2006;21:433-434'},{id:"B104",body:'Díaz-González F, Hau M, Sumper A, Gomis-Bellmunt O. Participation of wind power plants in system frequency control: Review of grid code requirements and control methods. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2014;34:551-564'},{id:"B105",body:'Dreidy M, Mokhlis H, Mekhilef S. Inertia response and frequency control techniques for renewable energy sources: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2017;69:144-155'},{id:"B106",body:'Tarnowski GC, Kjar PC, Sorensen PE, Ostergaard J. Variable speed wind turbines capability for temporary over-production. In: Power & Energy Society General Meeting, 2009. PES’09. IEEE. 2009. pp. 1-7'},{id:"B107",body:'Keung P-K, Li P, Banakar H, Ooi BT. Kinetic energy of wind-turbine generators for system frequency support. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems. 2009;24(1):279-287'},{id:"B108",body:'El Itani S, Annakkage UD, Joos G. Short-term frequency support utilizing inertial response of DFIG wind turbines. In: 2011 IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting; IEEE. 2011. pp. 1-8'},{id:"B109",body:'Hansen AD, Altin M, Margaris ID, Iov F, Tarnowski GC. Analysis of the short-term overproduction capability of variable speed wind turbines. Renewable Energy. 2014;68:326-336'},{id:"B110",body:'Hafiz F, Abdennour A. Optimal use of kinetic energy for the inertial support from variable speed wind turbines. Renewable Energy. 2015;80:629-643'},{id:"B111",body:'Kang M, Kim K, Muljadi E, Park J-W, Kang YC. Frequency control support of a doubly-fed induction generator based on the torque limit. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems. 2016;31(6):4575-4583'},{id:"B112",body:'Fernández-Guillamón A, Villena-Lapaz J, Vigueras-Rodríguez A, García-Sánchez T, Molina-García Á. An adaptive frequency strategy for variable speed wind turbines: Application to high wind integration into power systems. Energies. 2018;11(6):1-21'},{id:"B113",body:'Liu K, Qu Y, Kim H-M, Song H. Avoiding frequency second dip in power unreserved control during wind power rotational speed recovery. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems. 2017;33(3):3097-3106'},{id:"B114",body:'Fernández-Guillamón A, Vigueras-Rodríguez A, Gómez-Lázaro E, Molina-García Á. Fast power reserve emulation strategy for VSWT supporting frequency control in multi-area power systems. Energies. 2018;11(10):2775(1-20)'},{id:"B115",body:'Wu Z, Gao DW, Zhang H, Yan S, Wang X. Coordinated control strategy of battery energy storage system and PMSG-WTG to enhance system frequency regulation capability. IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy. 2017;8(3):1330-1343'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ana Fernández-Guillamón",address:"ana.fernandez@upct.es",affiliation:'
Department of Automatics, Electrical Engineering and Electronic Technology, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Spain
Department of Automatics, Electrical Engineering and Electronic Technology, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Spain
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