Overview of optimized parameters reported in literature for DEP alignment of different types of NW (adapted from [19]).
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1327",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Greenhouse Gases - Emission, Measurement and Management",title:"Greenhouse Gases",subtitle:"Emission, Measurement and Management",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Understanding greenhouse gas sources, emissions, measurements, and management is essential for capture, utilization, reduction, and storage of greenhouse gas, which plays a crucial role in issues such as global warming and climate change. Taking advantage of the authors' experience in greenhouse gases, this book discusses an overview of recently developed techniques, methods, and strategies: - A comprehensive source investigation of greenhouse gases that are emitted from hydrocarbon reservoirs, vehicle transportation, agricultural landscapes, farms, non-cattle confined buildings, and so on. - Recently developed detection and measurement techniques and methods such as photoacoustic spectroscopy, landfill-based carbon dioxide and methane measurement, and miniaturized mass spectrometer.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0323-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4328-4",doi:"10.5772/1797",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"greenhouse-gases-emission-measurement-and-management",numberOfPages:516,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"f810749db3ab5479aa80cd81c0509033",bookSignature:"Guoxiang Liu",publishedDate:"March 14th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1327.jpg",numberOfDownloads:51968,numberOfWosCitations:86,numberOfCrossrefCitations:38,numberOfDimensionsCitations:89,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:213,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 4th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 2nd 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 6th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 6th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 5th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"92642",title:"Dr.",name:"Guoxiang",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"guoxiang-liu",fullName:"Guoxiang Liu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92642/images/2134_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Guoxiang Liu is a Research Engineer at the Energy & Environmental Research Center, University of North Dakota. Dr. Liu\\'s principal areas of interest and expertise include numerical modeling and fluid analysis in enhanced oil/gas recovery, carbon sequestration, risk assessment, geomechanical behavior, geochemical reaction, contaminant remediation, and related energy and environmental areas. In addition, he is interested in computational fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and thermodynamics as well as applying evolutionary algorithms and parallel computing techniques to these areas. Dr. Liu received his Ph.D. degree in Civil and Environmental Engineering from West Virginia University, master\\'s degree in Computer Science from Leiden University, the Netherlands, and bachelor\\'s degree in Analytical Chemistry from Yunnan Normal University, P.R. China.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of North Dakota",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"780",title:"Ecological Engineering",slug:"ecological-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"32340",title:"Emissions of Nitrous Oxide (N2O) and Di-Nitrogen (N2) from the Agricultural Landscapes, Sources, Sinks, and Factors Affecting N2O and N2 Ratios",doi:"10.5772/32781",slug:"emissions-of-nitrous-oxide-n2o-and-di-nitrogen-n2-from-agricultural-landscape-sources-sinks-and-fact",totalDownloads:3225,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:20,signatures:"M. Zaman, M.L. Nguyen, M. Šimek, S. Nawaz, M.J. Khan, M.N. Babar and S. Zaman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32340",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32340",authors:[{id:"92658",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Zaman",slug:"mohammad-zaman",fullName:"Mohammad Zaman"},{id:"140909",title:"Dr.",name:"Minh Long",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"minh-long-nguyen",fullName:"Minh Long Nguyen"},{id:"140912",title:"Prof.",name:"Ing. Miloslav",surname:"Šimek",slug:"ing.-miloslav-simek",fullName:"Ing. Miloslav Šimek"},{id:"140913",title:"Ms.",name:"Seema",surname:"Nawaz",slug:"seema-nawaz",fullName:"Seema Nawaz"},{id:"140914",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Jamil",surname:"Khan",slug:"mohammad-jamil-khan",fullName:"Mohammad Jamil Khan"},{id:"140915",title:"Dr.",name:"M.Niamatullah",surname:"Babar",slug:"m.niamatullah-babar",fullName:"M.Niamatullah Babar"},{id:"140916",title:"Dr.",name:"Shazia",surname:"Zaman",slug:"shazia-zaman",fullName:"Shazia Zaman"}],corrections:null},{id:"32341",title:"The Blend Ethanol/Gasoline and Emission of Gases",doi:"10.5772/31850",slug:"emissions-of-greenhouse-gases-by-light-vehicles",totalDownloads:3731,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Antonio Carlos Santos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32341",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32341",authors:[{id:"88990",title:"MSc.",name:"Antonio Carlos",surname:"Santos",slug:"antonio-carlos-santos",fullName:"Antonio Carlos Santos"}],corrections:null},{id:"32342",title:"Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Hydroelectric Reservoirs: What Knowledge Do We Have and What is Lacking?",doi:"10.5772/32752",slug:"greenhouse-gas-emissions-from-hydroelectric-reservoirs-what-do-we-have-and-what-is-lacking-",totalDownloads:4249,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,signatures:"Raquel Mendonça, Nathan Barros, Luciana O. Vidal, Felipe Pacheco, Sarian Kosten and Fábio Roland",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32342",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32342",authors:[{id:"92553",title:"Dr.",name:"Fábio",surname:"Roland",slug:"fabio-roland",fullName:"Fábio Roland"},{id:"99988",title:"Dr.",name:"Raquel",surname:"Mendonça",slug:"raquel-mendonca",fullName:"Raquel Mendonça"},{id:"99992",title:"MSc.",name:"Nathan",surname:"Barros",slug:"nathan-barros",fullName:"Nathan Barros"},{id:"99993",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana",surname:"Vidal",slug:"luciana-vidal",fullName:"Luciana Vidal"},{id:"137403",title:"MSc.",name:"Felipe",surname:"Pacheco",slug:"felipe-pacheco",fullName:"Felipe Pacheco"},{id:"137404",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarian",surname:"Kosten",slug:"sarian-kosten",fullName:"Sarian Kosten"}],corrections:null},{id:"32343",title:"GHG Emissions Reduction Via Energy Efficiency Optimization",doi:"10.5772/33237",slug:"ghg-emissions-reduction-via-energy-efficiency-optimization",totalDownloads:2364,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Faisal F. Al Musa, Ali H. Qahtani, Mana M. Owaidh, Meshabab S. Qahtani and Mahmoud Bahy Noureldin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32343",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32343",authors:[{id:"94565",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmoud Bahy",surname:"Noureldin",slug:"mahmoud-bahy-noureldin",fullName:"Mahmoud Bahy Noureldin"},{id:"94631",title:"MSc.",name:"Ali",surname:"Qahtani",slug:"ali-qahtani",fullName:"Ali Qahtani"},{id:"94635",title:"MSc.",name:"Mana",surname:"Owaidh",slug:"mana-owaidh",fullName:"Mana Owaidh"},{id:"94637",title:"Mr.",name:"Meshabab",surname:"Qahtani",slug:"meshabab-qahtani",fullName:"Meshabab Qahtani"},{id:"94639",title:"Mr.",name:"Faisal",surname:"Mousa",slug:"faisal-mousa",fullName:"Faisal Mousa"}],corrections:null},{id:"32344",title:"Greenhouse Gas Emissions Non-Cattle Confinement Buildings: Monitoring, Emission Factors and Mitigation",doi:"10.5772/31948",slug:"greenhouse-gas-emissions-from-non-cattle-confined-buildings-monitoring-emission-factor-and-mitigatio",totalDownloads:1829,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"S. Godbout, F. Pelletier, J.P. Larouche, M. Belzile, J.J.R. Feddes, S. Fournel, S.P. Lemay and J.H. Palacios",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32344",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32344",authors:[{id:"89461",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephane",surname:"Godbout",slug:"stephane-godbout",fullName:"Stephane Godbout"},{id:"103758",title:"MSc.",name:"Frederic",surname:"Pelletier",slug:"frederic-pelletier",fullName:"Frederic Pelletier"},{id:"103761",title:"BSc.",name:"Jean-Pierre",surname:"Larouche",slug:"jean-pierre-larouche",fullName:"Jean-Pierre Larouche"},{id:"103764",title:"MSc.",name:"Martin",surname:"Belzile",slug:"martin-belzile",fullName:"Martin Belzile"},{id:"103767",title:"Prof.",name:"John J.R.",surname:"Feddes",slug:"john-j.r.-feddes",fullName:"John J.R. Feddes"},{id:"103770",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sébastien",surname:"Fournel",slug:"sebastien-fournel",fullName:"Sébastien Fournel"},{id:"103771",title:"Dr.",name:"Stéphane P.",surname:"Lemay",slug:"stephane-p.-lemay",fullName:"Stéphane P. Lemay"},{id:"103773",title:"MSc.",name:"Joahnn H.",surname:"Palacios",slug:"joahnn-h.-palacios",fullName:"Joahnn H. Palacios"}],corrections:null},{id:"32345",title:"The Effect of Organic Farms on Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions",doi:"10.5772/32554",slug:"the-effect-of-organic-farms-on-global-greenhouse-gas-emissions",totalDownloads:1598,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Risa Kumazawa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32345",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32345",authors:[{id:"91915",title:"Dr.",name:"Risa",surname:"Kumazawa",slug:"risa-kumazawa",fullName:"Risa Kumazawa"}],corrections:null},{id:"32346",title:"Exploitation of Unconventional Fossil Fuels: Enhanced Greenhouse Gas Emissions",doi:"10.5772/31975",slug:"exploitation-of-unconventional-fossil-fuels-enhanced-greenhouse-gas-emissions",totalDownloads:2117,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Judith Patterson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32346",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32346",authors:[{id:"89581",title:"Dr.",name:"Judith",surname:"Patterson",slug:"judith-patterson",fullName:"Judith Patterson"}],corrections:null},{id:"32347",title:"The Role of US Households in Global Carbon Emissions",doi:"10.5772/32643",slug:"the-role-of-us-households-in-global-carbon-emissions",totalDownloads:1932,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Md Rumi Shammin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32347",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32347",authors:[{id:"92216",title:"Prof.",name:"Md",surname:"Shammin",slug:"md-shammin",fullName:"Md Shammin"}],corrections:null},{id:"32348",title:"The Uncertainty Estimation and Use of Measurement Units in National Inventories of Anthropogenic Emission of Greenhouse Gas",doi:"10.5772/33337",slug:"the-uncertainty-estimation-and-use-of-measurement-units-in-national-inventories-of-anthropogenic-emi",totalDownloads:1977,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Oleh Velychko and Tetyana Gordiyenko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32348",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32348",authors:[{id:"94981",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleh",surname:"Velychko",slug:"oleh-velychko",fullName:"Oleh Velychko"},{id:"94982",title:"Dr.",name:"Tetyana",surname:"Gordiyenko",slug:"tetyana-gordiyenko",fullName:"Tetyana Gordiyenko"}],corrections:null},{id:"32349",title:"Detection of Greenhouse Gases Using the Photoacoustic Spectroscopy",doi:"10.5772/32696",slug:"detection-of-grenhouse-gases-using-the-photoacoustic-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:2822,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Marcelo Sthel, Marcelo Gomes, Guilherme Lima, Mila Vieira, Juliana Rocha, Delson Schramm, Maria Priscila Castro, Andras Miklos, Helion Vargas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32349",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32349",authors:[{id:"42718",title:"Dr.",name:"Helion",surname:"Vargas",slug:"helion-vargas",fullName:"Helion Vargas"},{id:"68943",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo",surname:"Sthel",slug:"marcelo-sthel",fullName:"Marcelo Sthel"},{id:"93940",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo",surname:"Gomes",slug:"marcelo-gomes",fullName:"Marcelo Gomes"},{id:"93941",title:"MSc.",name:"Guilherme",surname:"Lima",slug:"guilherme-lima",fullName:"Guilherme Lima"},{id:"93942",title:"Dr.",name:"Delson",surname:"Schramm",slug:"delson-schramm",fullName:"Delson Schramm"},{id:"93944",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Priscila",surname:"Castro",slug:"maria-priscila-castro",fullName:"Maria Priscila Castro"},{id:"93946",title:"Dr.",name:"Andras",surname:"Miklos",slug:"andras-miklos",fullName:"Andras Miklos"},{id:"141441",title:"Dr.",name:"Mila",surname:"Vieira",slug:"mila-vieira",fullName:"Mila Vieira"},{id:"141442",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliana",surname:"Rocha",slug:"juliana-rocha",fullName:"Juliana Rocha"}],corrections:null},{id:"32350",title:"Miniaturized Mass Spectrometer in Analysis of Greenhouse Gases: The Performance and Possibilities",doi:"10.5772/33815",slug:"miniaturized-mass-spectrometer-in-analysis-of-greenhouse-gases-the-performance-and-possibilities-",totalDownloads:2857,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Shuichi Shimma and Michisato Toyoda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32350",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32350",authors:[{id:"97260",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",surname:"Shimma",slug:"shuichi-shimma",fullName:"Shuichi Shimma"},{id:"99829",title:"Prof.",name:"Michisato",surname:"Toyoda",slug:"michisato-toyoda",fullName:"Michisato Toyoda"}],corrections:null},{id:"32351",title:"CO2 and CH4 Flux Measurements from Landfills - A Case Study: Gualeguaychú Municipal Landfill, Entre Ríos Province, Argentina",doi:"10.5772/39128",slug:"co2-and-ch4-flux-measurements-from-landfill-a-case-study-gualeguaych-municipal-landfill-entre-r-os-p",totalDownloads:3091,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Romina Sanci and Héctor O. Panarello",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32351",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32351",authors:[{id:"88304",title:"Dr.",name:"Romina",surname:"Sanci",slug:"romina-sanci",fullName:"Romina Sanci"},{id:"138196",title:"Dr.",name:"Héctor Osvaldo",surname:"Panarello",slug:"hector-osvaldo-panarello",fullName:"Héctor Osvaldo Panarello"}],corrections:null},{id:"32352",title:"Greenhouse Effect",doi:"10.5772/34413",slug:"greenhouse-effect",totalDownloads:3356,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Andrew A. Lacis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32352",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32352",authors:[{id:"100032",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",surname:"Lacis",slug:"andrew-lacis",fullName:"Andrew Lacis"}],corrections:null},{id:"32353",title:"Regional-Scale Assessment of the Climatic Role of Forests Under Future Climate Conditions",doi:"10.5772/33260",slug:"regional-scale-assessment-of-the-climatic-role-of-forests-under-future-climate-conditions",totalDownloads:1409,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Borbála Gálos and Daniela Jacob",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32353",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32353",authors:[{id:"94664",title:"Dr.",name:"Borbala",surname:"Galos",slug:"borbala-galos",fullName:"Borbala Galos"}],corrections:null},{id:"32354",title:"Climate Change in the Upper Atmosphere",doi:"10.5772/32565",slug:"climate-change-in-the-upper-atmosphere",totalDownloads:2339,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,signatures:"Ingrid Cnossen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32354",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32354",authors:[{id:"91944",title:"Dr.",name:"Ingrid",surname:"Cnossen",slug:"ingrid-cnossen",fullName:"Ingrid Cnossen"}],corrections:null},{id:"32355",title:"Projecting Changes in Extreme Precipitation in the Midwestern United States Using North American Regional Climate Change Assessment Program (NARCCAP) Regional Climate Models",doi:"10.5772/32667",slug:"future-changes-in-precipitation-pattern-in-the-midwest-region-of-usa",totalDownloads:1855,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Shuang-Ye Wu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32355",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32355",authors:[{id:"92279",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuang-Ye",surname:"Wu",slug:"shuang-ye-wu",fullName:"Shuang-Ye Wu"}],corrections:null},{id:"32356",title:"Future Changes in the Quasi-Biennial Oscillation Under a Greenhouse Gas Increase and Ozone Recovery in Transient Simulations by a Chemistry-Climate Model",doi:"10.5772/31872",slug:"future-changes-in-the-quasi-biennial-oscillation-under-a-greenhouse-gas-increase-and-ozone-recovery-",totalDownloads:1634,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Kiyotaka Shibata and Makoto Deushi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32356",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32356",authors:[{id:"89120",title:"Dr.",name:"Kiyotaka",surname:"Shibata",slug:"kiyotaka-shibata",fullName:"Kiyotaka Shibata"}],corrections:null},{id:"32357",title:"Regional Pattern of Trends in Long-Term Precipitation and Stream Flow Observations: Singularities in a Changing Climate in Mexico",doi:"10.5772/32804",slug:"regional-pattern-of-trends-in-long-term-precipitation-and-stream-flow-observations-singularities-in-",totalDownloads:2116,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Luis Brito Castillo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32357",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32357",authors:[{id:"92775",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Luis",surname:"Brito-Castillo",slug:"luis-brito-castillo",fullName:"Luis Brito-Castillo"}],corrections:null},{id:"32358",title:"The Environmental and Population Health Benefits of Active Transport: A Review",doi:"10.5772/33001",slug:"the-environmental-and-population-health-benefits-of-active-transport-a-review",totalDownloads:1845,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:11,signatures:"Richard Larouche",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32358",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32358",authors:[{id:"93547",title:"Mr.",name:"Richard",surname:"Larouche",slug:"richard-larouche",fullName:"Richard Larouche"}],corrections:null},{id:"32359",title:"Arctic Sea Ice Decline",doi:"10.5772/34472",slug:"arctic-sea-ice-decline",totalDownloads:1727,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Julienne C. Stroeve and Walter Meier",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32359",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32359",authors:[{id:"100295",title:"Dr.",name:"Julienne",surname:"Stroeve",slug:"julienne-stroeve",fullName:"Julienne Stroeve"},{id:"100297",title:"Dr.",name:"Walter",surname:"Meier",slug:"walter-meier",fullName:"Walter Meier"}],corrections:null},{id:"32360",title:"Post-Combustion CO2 Capture with Monoethanolamine in a Combined-Cycle Power Plant: Exergetic, Economic and Environmental Assessment",doi:"10.5772/32034",slug:"thermodynamic-economic-and-environmental-performance-of-a-power-plant-with-post-combustion-co2-captu",totalDownloads:2458,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Fontina Petrakopoulou, George Tsatsaronis, Alicia Boyano and Tatiana Morosuk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32360",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32360",authors:[{id:"89867",title:"Dr.",name:"Fontina",surname:"Petrakopoulou",slug:"fontina-petrakopoulou",fullName:"Fontina Petrakopoulou"},{id:"123151",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",surname:"Boyano",slug:"alicia-boyano",fullName:"Alicia Boyano"},{id:"193888",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatiana",surname:"Morosuk",slug:"tatiana-morosuk",fullName:"Tatiana Morosuk"},{id:"194211",title:"Prof.",name:"George",surname:"Tsatsaronis",slug:"george-tsatsaronis",fullName:"George Tsatsaronis"}],corrections:null},{id:"32361",title:"The Greenhouse Stakes of Globalization",doi:"10.5772/35911",slug:"the-greenhouse-gas-stakes-of-globalization",totalDownloads:1449,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Sébastien Dente and Troy Hawkins",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/32361",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/32361",authors:[{id:"106326",title:"Dr.",name:null,surname:"Hawkins",slug:"hawkins",fullName:"Hawkins"},{id:"127945",title:"Dr.",name:"Sébastien",surname:"Dente",slug:"sebastien-dente",fullName:"Sébastien Dente"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2117",title:"Greenhouse Gases",subtitle:"Capturing, Utilization and Reduction",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cf4593468574b6d25cf38dea36729b5",slug:"greenhouse-gases-capturing-utilization-and-reduction",bookSignature:"Guoxiang Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92642",title:"Dr.",name:"Guoxiang",surname:"Liu",slug:"guoxiang-liu",fullName:"Guoxiang Liu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3569",title:"Biodegradation",subtitle:"Life of Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb737eb528a53e5106c7e218d5f12ec6",slug:"biodegradation-life-of-science",bookSignature:"Rolando Chamy and Francisca Rosenkranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165784",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolando",surname:"Chamy",slug:"rolando-chamy",fullName:"Rolando Chamy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2190",title:"Biomass Now",subtitle:"Sustainable Growth and Use",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8a1a12b5516a184685e6421805ff25d",slug:"biomass-now-sustainable-growth-and-use",bookSignature:"Miodrag Darko Matovic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2190.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"27708",title:"Dr.",name:"Miodrag Darko",surname:"Matovic",slug:"miodrag-darko-matovic",fullName:"Miodrag Darko Matovic"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3138",title:"Biomass Now",subtitle:"Cultivation and Utilization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14aa4b6c2eb974aad5a2839688220b04",slug:"biomass-now-cultivation-and-utilization",bookSignature:"Miodrag Darko Matovic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3138.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"27708",title:"Dr.",name:"Miodrag Darko",surname:"Matovic",slug:"miodrag-darko-matovic",fullName:"Miodrag Darko Matovic"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2311",title:"Climate Change and Variability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2fb02ff1e1671367663032ec44d0cb85",slug:"climate-change-and-variability",bookSignature:"Suzanne Simard",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2311.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"11062",title:"Prof.",name:"Suzanne",surname:"Simard",slug:"suzanne-simard",fullName:"Suzanne Simard"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3540",title:"Biodegradation",subtitle:"Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0ee069d311f4d412f6bbf7180e3a8ea4",slug:"biodegradation-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Rolando Chamy and Francisca Rosenkranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3540.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165784",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolando",surname:"Chamy",slug:"rolando-chamy",fullName:"Rolando Chamy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3570",title:"Biodegradation of Hazardous and Special Products",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"29ce0f4a059cb02b060a2b4082ca81e0",slug:"biodegradation-of-hazardous-and-special-products",bookSignature:"Rolando Chamy and Francisca Rosenkranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3570.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165784",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolando",surname:"Chamy",slug:"rolando-chamy",fullName:"Rolando Chamy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"449",title:"Environmental Impact of Biofuels",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"faa4e85fdce130eae4d51d73d23c4816",slug:"environmental-impact-of-biofuels",bookSignature:"Marco Aurélio dos Santos Bernardes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/449.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6625",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Aurelio",surname:"Dos Santos Bernardes",slug:"marco-aurelio-dos-santos-bernardes",fullName:"Marco Aurelio Dos Santos Bernardes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2151",title:"Novel Approaches and Their Applications in Risk Assessment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b37b8b1a2ebbcf1d218f6d570c65f247",slug:"novel-approaches-and-their-applications-in-risk-assessment",bookSignature:"Yuzhou Luo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2151.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"117189",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuzhou",surname:"Luo",slug:"yuzhou-luo",fullName:"Yuzhou Luo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3231",title:"Water Resources",subtitle:"Planning, Development and Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dfbaf4bed109eef829f68967730340b5",slug:"water-resources-planning-development-and-management",bookSignature:"Ralph Wurbs",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3231.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73091",title:"Prof.",name:"Ralph",surname:"Wurbs",slug:"ralph-wurbs",fullName:"Ralph Wurbs"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"65669",slug:"corrigendum-to-aedes-what-do-we-know-about-them-and-what-can-they-transmit",title:"Corrigendum to: Aedes: What Do We Know about Them and What Can They Transmit?",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65669.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65669",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65669",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65669",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65669",chapter:{id:"63773",slug:"aedes-what-do-we-know-about-them-and-what-can-they-transmit-",signatures:"Biswadeep Das, Sayam Ghosal and Swabhiman Mohanty",dateSubmitted:"May 16th 2018",dateReviewed:"September 7th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:null,book:{id:"8122",title:"Vectors and Vector-Borne Zoonotic Diseases",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Vectors and Vector-Borne Zoonotic Diseases",slug:"vectors-and-vector-borne-zoonotic-diseases",publishedDate:"February 20th 2019",bookSignature:"Sara Savić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8122.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null}},chapter:{id:"63773",slug:"aedes-what-do-we-know-about-them-and-what-can-they-transmit-",signatures:"Biswadeep Das, Sayam Ghosal and Swabhiman Mohanty",dateSubmitted:"May 16th 2018",dateReviewed:"September 7th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:null,book:{id:"8122",title:"Vectors and Vector-Borne Zoonotic Diseases",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Vectors and Vector-Borne Zoonotic Diseases",slug:"vectors-and-vector-borne-zoonotic-diseases",publishedDate:"February 20th 2019",bookSignature:"Sara Savić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8122.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null},book:{id:"8122",title:"Vectors and Vector-Borne Zoonotic Diseases",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Vectors and Vector-Borne Zoonotic Diseases",slug:"vectors-and-vector-borne-zoonotic-diseases",publishedDate:"February 20th 2019",bookSignature:"Sara Savić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8122.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10281",leadTitle:null,title:"Nanopores",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tNanopores are pores of nanometer size. It may be created by a pore-forming protein or as a hole in synthetic materials such as silicon or graphene. This book intends to provide a good source of nanopore studies for researchers interested in and working in the general areas of electrochemistry, nanobiotechnology, materials, biomedical engineers, and chemical engineers who are interested in designing and utilizing processes to synthesize, characterize, and model nanopores. Focuses on the latest developments in nanopores, this book summarizes current research on nanopore materials, explains elegant approaches toward functional nanoporous materials, and investigates their scope and limitations.
\r\n\r\n\tThe main focus of this book aims to be on the development of a novel method of nanopore fabrication, applications, and analysis of nanopore data. The secondary purpose of this book aims to be dedicated to a thorough discussion of the complexities involved in analyzing nanopores as well as the development of several tools that address the characterization of nanopores.
",isbn:"978-1-83880-210-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-209-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-966-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"73c465d2d70f8deca04b05d7ecae26c4",bookSignature:"Dr. Sadia Ameen, Dr. M. Shaheer Akhtar and Prof. Hyung-Shik Shin",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10281.jpg",keywords:"Waste Reduction, Water Treatment, Printing Nanofabrication, Additive Manufacturing, Nanomagnetic Materials, Semiconduction Quantum Dots, Chemical Sensors, Bio Sensor, Energy Conversion Process, Semiconductor Nanostructures, Bulk Nanostructured Materials, Sol-Gel",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 8th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 23rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 22nd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 11th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor Sadia Ameen obtained a gold medal in academics and is the holder of a merit scholarship for the best academic performance. She is the recipient of the Best Researcher Award and member of the Society for Semiconductor Devices, Indian Society for Analytical Chemist Member of IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Society, member of KICHE (Korean Institute of Chemical Engineering), member of SPIE, International Society for Optics and Photonics.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Professor M. Shaheer Akhtar is an associate professor at the New & Renewable Energy Materials Development Center (NewREC). His research interests constitute the photo-electrochemical characterizations of thin-film semiconductor nanomaterials, composite materials, polymer-based solid-state films, solid polymer electrolytes and electrode materials for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs), hybrid organic-inorganic solar cells, small molecules based organic solar cells, and photocatalytic reactions.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Professor Hyung-Shik Shin received his Ph.D. in the kinetics of the initial oxidation Al (111) surface from Cornell University, USA, in 1984. and also President of Korea Basic Science Institute (KBSI), Gwahak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejon, Republic of Korea. He is an active executive member of various renowned scientific committees such as KiChE, copyright protection, KAERI, etc.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"52613",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",middleName:null,surname:"Ameen",slug:"sadia-ameen",fullName:"Sadia Ameen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/52613/images/system/52613.jpeg",biography:"Professor Sadia Ameen obtained her Ph.D. in Chemistry (2008) and then moved to Jeonbuk National University. Presently she is working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Bio-Convergence Science, Jeongeup Campus, Jeonbuk National University. Her current research focuses on dye-sensitized solar cells, perovskite solar cells, organic solar cells, sensors, catalyst, and optoelectronic devices. She specializes in manufacturing advanced energy materials and nanocomposites. She has achieved a gold medal in academics and is the holder of a merit scholarship for the best academic performance. She is the recipient of the Best Researcher Award. She has published more than 130 peer-reviewed papers in the field of solar cells, catalysts and sensors, contributed to book chapters, edited books, and is an inventor/co-inventor of patents.",institutionString:"Jeonbuk National University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Jeonbuk National University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Korea, South"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"218191",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Shaheer",middleName:null,surname:"Akhtar",slug:"m.-shaheer-akhtar",fullName:"M. Shaheer Akhtar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/218191/images/system/218191.jpg",biography:"Professor M. Shaheer Akhtar completed his Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering, 2008, from Jeonbuk National University, Republic of Korea. Presently, he is working as Associate Professor at Jeonbuk National University, the Republic of Korea. His research interest constitutes the photo-electrochemical characterizations of thin-film semiconductor nanomaterials, composite materials, polymer-based solid-state films, solid polymer electrolytes and electrode materials for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs), hybrid organic-inorganic solar cells, small molecules based organic solar cells, and photocatalytic reactions.",institutionString:"Jeonbuk National University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Jeonbuk National University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"36666",title:"Prof.",name:"Hyung-Shik",middleName:null,surname:"Shin",slug:"hyung-shik-shin",fullName:"Hyung-Shik Shin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/36666/images/system/36666.jpeg",biography:"Professor Hyung-Shik Shin received a Ph.D. in the kinetics of the initial oxidation Al (111) surface from Cornell University, USA, in 1984. He is a Professor in the School of Chemical Engineering, Jeonbuk National University, and also President of Korea Basic Science Institute (KBSI), Gwahak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejon, Republic of Korea. He has been a promising researcher and visited several universities as a visiting professor/invited speaker worldwide. He is an active executive member of various renowned scientific committees such as KiChE, copyright protection, KAERI, etc. He has extensive experience in electrochemistry, renewable energy sources, solar cells, organic solar cells, charge transport properties of organic semiconductors, inorganic-organic solar cells, biosensors, chemical sensors, nano-patterning of thin film materials, and photocatalytic degradation.",institutionString:"Jeonbuk National University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Jeonbuk National University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"17",title:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"259492",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Gojević-Zrnić",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259492/images/7469_n.png",email:"sara.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6517",title:"Emerging Solar Energy Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"186936bb201bb186fb04b095aa39d9b8",slug:"emerging-solar-energy-materials",bookSignature:"Sadia Ameen, M. Shaheer Akhtar and Hyung-Shik Shin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6517.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"52613",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",surname:"Ameen",slug:"sadia-ameen",fullName:"Sadia Ameen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9305",title:"Graphene Production and Application",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2ffaa7a52817a2243007f03345983404",slug:"graphene-production-and-application",bookSignature:"Sadia Ameen, M. Shaheer Akhtar and Hyung-Shik Shin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9305.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"52613",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",surname:"Ameen",slug:"sadia-ameen",fullName:"Sadia Ameen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7652",title:"Nanostructures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ad1e5c5f214960269e89371d1110cbc0",slug:"nanostructures",bookSignature:"Sadia Ameen, M. Shaheer Akhtar and Hyung-Shik Shin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7652.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"52613",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",surname:"Ameen",slug:"sadia-ameen",fullName:"Sadia Ameen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5884",title:"Unraveling the Safety Profile of Nanoscale Particles and Materials",subtitle:"From Biomedical to Environmental Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e5811aa0f15ab9d8b6a235e8408875d",slug:"unraveling-the-safety-profile-of-nanoscale-particles-and-materials-from-biomedical-to-environmental-applications",bookSignature:"Andreia C. Gomes and Marisa P. Sarria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5884.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"146466",title:"Prof.",name:"Andreia",surname:"Ferreira de Castro Gomes",slug:"andreia-ferreira-de-castro-gomes",fullName:"Andreia Ferreira de Castro Gomes"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7325",title:"Nanostructures in Energy Generation, Transmission and Storage",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e49924dd2c3e28c82fdc115ce04f925",slug:"nanostructures-in-energy-generation-transmission-and-storage",bookSignature:"Yanina Fedorenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7325.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199149",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanina",surname:"Fedorenko",slug:"yanina-fedorenko",fullName:"Yanina Fedorenko"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9230",title:"Smart Nanosystems for Biomedicine, Optoelectronics and Catalysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1d1af591d87490c9ad728a1352e62d96",slug:"smart-nanosystems-for-biomedicine-optoelectronics-and-catalysis",bookSignature:"Tatyana Shabatina and Vladimir Bochenkov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9230.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237988",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatyana",surname:"Shabatina",slug:"tatyana-shabatina",fullName:"Tatyana Shabatina"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9322",title:"Hybrid Nanomaterials",subtitle:"Flexible Electronics Materials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"beff6cce44f54582ee8a828759d24f19",slug:"hybrid-nanomaterials-flexible-electronics-materials",bookSignature:"Rafael Vargas-Bernal, Peng He and Shuye Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9322.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182114",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Vargas-Bernal",slug:"rafael-vargas-bernal",fullName:"Rafael Vargas-Bernal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"54046",title:"Electrical Manipulation of a Single Nanowire by Dielectrophoresis",doi:"10.5772/67386",slug:"electrical-manipulation-of-a-single-nanowire-by-dielectrophoresis",body:'\nNanowires (NWs) represent adequate elements for electronic devices that require ultra‐low power consumption, given their low current levels and high sensitivity they usually exhibit [1–5]. Their one‐dimensional geometry, as well as unique possibilities for engineering of magnetic, electric and optic properties, make them to be promising nanostructures for a variety of applications, including chemical and biological sensors [6, 7], field‐effect transistors [8], advanced scanning probes and magnetic sensors [9], light‐emitting diodes [10], lasers [11] and photodetectors [12, 13]. Furthermore, NWs can be synthesized through a number of techniques, such as metal‐organic epitaxy [14], focused‐ion‐beam (FIB) [8], focused‐electron‐beam‐induced deposition (FEBID) [15], electron beam lithography [5] and electrodeposition [16, 17], yielding to unique attributes, such as particular crystallographic properties, geometry and axial/coaxial heterostructures [18].
\nHowever, despite significant advances that have been made in NWs synthesis and devices characterization, post‐growth manipulation and placement of single NWs in a coherent and useful fashion remains one of the major challenges to fabricate and study the electrical transport properties of NW‐based devices [19–21], especially the ones made of a single NW. So far, numerous techniques have been proposed to realize NW‐based devices from already existing NWs assembly, such as atomic force microscopy nanomanipulation [22], Langmuir‐Blodgett films [23], fluidic‐directed assembly [24], dry‐transfer printing [25], although with relatively low NW yield for precise positioning of functional system [18].
\nAlternatively, NWs suspended in a dielectric electrolytic solution can be manipulated through electric fields [1, 5, 26–31]. When an electrically neutral NW is subjected to a non‐uniform electric field, the electric charges redistribution within the NW as well as in the solid‐liquid interface builds up an electric dipole moment [32]. Thus, as the Coulomb forces on either sides of the dipole can differ in direction and intensity, a net force is exerted on the NW, which is known as the dielectrophoretic force [19, 27–32]. The force direction depends on the relative polarizabilities of the electrolyte and of the NW, inducing the latter move towards or against the region of higher electric field intensity. Such motion of nanoparticles is termed as dielectrophoresis (DEP) [19, 20, 26–32]. DEP has a tremendous advantage over the aforementioned techniques, as it relies on the possibility of working with NWs of a wide range of conductivities as well as arbitrary substrates including those that require low‐temperature processing such as flexible substrates [18]. Since DEP directly depends on the dielectric properties of the particles and diluting medium, as well as the nanoparticles geometry, it allows high process selectivity [18, 32]. Moreover, large electrode arrays can be properly defined by lithography such that DEP can take place concomitantly in a large number of electrodes, leading to high throughput.
\nHowever, to fully realize these capabilities, DEP must be carefully controlled to ensure that wires are precisely placed at desired locations. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the relevant parameters that affect DEP experiment and how to control them. In this work, nickel nanowires (NiNWs) with length of around 4 µm and 35 nm of diameter, obtained by electrodeposition into pores of anodized alumina membrane and further dispersed in a dimethylformamide (DMF) electrolytic solution, were manipulated by DEP in order to make electrical contact between a pair of electrodes. Electrodes geometry and DEP electrical parameters were varied to evaluate the NiNW deposition efficiency by this technique. The materials for NW and diluting medium presented in this work were arbitrarily chosen to provide a proof‐of‐concept for the reader, though a selection of several NW materials and diluting medium is provided as well. In addition, COMSOL simulation supports experimental results on NWs deposition.
\nThe electric force induced by non‐uniform electric fields on polarizable and anisotropic nanoparticles can be used to properly align and trap individual liquid‐suspended nanoparticles at predefined locations of a substrate. This force, termed as the DEP force, uses AC electric fields to selectively move neutral nanoparticles (e.g. NiNWs) dispersed in a dielectric diluting medium (e.g. DMF) (Figure 1a) [26, 32]. It relies on the polarizability differences between the NW and the DMF. The electrodes shape yields to a non‐uniform electric field, which is proportional to the applied voltage. It creates a net force on the NW that exceeds the viscous force between the NW and the fluid, inducing a preferential NW movement towards the electrodes gap (Figure 1b). Although the discussion presented in this work considers only NW as example of particles, the analysis also applies to other anisotropic particles such as nanotubes, nanorods or sheets.
\n(a) Schematic of the DEP experiment. Adapted with permission from [33]. Copyright 2015 by American Vacuum Society. (b) DEP mechanism, in which the electric‐field gradient induces attraction forces on the nanowire towards the gap between electrodes.
This force can be expressed by [5, 30, 33]
\nwhere φ and L represent, respectively, the NW diameter and length, Re{} is the real term and K(ω) the Clausius‐Mossoti factor—or the so‐called complex polarization factor—expressed as function of electrical permittivities of NiNW and DMF (respectively, \n
The imaginary component of the complex permittivity, \n
Thus, the real‐term frequency‐dependent factor of the DEP force is given by
\nThe complex polarization factor\'s dependence on the permittivity introduces a relationship between the dielectrophoretic force and the frequency of the applied field. Eqs. (5) and (6) present the high‐ and low‐frequency limits, respectively:
\nAt the high‐frequency limit, the DEP force is determined by the relative permittivity of the NW and the DMF, while at low frequencies the force will be a function of their relative conductivities. Within this frequency range, the transition between those two regimes is evidenced by plotting the DEP force against frequency. Inserting the appropriate NW and diluting liquid electrical conductivities (respectively, \n
(a) Real part of the complex polarization factor (proportional to FDEP), as function of frequency, for NiNW diluted in DMF medium, showing force reduction for frequencies above 100 kHz. Adapted with permission from [33]. Copyright 2015 by American Vacuum Society. (b) DEP force as function of the ratio between electrodes gap length and NW length, showing that the attraction force is maximized in the minimum of the force curve. Adapted with permission from [35]. Copyright 2012 by American Chemical Society.
At 500 kHz and 1 MHz, the force approximately decreases by one and two orders of magnitude, respectively. However, this model does not consider fluid dynamics effects, such as AC electroosmosis [20]. For the electrostatics parameters of NiNW and DMF, this effect can reduce the force for frequencies above 1–10 kHz [19], as will be discussed in the next section. Other effects also act on the NW, such as viscous and frictional forces, fluid flow and NW‐surface interactions [5, 34]. Therefore, the DEP force needs to overcome those effects in order to effectively perform deposition. Additionally, the DEP force will always depend on the ratio between the electrodes gap and NW lengths (Figure 2b), as this ratio influences the electric field lines density covering the NW and thus the applied torque [35]. The DEP force is maximized (attraction force, see in Figure 2b) for a ratio of around 0.8, since the electric field gradient and strength effects are the largest for this ratio [36]. For a smaller gap, the DEP force decreases because, despite that the electric field applied at the gap centre remains constant, it is reduced around the entire NW length. On the other hand, for a larger gap, the DEP force also decreases, simply because the electric field around the NW is less intense [5, 35, 36]. In this work, for NiNWs length of (4 ± 1) µm, we used a gap length of (2.5 ± 0.3) µm, yielding a ratio of (0.6 ± 0.2), which is near the maximum DEP force condition.
\nFurthermore, Eq. (1) exhibits a quadratic dependence of DEP force with the applied voltage, which increases the amount of deposited NWs in the gap region [5, 33]. In this work, we fixed the peak‐to‐peak voltage (VPP) to 3 V, since it produces a reasonable DEP force without overheating and consequently damaging the NiNWs during DEP process.
\nFinally, although we have presented DEP analysis for NiNWs dissolved in a DMF solution, one might be interested in experiments involving NWs composed of different materials. Thus, we present Table 1, which provides an overview of reported parameters from the literature that optimizes DEP force.
\nNanowire material | \nMedium | \nPotential (V) | \nFrequency (kHz) | \nElectrode gap (µm) | \nElectric field (V µm⁻1) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Au | \nMethanol | \n0.97 | \n150 | \n2 | \n0.485 | \n
Au | \nMethanol | \n10 | \n>100 | \n2 | \n5 | \n
Au‐biotin | \nMethanol | \n0.18 | \n1000 | \n2 | \n0.09 | \n
ZnO | \nEthanol | \n5 | \n1000 | \n6–10 | \n0.833–0.5 | \n
ZnO | \nEthanol | \n5 | \n1000 | \n4 | \n1.25 | \n
Ag | \nEthanol | \n0.1 | \n5 | \n4 | \n0.025 | \n
Ag or Au | \nH2O or EtOH | \n0.2 | \n100 | \n30 | \n0.00667 | \n
Rh rods | \nAcetone | \n10 | \nUnknown | \n5–30 | \n2–0.333 | \n
CNTa | \nAcetone | \n45 | \nUnknown | \n5–30 | \n9–1.5 | \n
p‐Si | \nBenzyl alcohol | \n110 | \n10 | \n40 | \n2.75 | \n
Si | \nIPAb and H2O | \n0.35 | \n0.5 | \n2 | \n0.175 | \n
Overview of optimized parameters reported in literature for DEP alignment of different types of NW (adapted from [19]).
aCNT, carbon nanotube.
bIPA, isopropanol.
Under the influence of an AC electric field, electrolytes on planar microelectrodes exhibit fluid flow tangential to the electrode surface. The Coulomb force generated from this electric field on the solution interfacial charges (Figure 3a) leads to fluid flow along the electrode surface away from the gap in a process termed AC electroosmosis [20, 37]. This effect is triggered by applying an alternating potential difference of the order of kHz at low voltages (around 1 V) to each pair of electrodes. It has been exploited in microfluidics to pump fluids in microcapillaries where surface forces preclude traditional pumping by pressure differentials.
\n(a) Surface‐bound interfacial charges (spheres), induced by electrodes, interact with the tangential component of electric field (curved lines), thus moving the fluid along the electrode surface away from the electrode gap. Field lines originating from the positively charged electrode and ending on the negatively charged one represent the force experienced by positive charge (negative charge experiences force in opposite direction). This force leads to fluid flow along the electrodes away from the gap. Adapted with permission from [20]. Copyright 2007 by American Chemical Society. (b) Average velocity of the fluid obtained for V\n0 = 3 VPP for several distances from the electrodes gap centre. Inset: Frequency working range utilized in this work, in which the average velocity decreases about two orders of magnitude between 100 kHz and 1 MHz for any distance, d.
The physical mechanism responsible for driving the flow relies on non‐uniformities in the AC electric fields at the gap region. They produce an electric force on the surface‐bound interfacial charges, yielding a non‐zero time‐averaged electroosmotic slip velocity at the electrodes surface [38]. The AC electroosmotic effect can produce fluid velocities from hundreds of µm/s up to a few mm/s in some cases [20, 37]. It should be noted that this fluid flow is distinct from the one originated from electro‐thermal effects, which are found at higher frequencies and higher electrolyte conductivities [38].
\nFor symmetrical, coplanar microelectrode gaps such as those reported in this work, AC electroosmosis produces fluid flow along the electrode surface directed away from the centre of the electrode gap. The average fluid velocity near the electrode surface is given by [20, 37, 38]
\nwhere d is the position along the electrodes surface with its origin at the gap centre, V0 is the applied voltage between electrodes, η = 0.92 mPa s the electrolyte viscosity and the dimensionless frequency Ω is given by
\nwhere κ = (15 nm)⁻1 is the reciprocal of electrolyte Debye length for induced double charge on the electrodes. Eq. (7) gives a bell‐shaped profile for the frequency dependence of the velocity. The average velocity is small at both low and high frequencies. In the former case, most of the electric field relies in the interfacial charged layer between the electrode and the electrolyte, preventing the tangential field to extend very far into the solution. In the latter, the interfacial charged layer is thin because the charged species in the electrolyte are not fast enough to follow the rapidly changing polarities of the electrodes. On the contrary, at intermediate frequencies, the velocity can be considerably large [37]. Figure 3b shows average velocities of DMF for d = 500 nm, 1 µm, 3 µm and 10 µm from the electrodes gap centre, at 3 V. For these DEP conditions, the fluid velocity at the gap region will range from a few nanometres to tens of millimetres per second, depending on the frequency, which produces additional forces on the NWs and thus considerably influences NWs deposition.
\nIn the next sections, DEP efficiency was evaluated for NiNW trapping on Pt electrodes, chosen due to the low‐oxidation rate and relatively low‐electrical resistivity that allows further two‐wire electrical transport measurements on a single isolated NW. The DEP parameters, such as voltage and frequency, were varied in order to optimize the number of NWs that make contact between the electrodes, for which statistical evaluation was performed. The total electric field distribution over the gap area was simulated using COMSOL Multiphysics simulation tool to support experimental results.
\nPt electrodes were defined on a SiO2/Si structure. First, a 300 nm‐thick SiO2 layer was grown on an n+‐type Si (1 0 0) wafer (electrical resistivity of 1–10 Ω cm) by wet thermal oxidation in a conventional furnace, in order to act as a dielectric layer (Figure 4a). Then, photolithography was performed to define the electrodes region. An 80 nm‐thick Pt layer was sputtered by a physical vapour deposition system, and lift‐off process was carried out to define electrodes (Figure 4b). Three different electrode geometries were fabricated to evaluate the effect of electrode shape on DEP force, further denominated 1 (rectangular extremities), 2 (circular extremities) and 3 (narrow extremities) (Figure 5).
\nSchematics of experimental procedures: (a) dielectric layer formation on top of n+‐Si wafer by thermal oxidation; (b) electrodes definition by photolithography and lift‐off; (c) NiNW deposition on electrodes by DEP experiment. Adapted with permission from [33]. Copyright 2015 by American Vacuum Society.
Schematics (top), optical microscopy (centre) and total electric field simulations, using COMSOL Multiphysics tool (below) of the three geometries tested for the Pt electrodes. The 20 µm line was taken for evaluation of the electric field profile for each geometry, as presented in Figure 8. Reprinted with permission from [33]. Copyright 2015 by American Vacuum Society.
NiNWs of 4 ± 1 µm‐long and 35 ± 5 nm of diameter were fabricated via pulsed electrodeposition into anodized alumina membrane [16, 17]. A 1 M NaOH chemical etching solution at 24°C under agitation was employed to release the NWs from the porous alumina membrane. They were then cleaned with isopropanol and rinsed with deionized water in order to remove organic remains and further dispersed in DMF to avoid NWs clusters formation. The NiNW deposition was performed by DEP (Figure 4c), conducted with a HP 8116A pulse/function generator configured with 3 VPP and null offset. The sinusoidal signal was generated for a frequency range between 50 kHz and 1 MHz. Before DEP process, the solution (concentration of ca. 108 NiNW mL⁻1) was sonicated for 120 s at room temperature, in order to uniformly disperse the NiNWs in the DMF. Then, 1 µL solution volume was placed in the gap region and the DEP parameters were applied on each pair of electrodes during 60 s. The DMF excess was immediately rinsed with deionized water and dried with N2. For each set of DEP parameters, the experiment was repeated ca. 100 times to ensure statistical reliability.
\nVisual inspection of the gap region by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to evaluate the DEP efficiency for the three electrode geometries and the frequency range used (Figure 6). An experiment in which at least one NiNW was deposited—and made electrical contact with a pair of electrodes—was considered as success. For each geometry and frequency, we normalized the number of successes by the total number of experiments. Thus, it was possible to evaluate the efficiency percentage of NiNW deposition (Figure 7a) and the average number of deposited NiNW for the successful cases (Figure 7b), as a function of the DEP frequency and electrode geometry.
\nSEM analysis of NiNWs deposited on Pt electrodes for (a) geometry #1, (b) geometry #2 and (c) geometry #3, after DEP experiment (VPP = 3 V, frequency = 100 kHz (upper row) and 600 kHz (lower row)). Reprinted with permission from [33]. Copyright 2015 by American Vacuum Society.
Charts of (a) deposition efficiency and (b) average number of deposited NiNW, obtained for DEP experiment as a function of electric field frequency, for the three electrodes geometries. Reprinted with permission from [33]. Copyright 2015 by American Vacuum Society.
First, it should be noted that DEP and AC electroosmosis might be considered as competing mechanisms for NWs deposition between electrodes. While DEP force is the main mechanism for NW trapping, AC electroosmosis, which occurs simultaneously to DEP, can induce fluid turbulence in the electrodes gap region, thus reducing the probability of success as well as the number of trapped NiNWs. Therefore, as expected from both Eq. (4) and fluid dynamics effects predictions, the DEP efficiency at 10 kHz and 1MHz was almost null, obtaining success only for geometry 1 (8% and 16%, respectively). For frequencies close to 10 kHz, the average AC electroosmosis velocity near the gap is relatively high (Figure 3b) and this turbulence prevents the DEP force to trap the NiNW towards the electrodes. On the other hand, for frequencies close to 1 MHz, the DEP force is about two orders of magnitude lower than the one in the range of kHz (Figure 2a).
\nFurthermore, the maximum efficiency obtained for geometry 1 was 85% at 100 kHz, while an efficiency of 60% was reached at 600 kHz. On the other hand, the DEP process was less efficient for geometries 2 and 3, both with the maximum value of 50% obtained for 600 kHz. This discrepancy may be assigned to electric field homogeneity over the electrodes gap, which is larger for geometry 1 than for geometries 2 and 3. The electrode areas are smaller in geometry 2 and 3 cases, which could create inhomogeneities and thus reduce the trapping effect in the gap region. Moreover, the maximum efficiency obtained for geometries 2 and 3 at 600 kHz still represents the frequency region that simultaneously maximizes the DEP force and minimizes the electroosmosis effect. On the other hand, for geometry 1, the larger electrode area increases the probability of success and more NiNWs are captured during DEP process. Figure 8 presents the simulated total electric field intensity along a 20 µm transversal cross‐section in the gap region, indicated in Figure 5. We assume that the product between the peak height, h, and its full‐width half‐maximum, σ, is related to the deposition efficiency. The decreasing product value for geometry 1 to 3 is in agreement with the obtained efficiency results.
\nTotal simulated electric field amplitude profile for the 20 µm transversal line shown in Figure 4 for the three geometries, indicating the trapping efficiency to be related to the product between the peak height and its full‐width half‐maximum. Reprinted with permission from [33]. Copyright 2015 by American Vacuum Society.
Typically, several NiNWs were simultaneously deposited during the successful experiments, with an average number ranging from 1.0 to 8.7. Interestingly, for each investigated geometry, the maximum number of deposited NiNWs was not reached for the frequency yielding the highest efficiency. For geometry 1, only 3.4 NiNWs were deposited at 100 kHz (85% of efficiency), while a peak of 8.7 ones was attained at 600 kHz (60% of efficiency) (Figure 7). This result may also be attributed to the crossover between DEP and AC electroosmosis mechanisms. While the DEP force is expected to be maximized at around 100 kHz, the average fluid velocity near the gap is estimated to be close to the maximum peak value (about hundreds of micrometres/s), which limits the number of NiNWs making contact. On the contrary, at a frequency of 600 kHz, the average electroosmosis velocity reduces almost two orders of magnitude—compared to 100 kHz—yielding to less turbulence in the gap region and, therefore, a larger number of NiNWs making electrical contact between electrodes.
\nThe situation is similar for geometries 2 and 3, but inverting the frequencies for which the efficiency and number of deposited NiNWs were maximized. The larger number of deposited NiNWs even for lower efficiency frequency may be attributed to the distortion of the electric field in the electrodes gap created by the first deposited NiNW, reducing the DEP force on the remaining NiNWs dispersed in the DMF solution and thus reducing the number of NiNWs present at higher frequencies. As shown in Figure 9, the electric field intensity in the gap region decreases abruptly when the first NiNW makes contact between electrodes, as the electric charges present in the metallic electrodes mainly flows through the NW. However, geometry 1 still presents a larger area, which favours more NiNWs to be present at 600 kHz, as aforementioned.
\nTotal electric field simulation (using COMSOL Multiphysics) (top) and curves representing a 50 µm‐long cross‐section transversal line to the electrodes pair in the gap centre (bottom) for (a) geometry 1, (b) geometry 2 and (c) geometry 3. For all geometries, the total electric field substantially decreases when the first NW makes contact, reducing the probability for the second NW to make contact as well.
Globally, geometry 1 is the most efficient for DEP of NiNWs, as one can obtain efficiency up to 85% (for 3 VPP and 100 kHz). However, our aim, when using DEP process, is to evaluate the transport properties of a single NiNW or only a few of them. Thus, a reasonable result is obtained when only a few NiNWs are present between electrodes. Therefore, geometries 2 and 3 reach ideal average values of NiNW (2.7 and 2.0, respectively, for 600 kHz), still with 50% of efficiency.
\nIn order to evaluate the adequacy of DEP protocol for building single NW‐based devices or studying fundamental properties of isolated NWs, electrical current‐voltage (I‐V) measurements were obtained with a Keithley 2400 source meter by applying current (without exceeding 1 nW of power to avoid damaging NiNWs due to heat dissipation) while measuring voltage with a two‐wire setup. Parallel equivalent resistance as a function of the number of deposited NWs was measured and presented in a logarithm scale (Figure 10a). The linear fit slope of −1.0 ± 0.1 Ω NiNW−1 is in good agreement with the ideal case (−1 Ω NiNW−1) indicating that all the NWs made proper electrical contact after DEP process. This was accomplished due to metal‐like behaviour of both the electrode and the NW. It is worth to mention that the NiNW resistance is about two orders of magnitude larger than the electrodes and cables resistance as well as the contact resistance between the metallic NW and electrodes, making it possible to use a two‐wire set‐up for this electrical characterization. However, for processes that require DEP of semiconductor and oxide‐based NWs as well as carbon‐based nanostructures, post‐annealing processes are usually required to make proper electrical contact and thus reduce the contact resistance [39, 40]. Alternatively, one may perform DEP of NW using four electrodes in a 4-probes measurement setup for contact resistance subtraction.
\n(a) Equivalent parallel resistance versus number of parallel‐deposited NiNWs and (b) \n\n\nρ\n\n\n x T curve of one single NiNW, showing metallic behaviour and a residual resistance of 27 µΩ cm at 2 K. Adapted with permission from [16]. Copyright 2013 by Brazilian Microelectronics Society.
In addition, the electric resistivity of one single NiNW, \n
This work presented DEP trapping of NiNWs between Pt electrodes defined by photolithography and lift‐off. It consists of a powerful protocol for building unique and useful devices. The deposition efficiency and average number of NiNWs were evaluated as a function of the electrodes geometry and DEP frequency. Moreover, the influence of AC electroosmotic fluid flow (as a cross‐over mechanism with DEP) could be observed in the mismatch between the frequencies for the largest NiNWs deposition efficiency and the largest number of deposited NiNWs. The maximum deposition efficiencies for square electrodes were 85 and 60% for 100 and 600 kHz, respectively, for averages of 3.4 and 8.7 deposited NiNWs. On the other hand, the efficiency was maximized at 600 kHz for the circular and narrow geometries, with value of 50% and averages of 2.7 and 2.0 NiNWs, respectively. This behaviour can be attributed to electric field inhomogeneities and lower trapping area over the gap present between electrodes in these geometries. For the square electrodes, since it presents a larger electrode area, it captures more NiNWs during DEP process and increases the probability of success, even with electric field intensity slightly lower than circular and narrow geometries. Adequate individual isolated NiNW electrical characterization was allowed by the successful DEP experiment of metallic NWs on the top of metallic electrodes. Additionally, post‐annealing processes may be required for improving contact resistance of semiconductor and metal‐oxide NWs as well as carbon‐based nanostructures to metallic electrodes.
\nFinally, the DEP process seems to be a promising feature to evaluate fundamental properties of individual NWs as well as to build NW‐based sensor devices, since they can be manipulated and isolated with relatively high efficiency. Thus, their individual electrical, thermal and/or optical output signals (in response to the environment stimulus) can be further processed. In addition, NiNWs present ferromagnetic properties, which allow their low current levels to be controlled through magnetic fields. Thus, they can be thought as an alternative for single‐NW magnetic sensors as well as a promising alternative to the traditional Si‐based MOSFET devices.
\nThere may not be a precise background to the first discovery and application of phase change materials (PCMs). Perhaps, from the earliest days where human has acquired the intellect, he has realized the existence of these substances or, maybe, has used them without recognizing their nature. Throughout science and technology evolution, more precisely, since the heat capacity of materials and sensible or latent heats have been known, their ability to store and release thermal energy has also been considered. However, A. T. Waterman submitted the first report of discovery in the early 1900s. In recent years, scientists have paid particular attention to these materials, and their commercialization began from those years.
Perhaps the main reason for this attention was the problems caused by energy mismanagement and improper use of it. Today, inadequate energy management, especially fossil fuels, has caused many environmental and economic problems. Therefore, the necessity of efficient energy demand as well as development of renewable energies and energy storage systems is highly significant. One of the important topics in this field is the design of special energy storage equipment to other types. Energy storage not only reduces the discrepancy between energy supply and demand but also indirectly improves the performance of energy generation systems as well as plays a vital role in saving of energy by converting it into other reliable forms. Hence, this matter saves high-quality fuels and reduces energy wastes [1, 2, 3].
Energy storage is one of the important parts of renewable energies. Energy can be stored in several ways such as mechanical (e.g., compressed air, flywheel, etc.), electrical (e.g., double-layer capacitors), electrochemical (e.g., batteries), chemical (e.g., fuels), and thermal energy storages [4].
Among several methods of energy storage, thermal energy storage (TES) is very crucial due to its advantages. TES is accomplished by changing the internal energy of materials, such as sensible heat, chemical heat, latent heat, or a combination of them.
In sensible heat storage (SHS) systems, heat can be stored by increasing the temperature of a material. Hence, this system exploits both the temperature changes and the heat capacity of the material to store energy. The amount of heat stored in this system depends on the specific heat, temperature differences, and amount of material; thus it requires a large amount of materials, whereas Latent heat storage (LHS) is generally based on the amount of heat absorbed or released during the phase transformation of a material. Lastly, In the chemical heat storage (CHS), heat is stored by enthalpy change of a chemical reaction.
Among the aforementioned heat storage systems, the LHS is particularly noteworthy. One of the special reasons is its ability to store large amount of energy at an isothermal process [5, 6, 7].
Any high-performance LHS system should contain at least one of the following terms:
Appropriate PCM with optimum melting temperature range
Desirable and sufficient surface area proportional to the amount of heat exchange
Optimal capacity compatible with PCM
Phase change materials perform energy storage in LHS method. In this case, a material during the phase change absorbs thermal energy from surrounding to change its state, and in the reverse process, the stored energy is released to the surrounding. PCMs initially behave likewise to other conventional materials as the temperature increases, but energy is absorbed when the material receives heat at higher temperatures and close to the phase transformation. Unlike conventional materials, in PCMs absorption or release of thermal energy is performed at a constant temperature. A PCM normally absorbs and releases thermal energy 5–14 times more than other storage materials such as water or rock [8, 9].
PCMs can store thermal energy in one of the following phase transformation methods: solid-solid, solid-liquid, solid-gas, and liquid-gas. In the solid-solid phase change, a certain solid material absorbs heat by changing a crystalline, semicrystalline, or amorphous structure to another solid structure and vice versa [10]. This type of phase change, usually called phase transitions, generally has less latent heat and smaller volume change comparing to the other types. Recently, this type of PCM has been used in nonvolatile memories [11].
Solid-liquid phase change is a common type of commercial PCMs. This type of PCM absorbs thermal energy to change its crystalline molecular arrangement to a disordered one when the temperature reaches the melting point. Unlike solid-solid, solid-liquid PCMs contain higher latent heat and sensible volumetric change. Solid-gas and liquid-gas phase changes contain higher latent heat, but their phase changes are associated with large volumetric changes, which cause many problems in TES systems [8]. Although the latent heat of solid-liquid is less than liquid-gas, their volumetric change is much lower (about 10% or less). Therefore, employing PCMs based on solid-liquid phase change in TES systems would be more economically feasible.
The overall classification of energy storage systems as well as phase change materials is given in Figure 1.
Overview of energy storage and classification of phase change materials.
As mentioned in the previous section, despite the high thermal energy absorption capacity, PCMs in liquid-gas and solid-gas transitions have extremely high volume changes. On the other hand, solid-solid PCMs also have a lower thermal energy storage capacity. Therefore, the abovementioned PCMs, with the exception of specific cases, have not received much attention to commercialization. Currently, the most common type of transition that has been mass-marketed is solid-liquid PCMs. The classification of phase change materials is schematically given in Figure 1. Solid-liquid PCMs are generally classified as three general organics, inorganic, and eutectics [12, 13]. However, in some references they are classified into two major organics and inorganics.
Inorganic PCMs mainly have high capacity for thermal energy storage (about twice as much as organic PCMs) as well as have higher thermal conductivity. They are often classified as salt hydrates and metals.
Salt hydrates are the most important group of inorganic PCMs, which is widely employed for the latent heat energy storage systems. Salt hydrates are described as a mixture of inorganic salts and water (AB × nH2O). The phase change in salt hydrates actually involves the loss of all or plenty of their water, which is roughly equivalent to the thermodynamic process of melting in other materials.
At the phase transition, the hydrate crystals are subdivided into anhydrous (or less aqueous) salt and water. Although salt hydrates have several advantages, some deficiencies make restrictions in their application. One of these problems is incongruent melting behavior of salt hydrates. In this problem the released water from dehydration process is not sufficient for the complete dissolution of the salts. In this case, the salts precipitate and as a result phase separation occurs. In order to prevent this problem, an additional material such as thickener agent is added to salt hydrates. Another major problem with salt hydrates is the supercooling phenomenon. In this phenomenon, when crystallization process occurs, the nucleus formation is delayed; therefore, even at temperatures below freezing, the material remains liquid [7, 11, 14].
Overall, the most attractive properties of salt hydrate are (i) high alloy latent temperature, (ii) relatively high thermal conductivity (almost two to five times more than paraffin), and (iii) small volume changes in melting. They are also very low emitting and toxic, adaptable to plastic packaging, and cheap enough to use [15].
Metalsare another part of the inorganic PCMs. Perhaps the most prominent advantages of metals are their high thermal conductivity and high mechanical properties. Metals are available over a wide range of melting temperatures. They are also used as high-temperature PCMs.
Some metals such as indium, cesium, gallium, etc. are used for low-temperature PCMs, while others such as Zn, Mg, Al, etc. are used for high temperatures. Some metal alloys with high melting points (in the range of 400–1000°C) have been used for extremely high temperature systems. These metal alloys as high-temperature PCMs can be used in the field of solar power systems [16, 17]. They can also be used in industries that require temperature regulation in furnaces or reactors with high operating temperatures.
Perhaps the most important fragment is the organic PCMs. Organic PCMs show no change in performance or structure (e.g., phase separation) over numerous phase change cycles. In addition, supercooling phenomena cannot be observed in organic PCMs. The classification of organic PCMs is unique. This division is mainly based on their application contexts. In general, they are classified into two major paraffin and non-paraffin sections.
Paraffins are the most common PCMs. Since this book is about paraffin, to avoid duplication, this section will briefly discuss the chemistry (structure and properties) of paraffin, but their ability as phase change materials will be reviewed in detail.
Non-paraffinic organic PCMs are known to be the most widely used families. In addition to their different properties compared to paraffins, they have very similar properties to each other. Researchers have used various types of ether, fatty acid, alcohol, and glycol as thermal energy storage materials. These materials are generally flammable and less resistant to oxidation [18, 19, 20].
Although non-paraffin organic PCMs have high latent heat capacity, they have weaknesses such as flammability, low thermal conductivity, low combustion temperatures, and transient toxicity. The most important non-paraffinic PCMs are fatty acids, glycols, polyalcohols, and sugar alcohols.
Fatty acids [CH3(CH2)2nCOOH] also have high latent heat. They can be used in combination with paraffin. Fatty acids exhibit high stability to deformation and phase separations for many cycles and also crystallize without supercooling. Their main disadvantages are their costs. They are 2–2.5 times more expensive than technical grade paraffins. Unlike paraffins, fatty acids are of animal or plant origin. Their properties are similar to those of paraffins, but the melting process is slower. On the other hand, they are moderately corrosive as well as generally odorous [21].
A eutectic contains at least two types of phase change materials. Eutectics have exceptional properties. In eutectics, the melting-solidification temperatures are generally lower than the constituents and do not separate into the components through the phase change. Therefore, phase separation and supercooling phenomena are not observed in these materials.
Eutectics typically have a high thermal cycle than salt hydrates. Inorganic-inorganic eutectics are the most common type of them. However, in recent studies, organic-inorganic and organic-organic varieties have received more attention. The major problem of eutectics is their commercialization. Their cost is usually two to three times higher than commercial PCMs [22, 23].
Some of the above PCMs and their thermal properties, which are competitive with paraffins in terms of latent heat capacity, are summarized in Table 1.
Type of PCMs | Materials | Melting point (°C) | Latent heat (kJ/kg) | Density* (kg/m3) | Thermal conductivity (W/mK)** | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Inorganic salt hydrates | LiClO3·3H2O | 8 | 253 | 1720 | [24, 25] | ||
K2HPO4·6H2O | 14 | 109 | [24] | ||||
Mn(NO3)2·6H2O | 25.8 | 126 | 1600 | [14, 25] | |||
CaCl2·6H2O | 29.8 | 191 | 1802 | 1.08 | [24, 25] | ||
Na2CO3·10H2O | 32–34 | 246–267 | [14, 24] | ||||
Na2SO4·10H2O | 32.4 | 248, 254 | 1490 | 0.544 | [14, 26] | ||
Na2HPO4·12H2O | 34–35 | 280 | 1522 | 0.514 | [15, 26] | ||
FeCl3·6H2O | 36–37 | 200, 226 | 1820 | [25, 26] | |||
Na2S2O3·5H2O | 48–49 | 200, 220 | 1600 | 1.46 | [15, 26] | ||
CH3COONa·3H2O | 58 | 226, 265 | 1450 | 1.97 | [15, 26] | ||
Non-paraffinic organic PCMs | Fatty acids | Formic acid | 8.3 | 247 | 1220 | — | [1, 25] |
n-Octanoic acid | 16 | 149 | 910 | 0.148 | [21, 27] | ||
Lauric acid | 43.6 | 184.4 | 867 | [21, 25] | |||
Palmitic acid | 61.3 | 198 | 989 | 0.162 | [21, 27] | ||
Stearic acid | 66.8 | 259 | 965 | 0.172 | [21, 25] | ||
Polyalcohols | Glycerin | 18 | 199 | 1250 | 0.285 | [1, 25] | |
PEG E600 | 22 | 127.2 | 1126 | 0.189 | [27] | ||
PEG E6000 | 66 | 190 | 1212 | [27] | |||
Xylitol | 95 | 236 | 1520 | 0.40 | [28] | ||
Erythritol | 119 | 338 | 1361 | 0.38 | [28] | ||
Others | 2-Pentadecanone | 39 | 241 | [1, 25] | |||
4-Heptadekanon | 41 | 197 | [1, 25] | ||||
D-Lactic acid | 52–54 | 126, 185 | 1220 | [1, 25] | |||
Eutectics | O-O, O-I, I-I *** | CaCl2·6H2O + MgCl2·6H2O | 25 | 127 | 1590 | [27] | |
Mg(NO3)2·6H2O + MgCl2·6H2O | 59 | 144 | 1630 | 0.51 | [27] | ||
Trimethylolethane + urea | 29.8 | 218 | [21] | ||||
CH3COONa·3H2O + Urea (60:40) | 31 | 226 | [27] | ||||
Metals | Mg-Zn (72:28) | 342 | 155 | 2850 | 67 | [16, 17] | |
Al-Mg-Zn (60:34:6) | 450 | 329 | 2380 | [16, 17] | |||
Al-Cu (82:18) | 550 | 318 | 3170 | [16, 17] | |||
Al-Si (87.8:12.2) | 580 | 499 | 2620 | [16, 17] |
Thermophysical properties of some common PCMs with high latent heat.
At 20°C.
Just above melting point (liquid phase).
Inorganic-inorganic (I-I), organic-inorganic (O-I), and organic-organic (O-O).
Paraffin is usually a mixture of straight-chain n-alkanes with the general formula CH3-(CH2)n-CH3. However, in some cases, paraffin is used as another name for alkanes. Gulfam R. et al. in their article have classified paraffins based on the number of carbon atoms as well as their physical states. According to this classification, at room temperature, 1–4 numbers of carbons refer to pure alkanes in a gas phase, 5–17 carbons are liquid paraffins, and more than 17 is known as solid waxes. These waxy solids refer to a mixture of saturated hydrocarbons such as linear, iso, high branched, and cycloalkanes [29]. Generally, paraffin-based PCMs are known as waxy solid paraffins. Commercial paraffins contain mixture of isomers, and therefore, they have a range of melting temperatures.
Paraffins typically have high latent heat capacity. If the length of the chain increases, the melting ranges of waxes also increase, while the latent heat capacity of melting is not subject to any particular order (Table 2).
Materials | Melting point (°C) | Latent heat (kJ/kg) | Density* (kg/m3) | Thermal conductivity** (W/mK) |
---|---|---|---|---|
n-Tetradecane (C14) | 6 | 228–230 | 763 | 0.14 |
n-Pentadecane (C15) | 10 | 205 | 770 | 0.2 |
n-Hexadecane (C16) | 18 | 237 | 770 | 0.2 |
n-Heptadecane (C17) | 22 | 213 | 760 | 0145 |
n-Octadecane (C18) | 28 | 245 | 865 | 0.148 |
n-Nonadecane (C19) | 32 | 222 | 830 | 0.22 |
n-Eicosane (C20) | 37 | 246 | ||
n-Henicosane (C21) | 40 | 200, 213 | 778 | |
n-Docosane (C22) | 44.5 | 249 | 880 | 0.2 |
n-Tricosane (C23) | 47.5 | 232 | ||
n-Tetracosane (C24) | 52 | 255 | ||
n-Pentacosane (C25) | 54 | 238 | ||
n-Hexacosane (C26) | 56.5 | 256 | ||
n-Heptacosane (C27) | 59 | 236 | ||
n-Octacosane (C28) | 64.5 | 253 | ||
n-Nonacosane (C29) | 65 | 240 | ||
n-Triacontane (C30) | 66 | 251 | ||
n-Hentriacontane (C31) | 67 | 242 | ||
n-Dotriacontane (C32) | 69 | 170 | ||
n-Triatriacontane (C33) | 71 | 268 | 880 | 0.2 |
Paraffin C16-C18 | 20–22 | 152 | ||
Paraffin C13-C24 | 22–24 | 189 | 900 | 0.21 |
RT 35 HC | 35 | 240 | 880 | 0.2 |
Paraffin C16-C28 | 42–44 | 189 | 910 | |
Paraffin C20-C33 | 48–50 | 189 | 912 | |
Paraffin C22-C45 | 58–60 | 189 | 920 | 0.2 |
Paraffin C21-C50 | 66–68 | 189 | 930 | |
RT 70 HC | 69–71 | 260 | 880 | 0.2 |
Paraffin natural wax 811 | 82–86 | 85 | 0.72 (solid) | |
Paraffin natural wax 106 | 101–108 | 80 | 0.65 (solid) |
In general, paraffin waxes are safe, reliable, inexpensive, and non-irritating substances, relatively obtained in a wide range of temperatures. As far as economic issues are concerned, most technical grade waxes can be used as PCMs in latent heat storage systems. From the chemical point of view, paraffin waxes are inactive and stable. They exhibit moderate volume changes (10–20%) during melting but have low vapor pressure.
The paraffin-based PCMs usually have high stability for very long crystallization-melting cycles. Table 2 illustrates the thermal properties of some paraffin waxes.
Besides the favorable properties, paraffins also show some undesirable properties such as low thermal conductivity, low melting temperatures, and moderate-high flammability. Some of these disadvantages especially thermal conductivity and flammability can be partially eliminated with the help of additives or paraffin composites.
Measures must be taken to make the solid-liquid PCMs usable. For this purpose, there are several methods for stabilizing the shapes of paraffinic PCMs. Two main methods of them are discussed below.
Encapsulation is generally a worthy method to protect and prevent leakage of PCMs in the liquid state. The capsules consist of two parts, the shell and the core. The core part contains PCMs, whereas the shell part is usually composed of polymeric materials with improved mechanical and thermal properties. The shell part plays the role of protection, heat transfer, and sometimes preventing the release of toxic materials into the environment. In these cases, the shell must have appropriate thermal conductivity. Polymeric shells are also commonly used in encapsulating PPCMs. The choice of core part depends on its application field. The encapsulation of PPCMs is classified into three major parts: bulk or macroencapsulation, microencapsulation, and nano-encapsulation.
Macroencapsulation is one of the simplest ways to encapsulate paraffins. This method has a lower cost than other methods. These products are used in transportation, buildings, solar energy storage systems, and heat exchangers. Sometimes metals are also used as shell materials [30].
In order to increase the efficiency of heat transfer in these types of capsules, either the size of the capsules should be appropriately selected or suitable modifiers should be used. In general, the smaller the diameter of spherical capsules or cylinders, the better the heat transfer. In some cases, metal foams are used to improve the heat transfer properties of paraffin. Aluminum and copper open-cell foams are among the most studied, whereas, in other cases metal oxides, metals and graphite are used [30, 31].
There are various forms of macroencapsulation, such as ball shape, spherical shape, cylindrical, flat sheets, tubular, etc. [31]. Cylindrical tubes are one of the famous forms of macroencapsulated PPCMs. This type of encapsulation is most commonly used in buildings or in solar energy storage systems.
Most of the research carried out on macroencapsulated PPCMs has been focused on improving their thermal conductivity. In one of these studies, different metal oxide nanoparticles such as aluminum oxide, titanium oxide, silicon oxide, and zinc oxide were used to improve the thermal conductivity of paraffin. The results show that titanium oxide performs better under the same conditions than the other oxides [32]. In a similar study, copper oxide nanoparticles were used to improve thermal conductivity and performance of paraffin in solar energy storage systems [33]. In some studies, graphite flakes and expanded graphite have also been used as improving agent for heat conductivity [31].
Hong et al. have used polyethylene terephthalate pipes as a shell for paraffin. In this macroencapsulated system, introduced as cylinder modules, float stone has been added to paraffin as an enhancer of thermal conductivity. In this study, the effect of various parameters such as pipe diameter on heat transfer is investigated, and the results of experimental section are compared with modeling [34].
D. Etansova et al. studied numerical computation and heat transfer modeling of paraffin-embedded stainless steel macroencapsulates for use in solar energy storage systems. In this study, the effect of geometric size and shape on heat transfer was investigated [35].
Microencapsulation of PCMs is another suitable way to improve efficiency and increase thermal conductivity. The size of the microencapsulates usually ranges from 1 μm to 1 mm. Microencapsulation of paraffins is a relatively difficult process, but it performs better than macroencapsulates. This is due to increased contact surface area, shorter discharge and loading times, and improved thermal conductivity. Different materials are used for the shell part of the microencapsulates.
In general, there are two major physical and chemical methods for microencapsulation. The most important physical methods are fluidized bed, spray dryer, centrifuge extruder, and similar processes. However, chemical methods are often based on polymerization. The most important techniques include in situ suspension and emulsion polymerization, interfacial condensation polymerization, and sol-gel method. The latter is sometimes known as the physicochemical method [12, 29].
In the suspension or emulsion polymerization method, the insoluble paraffin is first emulsified or suspended in a polar medium, which is predominantly aqueous phase, by means of high-speed stirring. Surfactants are used to stabilize the particles. Then, lipophilic monomers are added to the medium, and the conditions are prepared for polymerization. This polymer, which is insoluble in both aqueous and paraffin phases, is formed on the outer surface of paraffin particles and finally, after polymerization, encapsulates the paraffin as a shell. The size of these capsules depends on the size of emulsion or suspension of paraffin droplets. Sometimes certain additives are added to the medium to improve some of the polymer properties. For instance, in some studies, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) has been added to the medium with methyl-methacrylate monomer, which is known as one of the most important shell materials. As a result, paraffin has been encapsulated by PVA modified polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). Adding this modifier forms a smooth surface of the microencapsulates [36, 37].
In the interfacial method, soluble monomers in the organic phase with other monomers in the aqueous phase at the droplet interface form a polymer that precipitates on the outer layer of the organic phase.
The sol-gel method is a multi-step procedure. In this method, firstly, an organosilicon compound such as tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) is hydrolyzed in an acidic medium at low pH. The prepared homogenous solution is known as the sol part. Then, the paraffin emulsion is prepared in an aqueous medium and stabilized by special emulsifiers. Actually, these emulsifiers are the first layer of the shell. Subsequently, the sol solution is slowly added to the aqueous phase containing paraffin. The silicon compounds containing OH groups (silanols) form hydrogen bonding with polar side of emulsifiers, and finally the condensation process is carried out on the first layer interface. As a result, paraffin microencapsulates with an inorganic material that is often silica. Silica is one of the significant materials used as a shell for micro and nano-encapsulation. Silica has high thermal conductivity and on the other hand has better mechanical properties than some polymers [38, 39, 40, 41].
As mentioned, most of the materials used to microencapsulation are polymers. The main polymers used as shell materials are polymethyl methacrylate [42], polystyrene [43], urea-formaldehyde [44], urea-melamine-formaldehyde [45], polyaniline [46], etc. However, in many cases, these polymers are used in modified form. For example, polymethyl methacrylate modified with polyvinyl alcohol or with other methacrylates [36, 37], polystyrene copolymers [47], and melamine modified-formaldehyde with methanol [48] can be considered. Table 3 shows the most common polymers used as shell materials.
Core material PPCM | Shell material | Encapsulation method | Particle size (μm) | Recommended application | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
n-Nonadecane | Polymethyl methacrylate | Emulsion | ~ 8 | Smart building and textiles | [42] |
n-Heptadecane | Polystyrene | Emulsion | <2 | General fields | [43] |
Commercial paraffin wax | Polystyrene-co-PMMA | Suspension | ~ 20 | [50] | |
Commercial RT21 | PMMA | Suspension | 20–40 | [36] | |
Commercial RT21 | PMMA modified with PVA | Emulsion | 15 | Building | [37] |
Commercial paraffin wax | Polyaniline | Emulsion | <1 | [46] | |
Commercial paraffin wax | Urea-formaldehyde | In situ | ~ 20 | [44] | |
n-Octadecane, n-nonadecane | Urea-melamine-formaldehyde | In situ | 0.3-0.6 | [45] | |
Commercial paraffin wax | Methanol-melamine-formaldehyde | In situ | 10–30 | Building | [48] |
Commercial paraffin wax | Silica | Sol-gel | 4–10 | Textile | [38] |
Commercial paraffin wax | Silica | Sol-gel | 0.2–0.5 | [39] | |
n-Octadecane | Silica | Sol-gel | 7–16 | [40] | |
n-Pentadecane | Silica | Sol-gel | 4–8 | [41] |
Common materials for microencapsulation of PPCMs.
In addition to the aforementioned microencapsulation approaches, which mainly form polymeric materials as shells, other materials have been also recommended. For example, Singh and colleagues have used silver metal as a shell for paraffin microencapsulates. They first emulsified paraffin into small particles in water and then converted silver salts to metallic silver via an in situ reduction reaction. The average particle size of 329 μm has been reported, and the thermal properties of paraffin have been investigated using DSC and TGA. This type of metal shell microencapsulates has been suggested for use in microelectronics heat management systems [49].
There are several techniques to study the properties of micro and nano-encapsulates. In all studies, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) have been used to determine the thermal properties of PPCMs, such as enthalpy of fusion, melting temperature, weight loss, degradation, etc. Various methods such as XRD, FTIR, and 12C NMR have been used to study the structure and chemical composition of PPCMs. The morphology and diameters of the microcapsules have often been studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and particle size analyzer.
The latter technique is used to study the influence of different variables on the diameter of the microcapsules. One of these variables is the effect of stirring speed on emulsification of paraffin. The results of some studies show that higher stirring speed of emulsification process leads to decrease of the mean size of paraffin droplets [48].
Along with studies on the type of microcapsules, many studies have been conducted to improve thermal conductivity and mechanical properties of microencapsulates. Part of these studies has been dedicated to the effect of graphene and graphene oxide on the improvement of thermal conductivity [51]. L. Zhang et al. investigated the effect of graphene oxide on improving the mechanical properties and leakage protection as well as improving the thermal conductivity of melamine-formaldehyde as shell materials of PPCM microencapsulates [52]. In another part of studies, metals and metal oxides have been used. For example, 10 and 20 wt% of nanomagnetite (Fe3O4) with particle size from 40 to 75 nm increase the thermal conductivity by 48 and 60%, respectively [53]. Also, addition of TiO2 and Al2O3 nanoparticles in a mass fraction of 5% with respect to PPCM at the size range of 30–60 nm increases the thermal conductivity by 40 and 65%, respectively [54].
Nano-encapsulation of PPCM is very similar to the microencapsulation process. However, these types of encapsulation specific techniques, such as ultrasonic, are used to adjust the size of the paraffin droplets to less than 1 micron. In the next step, using the chemical methods mentioned in the microencapsulation method, the shell formation is performed. The most common method for nano-encapsulation is the emulsion polymerization method. However, although limited, interfacial and sol-gel methods have also been reported.
In recent years, research on polymeric matrix-based shape-stable PCMs has gained great importance. Among these types of phase change materials, the paraffin-polymer composite is particularly attractive. The combination of paraffin and polymers as new PCMs with a unique controllable structure can be widely used. This compound remains solid at paraffin melting point and even above without any softening, which is why this type of PCM is called shape-stable. These materials are well formed and have high-energy absorption capacity; hence they can be widely used as stable PCMs with specific properties. On the other hand, some problems such as high cost and difficulty of encapsulating processes could be resolved. Despite these advantages, some common disadvantages such as low thermal stability, low thermal conductivity, and relatively high flammability can restrict their application, particularly in building materials. For this reason, further studies are required to eliminate these disadvantages and improve the properties of these materials. A large part of research is relevant to increase or improve their thermal conductivity, flame retardation, and thermophysical and mechanical properties. Suitable additives are proposed to improve these properties [55, 56].
In some articles, a simple method involves mixing-melting of polyethylene and paraffin, consequently cooling the composite, or using a simple twin extruder to prepare a shape-stable PCM has been reported [57, 58]. When this compound contains sufficient polymer, a homogeneous mixture remains solid at temperatures above the melting point of paraffin and below the polymer melting point. During the preparation of these composites, no chemical reaction or chemical bonds are formed between the polymers and paraffin; therefore these types of compounds are considered as physical mixtures. Shape-stable PPCMs can be used in all previously described areas. Due to the thermoplastic properties of these composites, it is possible to melt and crystalize them for many cycle numbers. Shape-stable PPCMs have several advantages over other PCMs. They are also nontoxic and do not require high-energy consumption during production process.
Inaba and Tu [59] developed a new type of shape-stable PPCM and determined their thermophysical properties. These materials can be used without encapsulation. Feldman et al. [60] prepared plates of shape-stable PCM and determined their high thermal energy storage capacity when used in small chambers. In this type of polymer-based plates, fatty acids are used as PCMs that absorb or releases large amounts of heat during melting and solidification, without altering the composition of the shape-stable PCM. The same researchers determined the role of polymer-PCM sheets in stabilizing the shape and size of the plates when PCM was liquefied. The composition of paraffin and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) has been studied by Lee and Choi [61] and has been introduced as a shape-stable energy storage material. In this study, the amount of energy stored by the mentioned composites is also studied. They also studied the morphology of the high-density polyethylene crystal lattice (HDPE) and its effect on paraffin through scanning electron microscopy and optical microscopy (OM) analysis. On the other hand, they also reported of high thermal energy storage capacity of the prepared paraffin/HDPE-based shape-stable PCMs. Hong and Xin-Shi [62] synthesized polyethylene-paraffin as a shape-stable PCM and characterized its morphology and structure by scanning electron microscopy and its latent heat of melting by differential scanning calorimetry. In this study, a composition consisting of 75% paraffin as a cheap, effective, easy-to-prepare, low-temperature shape-stable PPCM is recommended. In another study, Xiao et al. [63] prepared a shape-stable PCM based on the composition of paraffin with a thermoplastic elastomer (styrene butadiene rubber) and determined its thermal properties. The obtained results show that the stable mixture has the phase changing property and the amount of latent heat of melting stored in this compound is estimated to be 80% of pure paraffin. In another part of this study, the thermal conductivity of PCMs was significantly increased by using graphite.
Despite the above benefits, some disadvantages of shape-stable PPCMs are also reported. One of the major problems is the softening and paraffin leakage phenomenon at elevated temperatures. Seiler partly resolved this problem by adding a different ratio of silica and copolymers to the polyethylene-paraffin composition [64]. Another problem is the low thermal conductivity of the polyethylene-paraffin compound. A lot of research has been conducted to increase this property. A. Sari [65] prepared two types of paraffin with different melting temperatures (42–44°C and 56–58°C) and combined each with HDPE as phase modifier. By addition of 3% expanded graphite, the thermal conductivity of composites increased by 14 and 24%, respectively. Zhang et al. [66] developed new PCMS based on graphite and paraffin with high thermal energy storage capacity and high thermal conductivity. Zhang and Ding et al. [67] have used various additives such as diatomite, Wollastonite, organic modified bentonite, calcium carbonate, and graphite to improve the thermal conductivity of shape-stable PCMs.
It should be noted that metal particles and metal oxides due to their higher thermal conductivity are widely used to improve this property of PCMs. One of the materials that has received more attention in recent years is alumina. Aluminum oxide nanoparticles were added to paraffin to increase its thermal conductivity in both liquid and solid states [57, 68]. This compound coupled with its high thermal conductivity is cheaper and more abundant than other metal oxides.
Another problem with shape-stable PPCMs is their flammability. The effect of various additives has been studied by scientists to eliminate this problem. One of the most effective of these substances is halogenated compounds, but they cause environmental pollution and also release toxic compounds while burning. Researchers have used hybrid and environmentally friendly materials to enhance the durability of flame retardant materials. They studied the effect of clay nanoparticles and organo-modified montmorillonite. Adding these materials not only increases their resistance to burning but also increases their mechanical and thermal properties [69, 70, 71]. In another study, Y. Cai et al. added paraffin, HDPE, and graphite, then added ammonium polyphosphate and zinc borate separately, and studied their resistance to burning. The results show that the addition of ammonium polyphosphate decreases flammability, while zinc borate increases the flammability risk [72]. One of the most interesting and harmless fire retardant compounds is metal hydroxides, especially aluminum hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, or their combination [73, 74, 75].
Some researchers have used other advanced materials as supporting materials to prepare shape-stable PPCMs instead of using the polymer matrix [76, 77, 78]. Rawi et al. used acid-treated multi-walled carbon nanotubes (A-CNT). They reported that adding 5% by weight A-CNT to paraffin decreases 25% of the latent heat while increasing heat conductivity up to 84% [79]. Y. Wan et al. used pinecone biochar as the supporting matrix for PCMs. They prepared shape-stable PCM materials at different ratios and studied the leakage behavior. The optimal ratio is suggested as 60% of the PCM. For the above ratio, no PCM leakage was observed after the melting temperature. The results showed that the thermal conductivity of the same ratio shape-stable PCM increased by 44% compared to the pure PCM [80].
PCMs are available in a wide range of desired temperature ranges. Obviously, a PCM may not have all the properties required to store heat energy as an ideal material. Therefore, it would be more appropriate to use these materials in combination with either other PCMs or various additives to achieve the required features. However, as latent heat storage materials, while using PCMs, the thermodynamic, kinetic, and chemical properties as well as the economic and availability issues of them must be taken into account. Employed PCMs must have the optimum phase change temperature. On the other hand, the higher the latent heat of the material, the lower its physical size. High thermal conductivity also helps to save and release energy. From the physical and kinetic point of view, the phase stability of PCMs during melting and crystallization contributes to optimum thermal energy storage. Their high density also enables high storage at smaller material sizes. During phase change, smaller volume changes and lower vapor pressures are appropriate for continuous applications.
H. Nazir et al. in their review article [12] have explained the criteria for selection of PCMs as a pyramid. In this pyramid, at the bottom, known as the fundamentals, there are several items such as cost, regularity compliance, and safety. In the next section, the thermophysical properties such as energy storage capacity and runtime are discussed. In the upper section, reliability and operating environment consist of degradation, cycle life, shelf life, and thermal limits are reflected. Finally, at the top section of pyramid, user perception and convenience are located. These criteria help us to find a proper PCM for certain application fields.
These criteria may also be extended to paraffinic PCMs. Nowadays, paraffinic PCMs (PPCMs) are widely used as thermal energy storage materials, including solar energy storage systems, food industries, medical fields, electrical equipment protection, vehicles, buildings, automotive industries, etc. [24, 29, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85].
Generally, application fields of PPCMs can be considered in two main sections: thermal protection and energy storage purposes. The major difference between these two areas of application is in thermal conductivity of the PPCMs.
Protection and transportation of temperature-sensitive materials is one the mentioned area. Sometimes a certain temperature is required to transport sensitive medicines, medical equipment, food, etc. In all cases, using of PPCMs would be appropriate as they can regulate and stabilize the temperature over a given range. Similarly, in sensitive electrical equipment, these materials are also essential to prevent the maximum operating temperature. On the other hand, they can be used to prevent possible engine damage at high temperatures [86, 87].
One of the studies related to these issues is the use of paraffin containing heavy alkanes to protect electronic devices against overheating. In this study, paraffin has been used as a protective coating for the resistor chip, and its effect on cooling of the devices has been investigated. Experimental results show that paraffin coating increases the relative duration of overheating by 50 to 150% over the temperature range of 110–140°C [88]. In another study, a mixture of paraffin and polypropylene has been used as an overheating protector in solar thermal collectors [89].
However, energy storage purposes are the most important part of PPCM application. In general, PCMs act as passive elements and therefore do not require any additional energy source. Most studies on the application of energy storage properties of PPCMs have been confined to buildings, textiles, and solar systems. In the following, building applications will be further attended.
One of the main drawbacks of lightweight building materials is their low thermal storage capacity, which results in extensive temperature fluctuations as a result of intense heating and cooling. Therefore, PPCMs have been used in buildings due to their ability to regulate and stabilize indoor temperatures at higher or lower outdoor temperatures [90].
Generally, PPCMs in buildings are used as thermal energy storage at daytime peak temperature, and they released the stored energy at night when temperatures are low. The result of this application is to set the comfort condition for a circadian period. This application minimizes the amount of energy consumed for cooling during the day and warming up at night.
In contrast, in order to stabilize the ambient conditions at low temperatures, some special PCMs are also used in air conditioner systems. In this case, cool air is stored during the night and released into the warm hours of the day.
Y. Cui et al. [91] in a review article categorized PPCM application methods based on their location of use such as PCMs in walls, floor heating systems, ceiling boards, air-based solar heating systems, free cooling systems (with ventilation systems), and PCM shutter (in windows). Both types of encapsulation and shape-stable PPCMs could be used in all of the above classification of building applications. Sometimes these materials can be added directly to concrete, gypsum, etc. [90, 92, 93, 94, 95].
In order to increase the performance of PPCMs in this application field, great deals of studies have also been done on improving their thermal conductivity. On the other hand, extensive research into safety issues has been done to reduce the flammability of PPCMs by adding flame retardants to these materials.
Overall, these studies cover the importance of using PPCMs in heating and cooling as well as indicate the general characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of these materials used for thermal storage in buildings.
It is clear that at this time, where renewable energy is particularly important, the use of PPCMs is on the rise. As it has been mentioned, PPCMs have many application fields due to their advantages. For example, they can be used in the construction, pharmaceutical and medical industries, textiles, automobiles, solar power systems, transportation, thermal batteries, heat exchangers, and so on.
This chapter of the book has attempted to focus more on how to use paraffins. For this reason, two methods, namely, encapsulation and shape-constant, have been widely discussed. In addition, improving their weak properties such as thermal conductivity and flammability has also been studied. Depending on the benefits of paraffins, new applications are suggested every day. Extensive studies are underway on other new applications in recent years.
If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\nIMPORTANT: You must be a member or grantee of the listed funders in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds. Do not attempt to contact the funders if this is not the case.
",metaTitle:"List of Funders by Country",metaDescription:"If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/open-access-funding-funders-list",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Book Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nMonographs Only
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nMonographs Only
\\n\\nLITHUANIA
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nSWITZERLAND
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nMonographs Only
\n\n\n\nLITHUANIA
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nSWITZERLAND
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n