Biometric means Demodex canis found in the literature.
\r\n\t* Swarm-based and market-based algorithms for controlling collectives of robots.
\r\n\t* Control and task allocation with real restrictions like, for example, temporal constrains (deadlines) or communication restrictions.
\r\n\t* Motion control algorithms, including formation and multi-robot obstacle avoidance.
\r\n\t* New real applications of multi-robots systems to fill the gap between simulations and real robots.
High-speed photodiodes are useful devices for optical-telecommunication systems and scientific applications. A uni-traveling carrier photodiode (UTC-PD), has extremely wide band performance of over 300 GHz and used for many high-frequency or high-speed applications. Signal transmission using optical fibers, which has several advantages such as its wide band transmission and low transmission loss, is an indispensable technology that forms the foundation of the Internet. Optical fibers also exhibit low thermal conductance and are capable of electrical isolation. These features are useful for interfacing between low-temperature and room-temperature electronics. Superconducting devices and circuits are attractive for high-speed, low-power, and quantum mechanical operations.
However, such devices and circuits have to be cooled below the critical temperatures of superconducting materials, Tc. For high-temperature superconducting materials such as YBCO, the operating temperature is around that of liquid nitrogen, 77 K, and for low-temperature metal-based superconducting materials, such as Nb and NbN, the operating temperature is around that of liquid helium, 4 K. Input/output links are one of the bottle necks preventing practical application of superconducting devices and circuits. In particular, devices and circuits using low-temperature superconductors exhibit serious problems because the high-frequency electrical I/O cables consume a large amount of cooling power. However, cooling power, especially at around 4 K and below, is quite small, typically less than 1 W, though the input AC power is as large as several KW. The amount of AC input power can be reduced by reducing the cooling power. Our goal is to use a compact cryocooler. Such a cryocooler has limited cooling capability; however, it is enough for most applications of superconducting devices due to their low power requirements. Optical I/O has potential to overcome the problem by using optical fibers and photo devices such as photodiodes. A UTC-PD seems to be the most attractive device because of its high-speed performance and is required to operate at low temperatures for application in superconducting systems. In this chapter, we describe UTC-PD performance at low temperatures and its applications in superconducting systems.
We investigated the performance of a UTC-PD chip and modules at low temperature, which had not been done previously. The response at temperatures as low as 4 K was characterized for a commercially available standard UTC-PD module and a customized one we developed for superconducting devices. To apply the UTC-PD modules into various superconducting analog devices and systems using superconducting microchips (ICs) of digital and analog/digital circuits, the UTC-PD modules should be located near the superconducting ICs to maintain signal integrity. Ferromagnetic materials, which are widely used in many optical components, are used in the standard UTC-PD module. In general, superconducting devices and microchips, such as single flux quantum (SFQ) circuits and Josephson voltage standards (JVS), are strongly affected by the remnant magnetic field. Therefore, these materials must not be used near the chips. Hence, we developed a UTC-PD module using a customized package and a fiber lens technique for superconducting devices.
We studied the characteristics of a UTC-PD chip at low temperatures. The energy band diagram of a UTC-PD chip is illustrated in Fig. 1. The electrons generated by incoming optical irradiation in the InGaAs absorption layer are transported at high-speed to the InP wideband-depleted and n+InP layers with drift by electrical field. In principle, UTC-PD uses the electrons as minority carriers for transporting current, which determines the operating speed. On the other hand, holes are not important for operating speed because those in the InGaAs layer are majority carriers and respond with dielectric relaxation time. This situation differs from a commonly used pin photo diode (pin-PD) using electrons and holes as minority carriers in the depletion layer. The features of a UTC-PD chip enable it to respond faster than a commonly used pin-PD chip. The optical absorption layer consists of
Band diagram of uni-traveling carrier photodiode (UTC-PD).
In1-xGaxAs (x=0.47). The temperature dependence of the absorption coefficient vs. photon energy of the InGaAs can be seen in the handbook series on semiconductor parameters editted by Goldberg Yu.A. and N.M. Schmidt. The photon energy, at which the absorption is decreased, is critical for low-temperature performance. The transition point of the photon energy was plotted based on the handbook, as shown in Fig. 2. The wavelength, λ=hc/E, and the energy corresponding to the photon energy, E, are also plotted in this figure. Basically, a UTC-PD chip does not seem to have sensitivity at a wavelength of 1550 nm to optical irradiation at cryogenic temperature between 4 – 77 K. However, we assume that they must have sensitivity even at cryogenic temperature because the absorption layer, the InGaAs layer, is p-doped, blurring the band edge of the conduction band.
Gap energy and its corresponding wavelength dependence as function of temperature for In1-xGaxAs (x=0.47) used as absorption layer in UTC-PD.
Figure 3 shows an illustration of two types of UTC-PD modules, standard and customized. The photo diode chips have the same specifications as follows, over 60-GHz band width, negative type output, optical acceptance area of 100 μm2, incident light irradiated to the edge of the chip, which is chemically etched along the facet of the InP substrate, and facet angle of 55 degrees, making the incident angle 35 degrees to the facet. Hence, the incident light comes from the InP substrate to the absorption layer. The standard module has two lenses, collimation and focus, between the optical fiber and the UTC-PD chip to effectively introduce the light, as shown in Fig. 3(a). In this structure, ferromagnetic cobalt material is commonly used to fix the lenses in the package. For most applications of superconducting electronics, however, remnant magnetism must be avoided for use near superconducting ICs. Therefore, an optical fiber lens technique, in which the optical fiber is rounded at the edge, is used in the customized UTC-PD module instead of normal optical lenses, as shown in Fig. 3(b). The working distance between the fiber lens and chip is around 80 μm in the customized module.
Structures of (a) standard UTC-PD module, and (b) non-magnetic UTC-PD module using fiber lens specialized for superconducting device.
The beam size is 8 μm in 1/e2 reduction of the intensity, and the tolerance of the beam position for optical coupling is shown in Fig.4. Optical output reduction was 50% for a beam position movement of 3 μm from the ideal central position. The optical beam was irradiated from the edge of the UTC-PD chip, which corresponds to an incident angle of 35 degrees to the facet of the InP substrate. One of the important problems with our customized module is that the optical axis is misaligned, when the module is cooled to cryogenic temperature. The optical sensitivity of our customized UTC-PD module at around 4 K was reduced to less than one tenth of that at 300 K in the initial version, which was developed in the beginning
Intensity dependence of beam on offset distance from ideal central position.
of the customized modules. On the other hand, misalignment did not occur for the standard one. The cause of the misalignment was due to the bending of the optical fiber. The problem was finally resolved by shortening the free space of the fiber without ferrule and by uniformly gluing the fiber to the ferrule with epoxy resin, as shown in Fig. 5(a). Figure 5(b) is a photograph of the entire module, which has a coaxial V-connector for a wide-band electrical output and DC terminals.
Photographs of customized UTC-PD; (a) UTC-PD chip and fiber lens and (b) entire module.
The equivalent circuit of a negative type UTC-PD module is shown in Fig. 6. In the negative type, the UTC-PD module is usually negatively biased to accelerate electron drift in the depletion layer, increasing the operating speed. The output signal is inverted to the input signal. A termination resistor of 50 Ω for impedance matching is integrated at the output of the chip.
Equivalent circuit of negative-type UTC-PD module.
The current versus voltage (I-V) characteristics of our customized UTC-PD module was measured at operating temperatures from 4 to 300 K, as shown in Fig. 7. No electrical and mechanical damage was observed from the I-V characteristics in our experiments when the UTC-PD module was cooled using a cryocooler at a cooling rate of around 1 degree/minute. Since the gap energy of the InGaAs increased and thermal energy decreased, the forward voltage, at which the current rapidly increased, somewhat increased. The forward voltage increased around 0.16 V by cooling from 300 K to 4 K. The forward current increased sharply at this forward voltage as the operating temperature decreased.
Dependence of optical sensitivity on temperature was measured for both modules, as shown in Fig. 8. The optical wave length was 1550 nm and the input optical power was 0.7 W. Both the UTC-PD modules were biased at -2 V, and the output voltage was measured with a digital voltmeter. The output voltage decreased as the temperature decreased. The output voltage of the standard UTC-PD module was larger than that of customized UTC-PD module over the entire temperature range. The temperature dependences, however, showed relatively similar changes between the two modules. The difference in the results for the two modules was probably due to the difference in the coupling efficiency between the lens and the chip. The output voltage of the customized module is still large enough. We can, therefore, conclude that the customized module using a fiber lens is useful for most applications that require a non-magnetic environment, such as those for superconducting devices.
Current versus voltage (I-V) curves at temperatures between 6 and 294 K.
The high-frequency response of a UTC-PD module at low temperature is important. We evaluated this response using a high-speed optical measurement system. We needed several electronic and optical instruments to produce an optical signal modulated with various high-speed bit pattern signals. The measurement system and the high-speed response of our customized UTC-PD module are discussed in this section. The cryocooling system for cooling the customized UTC-PD module and superconducting devices is discussed in the next section.
Temperature dependence of sensitivity of standard and customized UTC-PD modules.
Figure 9 shows a block diagram of the optical measurement system, which can output 47-Gbps high-speed optical signals. The main clock signal is generated with a signal generator (Anritsu MG3695B: 2 - 50 GHz), and the pulse pattern is generated with a 4-channel pulse pattern generator (Anritsu MP1758A: 10 MHz - 12.5GHz) and serialized with a multiplexer (MUX), which enables us to generate a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) pulse pattern of up to 47 GHz. The MUX and pulse pattern generator (PPG) were synchronized and the timing of the digital data from the PPG to the clock signal in the MUX was adjusted with delay lines. An electrical/optical (E/O) converter with a MUX (Anritsu MP1806A), which includes a laser diode, an optical modulator with an automatic bias controller (ABC), generated arbitrary optical digital pattern signals with a modulation depth of almost 100%. The optical signal was amplified with an erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) and the output power was adjusted with a power controller and attenuator (Agilent 8163B). The controlled output signal was applied to the customized UTC-PD module, which converted the optical signal to an electrical signal at around 4 K. The electrical output was connected to a cryoprobe, which was also cooled at around 4 K, through a 1.19-mmϕ copper coaxial cable of 230 mm in length.
The high-speed performance of the customized UTC-PD module cooled around 4 K was measured and confirmed for up to a 40-Gbps NRZ signal. The customized UTC-PD module was set on the 2nd stage in the cryocooling system, which is discussed in Section 4.1. Figures 10(a) and (b) show typical eye diagrams of the input optical signal and the output electrical signal observed with a sampling oscilloscope (Agilent 86100C). The modulation depth was automatically adjusted to almost 100%. The input signal was a pseudo random bit stream (PRBS) signal with a data length of 231-1. A block diagram of the measurement system is shown in Fig. 9. The output line includes a loss of 2.8 dB at 40 GHz in a 510-mm-long coaxial cable in the cooling system.
Setup of optical measurement system that can produce optical digital signal at data rate of up to 47 Gbps
The amplitude of the output signal was 90 mV in a peak-to-peak voltage for an input optical signal power of 10 mW at a wavelength of 1550 nm. We evaluated the linearity for the amplitude of the output voltage to the optical input signal power. Since there was no difference observed for the data length between 231-1 and 27-1 of the PRBS signals, a data length of 27-1 was used to save time. Figure 11 shows the optical input power versus the output voltage for 10, 20, and 40-Gbps PRBS data input, resulting in good linearity over the input optical power of 10 mW. In the above evaluation, the customized UTC-PD module
Eye patterns of (a) optical output signal of optical measurement system for 31-stage pseudo random bit stream (PRBS) digital signal and (b) electrical output signal of customized UTC-PD module cooled at 5 K.
was DC biased at -2 V, which is definitely required for high-speed performance at room temperature. It should be noted that the customized UTC-PD module operated at high speed even at zero DC bias voltage, which may be due to the increment of the built-in electric field in the absorption and depletion layers.
Electrical output voltages as function of optical input power of customized UTC-PD module cooled at 5 K for 10, 20, and 40-Gbps PRBS data input.
The optical link of the input signal between semiconducting devices operating at room temperature and superconducting devices at cryogenic temperature has several advantages. The thermal conductivity of optical fibers is extreamly small compared with metal-based electric links, such as coaxial and flexible film cables. The themal conductivity of quatz, which is a base material in a single-mode opitical fiber, is 1.4 W/m/K; therefore, the thermal conductivity of a single-mode optical fiber having a crad diameter of 125 μm and a length of 1 m is as small as 5.2 x 10-6 W. The signal loss is also extremely small, e.g., < 0.2 dB/km for a wavelength of 1550 nm and < 0.4 dB/km for 1310 nm. The signal loss of the optical fiber is negligible for our applications such as analogue to digital converters (ADC) using SFQ circuits, which require short distance transmission. It is small enough even if we use a longer, e.g., 1 km, optical fiber. The signal loss seems to be rather large at optical connectors and other parts.
Single flux quantum circuits have been investigated for superconducting digital and analog/digital applications. In most of these investigations, superconducting IC chips were cooled by directly immersing them in liquid helium. It is convenient to cool IC chips to cryogenic temperature for laboratory use due to the immediate cooling time. Many superconducting systems, however, require a cryocooler for practical applications. Even for laboratory use, a cooling system using a cryocooler is desirable for system-level tests and high-speed or high-frequency tests because the signal loss and distortion between room temperature and cryogenic temperature may especially cause problems and restrict experiments. A cryocooling system using a two-stage 4-K Gifford MacMahon (GM) cryocooler was developed at the international Superconductivity Technology Center (ISTEC) for demonstrating superconducting digital and analog ICs based on the Nb/AlOx/Nb Josephson junctions. A photograph and illustration of the system is shown in Fig. 12. The 2nd cold stage, 4-K stage, including a superconducting chip, a cryoprobe, and our customized UTC-PD module is surrounded with a thermal shield with a temperature of 50 K using the 1st cold stage of the cooler. Cryogenic amplifiers are attached to the thermal shied. The cryocooler (RDK-408D) and the compressor (CSA-71A) are from Sumitomo heavy industries Ltd. The cooling capacity is 1 W at 4.2 K for the 2nd cold stage and 60 W at 50 K for the 1st cold stage. The total input AC power of the cooler is 6.5 kW. The system has twenty-four high-frequency I/O terminals with V-connectors and two optical input ports using the customized UTC-PD module. The 1st cold stage of the cooler, the 50-K stage, can effectively be used for cooling the cryogenic amplifiers, thermal shied, and thermal anchor.
Cryocooling system for supeconducting devices. Left is photograph of system and right is cross-sectional illustration.
Figure 13 shows a photograph of the 2nd stage arrangement with a cryoprobe and two customized UTC-PD modules placed on the sub 2nd cold stage located in a short distance around 100 mm from the SFQ multi-chip module (MCM) on the main 2nd stage, as shown in Figs. 12 and 13; therefore, the temperature was a little high, between 5-6 K. We developed MCM technology with flip-chip bonding and a cryoprobe for superconducting systems, which enable us to conduct high-speed measurements of superconducting circuits. The SFQ chips mounted on the MCM substrate including the cryoprobe was attached to the main 2nd stage, which was magnetically shielded with a two-folded permalloy enclosure. However, the customized UTC-PD module was placed outside the magnetic shield. The main 4-K stage was cooled with thermal conduction through a thermal link made of silver and the magnetic shield from the 2nd cold head of the cryocooler. The vibration of the temperature at the main 4-K stage was then stabilized to as low as 10 mK, which ensured the stable operation of SFQ circuits.
Arrangement of 4-K cold stages in cooling system; superconducting IC chip with multi-chip module (MCM) and cryoprobe surrounded by double magnetic shield (right side; the lids are removed to show the contents) on main cold stage, and customized UTC-PD module operating at 4 K for introducing high-frequency optical signal into cryostat through optical fiber was placed on sub-cold stage.
We designed an SFQ circuit chip, which includes an input interface between the customized UTC-PD module and SFQ circuit. Figures 14 (a) and (b) show an equivalent circuit and a microphotograph of the PD/SFQ converter. The chip was fabricated with the ISTEC standard process 3 (STP3) using Nb/AlOx/Nb Josephson junctions with a current density of 10 kA/cm2. The input signal was magnetically coupled to the SFQ circuit, making it possible to accept both polarities of the input signal by changing the direction of the coupling in the transformer. The negative polarity signal from the customized UTC-PD module was then able to be received directly without any offset current and inverter by the PD/SFQ converter shown in Fig. 14. Josephson junctions, J1 and J2, and inductances, L1 and L2, construct a superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID). When the input signal, data “1”, is applied, the SQUID stores the single flux quantum in the superconducting loop, producing clockwise circulating current. By applying the clock pulse, the SFQ pulse is output by switching J2 and J3. When data “0” is applied, no SFQ pulse is output. In this case, the SFQ pulse produced by the clock pulse is escaped from J5. The converter can then produce SFQ pulses from the normal NRZ signal from the customized UTC-PD module, where the SFQ pulse
acts as the quantized information medium in SFQ circuits.
UTC-PD to single flux quantum (SFQ) converter; (a) equivalent circuit and (b) microphotograph.
The SFQ circuit chip for testing the optical input link is composed of the PD/SFQ convertor, a 1-2 demultiplexer (DEMUX), and two NRZ superconducting voltage drivers (SVDs), as shown in Fig. 15. Signal flux quantum pulses have a narrow width (~2 ps) and a low signal level (~1 mV), and the circuit can be operated faster than that in semiconductor devices. The SFQ output data of the PD/SFQ is alternately output to the two outputs with the 1:2 DEMUX in parallel to reduce the output data rate to half the input data rate. Then, the SFQ pulse signal is converted to an NRZ signal by the SVDs.
Figure 16 shows an NRZ SQUID voltage driver (NRZ SVD). This NRZ SVD consists of a splitter (SPL), which divides a single SFQ signal into 16 splitter outputs, RS flip-flops (RSFFs), each of which stores an SFQ signal, and 16 serially connected SQUIDs, which amplify the SFQ signal stored in the RSFF to 2-mV NRZ data streams up to 23.5 GHz. There are a total of 318 junctions, and the bias current is 43 mA. The 5 x 5 mm SFQ chip was flip-chip bonded on a 16 mm x 16 mm MCM carrier with InSn bumps, as shown in Fig. 17(a).
Both the chip and carrier are made of the same Si substrate, which prevents stress due to the difference in thermal expansion coefficients when they are cooled. Figure 17 (b) shows InSn bumps for the signal and ground, in which the signal bump was connected to a 50 Ω micro-strip line (MSL) in the chip. The height of the bump was as small as 8 μm, as shown in Fig. 17(c), which enabled us to transmit high-frequency signals over 100 GHz. The MCM carrier was mounted on the 4-K main base plate of the cryoprobe, as shown in Fig. 13. Copper-molybdenum alloy was chosen as the base plate material to decrease the difference in the thermal expansion coefficient. The cryoprobe was adjusted to ensure contact of the chip pads. The optical link was tested using the test circuit at a high-speed data rate.
Block diagram and microphotograph of SFQ test chip for optical input.
Non-return-to-zero (NRZ) superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) voltage driver; (a) block diagram and (b) microphotograph.
Photographs of, (a) flip-chip bonded MCM carrier and superconducting micro-chip, (b) flip-chip bumps on chip, and (c) cross sectional view of flip-chip bonded bump.
The output signals of the SVDs are further amplified by GaAs cryogenic amplifiers mounted on the 1st stage of the cryocooling system, as shown in Fig. 12. The cryogenic amplifier, SHF105C, was developed by SHF communication Technology AG originally for SFQ circuits in collaboration with ISTEC. The output voltage of the SVDs was amplified to around 50 mV with the cryogenic amplifiers, which have a gain of around 30 dB at 23 K and a typical bandwidth of 30 GHz. The optical digital data of up to 47 Gbps was applied to the customized UTC-PD module, and the converted electrical signal was applied to the test chip through a Cu coaxial flexible cable of 1.19 mm in diameter and length of 230 mm. Figure 18 shows the experimental results for the input data rate of 47-Gbps data; (a) the outputs of the two SVDs for patterned digital data and (b) eye pattern for PRBS of 231 -1. We can clearly see an open eye pattern. The bit error rate (BER) was measured with an error detector (Advantest D3286). Figure 19 shows the dependences of the BER for PRBS of 27-1, (a) on the bias current of the PD/SFQ converter and (b) on the input optical power. Sufficiently small BER of less than 10-12 at 40 Gbit/s in the output was obtained with the test circuit for the optical input signal through the customized UTC-PD module as an O/E converter.
Experimental results of optical input at data rate of 47 Gbps using SFQ test chip; (a) 23.5-Gbps digital output waveforms of two SQUID drivers and (b) eye pattern of one output for PRBS data input.
Bit error rate (BER) as function of (a) bias current of PD-SFQ converter and (b) optical input power for UTC-PD module.
Josephson voltage standards (JVS) have been used as a DC voltage standard since 1990 because of their quantum mechanical accuracy. These standards consist of an under-damped superconductor-insulator-superconductor (SIS) junction array, which is DC biased and radiated with microwave. The voltage is determined with the microwave frequency and physical constant, which ensure its quantum mechanical accuracy. Although, JVS are suitable for DC voltage standards, they cannot be applicable to AC voltage standards. Because JVS use the hysteresis of SIS junctions, a proper procedure for applying the DC bias and microwaves and time to fix to the desired voltage is required.
The pulse-driven Josephson arbitrary waveform synthesizer (PD-JVS) is a device for producing AC voltage standard, which is one of AC JVS. This device is also called as Josephson arbitrary waveform synthesizer (JAWS). The principle is based on a 1-bit sigma delta digital-to-analog converter. The basic idea is that the amplitude of a signal waveform is represented as a pulse density. The pulse pattern is properly calculated for desired waveform and generated with a pulse pattern generator, which is applied to a JAWS chip. The JAWS chip consists of over-damped Josephson junction arrays (JJAs), which are capable of producing quantized voltage pulses. High-speed pulses, of which a pattern is calculated for producing the desired waveform, is generated in room-temperature electronics, and the optical signal is transferred to an electrical signal with the customized UTC-PD module at cryogenic temperature, which enables us to apply the high-speed signal to the SFQ chip with extremely low noise as well as low signal losses and distortions. The operation of the synthesizer was demonstrated by the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) and ISTEC using the cooling system with the customized UTC-PD module. We have to use junctions without hysteresis for the JAWS. The JAWS chips were fabricated in two superconducting microchip processes; one with Nb/AlOx/Al/AlOx/Nb Josephson junctions, which are superconductor-insulator-normal metal-superconductor (SINS) junctions, developed by ISTEC, and the other with NbN/TiNx/NbN junctions, which are superconductor-normal metal-superconductor (SNS) junctions, developed by AIST. Figure 20 shows an IC chip fabricated with the Nb/AlOx/Al/AlOx/Nb junctions.
The chip consists of an array of 100 serially connected junctions, which can increase the output voltage. The array was arranged in the center of a 50 Ω coplanar waveguide input line in the chip. The 5 x 5 mm chip was flip-chip bonded on the MCM carrier, in the same manner as SFQ chips. PD-JVS chips were also fabricated with the NbN/TiNx/NbN junctions, in which 480 junctions were serially connected to increase the output voltage. The chip using the NbN junctions can operate at higher temperatures than that using the Nb junctions, which enable us to use a 10-K cryocooler.
Microphotograph of pulse-driven Josephson arbitrary waveform synthesizer (PD-JVS) chip fabricated with Nb/AlOx/Al/AlOx/Nb junction technology.
The JAWS can produce any waveform by applying a properly calculated pulse pattern. Figure 21 shows examples of synthesized waveforms; (a) triangular, (b) rectangular, and (c) saw-tooth. The left charts show the frequency spectrum and the right ones show generated waveforms. A high-precision sine wave was generated with a JAWS chips fabricated with both Nb/AlOx/Al/AlOx/Nb and NbN/TiNx/NbN Josephson junctions. Figure 22 shows the frequency spectrum of a 152.6-kHz sine wave with the PD-JVS using the Nb junctions. The sampling frequency was 10 GHz and the output voltage of 1.24 mV with spurious free dynamic range (SFDR) of -75 dBc was obtained from the chip. Figure 23 shows the frequency spectrum of a 59.6-Hz sine wave generated with the 480 NbN-SNS junctions, of which the frequency is important because it is around the commercial (mains) frequencies of 50 and 60 Hz. The sampling frequency was 8 GHz and a 134,217,728-bit-long (=227 bit) binary pulse pattern was used for generating the 59.6-Hz sine wave. A sine wave was clearly observed with both PD-JVS chips. However, the SFDR was limited to -67 dBc due to odd harmonics of 50 Hz. The SFDR omitting these harmonics was as low as -80 dBc. The reduction of signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) due to the odd harmonics of 50 Hz seemed to be affected by noise from the ground loops. The ground noise could be avoided by isolating the grounds in the I/Os.
Examples of frequency spectrum and waveforms synthesized using PD-JVS; (a) triangular, (b) rectangular, and (c) saw-tooth.
Frequency spectrum of synthesized sine wave of 152.6 KHz with the PD-JVS using Nb/AlOx/Al/AlOx/Nb junctions.
Frequency spectrum of synthesized sine wave of 59.6 KHz with the PD-JVS using NbN/TiNx/NbN Josephson junctions.
We studied the performance of a standard UTC-PD module at low temperature and developed a customized module for superconducting devices. In the customized module, an optical fiber lens was used to avoid using ferromagnetic material for fixing the optical lens. The performance of the customized UTC-PD modules at cryogenic temperature as low as 4 K was confirmed experimentally for the first time. High-speed operation of up to 40 Gbps was confirmed using a cryocooling system we developed for superconducting circuits, especially SFQ circuits. This cryocooling system uses a 4-K GM cryocooler and worked well for evaluating our customized UTC-PD module and for demonstrating superconducting circuits with high-speed data rate using an optical input link with our customized UTC-PD module and optical fibers. First, a basic SFQ digital circuit, which has a PD-SFQ converter with the output signal from the UTC-PD module for the input link, a 1-2 DEMUX, two sets of driver circuits for the output links, operated at a data rate of up to 47 GHz. Second, the performance of the PD-JVS with an optical input link was successfully demonstrated using the same cryocooling system at AIST in collaboration with ISTEC.
We would like to thank Tadao Ishibashi of NTT Electronics Ltd., and Takeshi Konno, Koichiro Uekusa, and Masayuki Kawabata of Advantest Lab. Ltd. for their contributions to the development of the UTC-PD for superconducting devices and their useful comments, and express our gratitude to Nobuhisa Kaneko, Chiharu Urano, Michitaka Maruyama for giving the result of a pulse-driven AC voltage standard. We also would like to thank Yoshiji Hashimoto for his many of contributions to this work, Michiyo Isaka and the members of ISTEC-SRL for fabricating the IC chips, and Mayumi Katsume for assembling the MCMs. We also express our gratitude to Seizo Akasaka of Kawashima Manufacturing Co, Ltd. for developing the MCM package and connector. The National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology partially contributed to the circuit fabrication. This work was partially supported by the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) as Development of Next-Generation High-Efficiency Network Device Project. The National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) partially contributed to the circuit fabrication.
Canine demodicosis is an inflammatory disease caused by a species of the genus Demodex frequently diagnosed in veterinary clinical routine [1, 2, 3] and is considered the most prevalent parasitic dermatopathy [4]. The genus Demodex belongs to the order Acarina, family Demodecidae, and Demodex canis is the species of greatest occurrence in dogs [5]. This relationship is considered commensal. The mites embed themselves in hair follicles, sebaceous ducts, and sebaceous glands, where they feed on cells, sebaceous material and epidermal debris [4, 6].
\nThe clinical presentation of demodicosis occurs according to the extent of the affected area and may manifest in localised or generalised forms. These forms also differ among themselves in terms of disease progression, prognosis and therapeutic measures adopted [7].
\nPeri-folliculitis, mural folliculitis and furunculosis are histopathological findings observed, with demodicosis in both clinical forms of the disease due to the action of the mite inside the hair follicles [8]. However, the severity of the lesions may vary depending on the presence and extent of secondary bacterial infection, characterised by pyoderma [9, 10].
\nUntil now, it has not been fully understood why D. canis, a mite that is proven to be present in the canine skin [6], triggers demodicosis. In addition, the fact that some dogs develop the most severe form of the disease while others limit themselves to localised lesions only is still being elucidated.
\nSeveral factors such as genetic, structural and biochemical alterations of the skin, immunological disorders, hormonal status, race, age, fur length, endoparasitism, and debilitating disease have been considered as predisposing to the disease [11]. In addition, it is possible for mites to induce local immunosuppression, stimulating the onset of their proliferation [12]. Despite the multifactorial nature, studies suggest the dysfunctions of patients with clinical disease may be directly associated with the pathogenesis of demodicosis [7, 13, 14, 15].
\nThe number of parasites in dogs seems to be lower in relation to humans [16]. This is likely because they are distributed throughout the fur and not concentrated in certain areas, as in the human face [6, 17]. Regarding the clinical manifestations of canine demodicosis, the number of mites on the skin of dogs determines the occurrence of clinical signs, but does not define the severity of the lesions [16].
\nA number of studies involving the immunopathogenic mechanisms of demodicosis have been performed and although there is no evidence of any abnormalities related to nonspecific or humoral immunity, functional immunodeficiency was observed in T lymphocytes [7, 18]. Furthermore, the role of proinflammatory and immunosuppressive cytokines in modulating the immune response of demodicosis has been investigated and the results demonstrate the active participation of these proteins in recruitment and activation, as well as the suppression, of host immune system cells [11, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26].
\nThis study reviews the morphophylogenetic characterisation of the Demodex canis mite, discusses the clinical and pathological features that appear in dogs with demodicosis in order to understand the effects of the action of D. canis on the skin of dogs with localised and generalised demodicosis, as well as discusses the participation of the immune system, especially cytokine activity, in the development of clinical disease.
\nFor understanding the main hypotheses related to the development of canine demodicosis, classical and modern data on the pathogenesis of the disease were gathered through systematic review. The articles were obtained from bibliographic databases. We were preferred to search for free terms, without the use of controlled vocabulary, to guarantee the recovery of most published works within the area of interest. Original articles related to mite Epidemiology, Morphology, Physiology and Pathogenesis; and Immunology, Clinical, Pathology and Genetics of sick dog were used to support this approach. Separate terms have been disregarded because they are not the purpose of the review. In addition, book chapters related to parasitological dermatopathies were used.
\n\nDemodex canis [27], genus Demodex, order Acarina, family Demodecidae, is a mite described as inhabiting commensal in hair follicles, sebaceous ducts and sebaceous glands of dogs, found in small amounts in healthy animals [28, 29]. According to Scott et al. [7], the transmission of this mite occurs by direct contact of the mother with the neonates during the first 3 days of breast-feeding.
\nIn its life cycle, the mite D. canis presents as an egg, larvae, protonymph, nymph, and adult (male and female), where all stages of the life cycle can be found in microscopic analysis of skin scalings [7, 28, 30]. The eggs in fusiform (length 81.5 ± 3.5 μm) hatch into small larvae (length 91 ± 5.9 μm) with three pairs of paws, next protonymphs (length of 130.7 ± 10.7 μm), then nymphs (length of 201.2 ± 21.9 μm) [30] and finally evolve into adult mites with four pairs of legs, which commonly measure from 40 to 300 μm [7].
\nIn general, Demodex mites are described as small, with elongated bodies, having four pairs of legs. The body is separated into three distinct tagma: the gnathosoma, the small anterior segment with a trapezoidal or rectangular shape, containing mouth parts; the podosoma, which contains reduced and slightly projected legs beyond the podosoma line; and the opisthosoma, the posterior segment, elongated and formed by cuticular striae [31] (Figure 1). The morphobiological characteristics of the adult mite D. canis are similar in several studies. Table 1 describes the biometric measurements of D. canis mite segments as described in the literature [30, 31, 32, 33, 34].
\nMorphology of Demodex canis.\n
Biometric means Demodex canis found in the literature.
Although the D. canis mite is the most common species [7, 31, 35], two new species, D. injai [36] and D. sp. cornei [37, 38, 39, 40], have also been documented causing dermatological alterations in dogs.
\nRojas et al. [33], comparing the three species described in dogs, revealed interrelated but distinct populations in which D. canis presented with elongated opisthosoma (ratio opisthosoma length/total length 0.59), and an absence of a band-like segmental plate between the fourth coxisternal plate and opisthosoma. D. injai presented opisthosoma comprising 70% of the total length (ratio 0.70) and D. sp. cornei presented with a segmental plate, nearly rectangular (ratio 0.47), between the fourth coxisternal plate and opisthosoma.
\nIn addition to the morphobiometric characteristics, Rojas et al. [33], using molecular markers of mitochondrial DNA, 16S rDNA, and cytochrome oxidase I genes, suggested that these three species could be polymorphisms of the same species. However, Sastre et al. [41] in the sequencing analysis of 16S rDNA demonstrated that D. canis and D. injai present a genetic distance of 23.3%, therefore are different species, while D. sp. cornei is likely a variant of D. canis.
\nAlthough D. canis is a common commensal mite, Fondati et al. [29] in a microscopic analysis of the presence of D. canis in healthy dogs, emphasised that the presence of D. canis in the skin should not be considered as normal. However, Ravera et al. [6] using real time PCR demonstrated that mite DNA was present in all examined dogs, regardless of age, sex, breed, coat or clinical status, albeit in smaller numbers in healthy dogs. Regardless, the positivity increased when a greater number of areas were analysed. A similar result was observed by Gasparetto et al. [16], detecting a higher number of mites in dogs with clinical demodicosis (6.2 × 104 copies/μl of the parasite in the generalised form and 1.2 × 104 copies/μl in the localised form) compared to healthy dogs, (8.7 × 102 copies/μl of the parasite) using the same technique.
\nClinical changes in demodicosis may be induced by the excessive proliferation of mites associated with weakness in the immune system, or induced by the mites themselves [14, 17, 42]. Variables such as breed, age, nutrition, oestrus, pregnancy, stress, endoparasitism and debilitating diseases are predisposing factors for the disease. Purebred dogs appear to be more predisposed. Based on the autosomal recessive inheritance hypothesis, this would lead to immune dysfunction [15, 43]. Bowden et al. [44] found that dogs of the American pit bull and West Highland White Terrier breeds and those with allergic diseases were more predisposed to demodicosis. Likewise, Gasparetto et al. [8] verified that dogs with a defined breed were the most affected.
\nRegarding classification, demodicosis can be divided according to age of onset of clinical signs (juvenile or adult), or the extent of lesions (localised or generalised), though there is no consensus on the criteria [15]. Kumari et al. [26] suggest classifying as generalised demodicosis when there are lesions on more than 50% of the body surface with the involvement of two or more limbs, and classifying as localised demodicosis when there are alopecia, erythematous and desquamative lesions with hyperpigmentation on the face and one thoracic limb. Other authors have suggested that cases in which there are four or fewer lesions (with a diameter less than 2.5 cm), including a maximum of one focal lesion on any limb, be classified as localised demodicosis and cases with extensive multiple limb lesions, be classified as generalised demodicosis [44, 45, 46].
\nIn a retrospective study investigating demodicosis in an US region, dogs with juvenile onset of lesions had a mean age of 7.6 months, having a predominance of the generalised form (74.2%). Dogs with adult onset (over 48 months) of demodicosis were also more likely classified as generalised, with 87.1% of the cases [44]. In Brazil, a study involving 46 dogs, 24 males and 22 females showed generalised demodicosis (60.9%) was more common than localised (39.1%) with a mean age of onset of 23 months [8].
\nDogs that develop lesions such as alopecia or erythema as juveniles, are not usually pruritic, have spontaneous remission of clinical signs, and progression to the generalised form is rare. Only in cases of external earwax associated with localised demodicosis, a rare form of the disease, will dogs require therapy [15].
\nUnlike the localised disease, the generalised form of demodicosis can reach serious proportions and clinical signs such as alopecia, desquamation and erythema (Figure 2) are particularly intense [8]. Secondary bacterial infection is often due to the proliferation of opportunistic microorganisms, mainly Staphylococcus pseudintermedius and Pseudomonas [47, 48], which progress from superficial folliculitis to severe cases of furunculosis and cellulitis [7, 10, 49]. Gasparetto et al. [8] observed pyoderma in 95.5% of dogs with generalised demodicosis and half presented with pruritus, indicating bacterial pyoderma and an immunological reaction against Demodex [9, 50]. In more severe cases, lymphadenopathy, fever, anorexia and lethargy associated with secondary bacterial infection may occur [51, 52]. Pododemodicosis, which affects the interdigital, palmar and/or plantar regions, has a poor prognosis. It manifests with severe erythema, oedema and fistulous tracts that cause intense localised pain, requiring prolonged periods of treatment [10, 15, 49].
\n(A) Generalised demodicosis in dog with cutaneous hyperpigmentation, alopecia and desquamation. (B) Pyoderma and generalised demodicosis in facial region of dog. (C) Demodex in the interior of the hair follicles and folliculitis. H&E, 10×. (D) Furunculosis. H&E, 10×.
In histopathological examination, mites are frequently observed in hair follicles that induce folliculitis, peri-folliculitis and furunculosis, as well as sebaceous gland hyperplasia [53]. According to Gasparetto et al. [8], hyperkeratosis was the most frequent epidermal alteration with either form of demodicosis. Mild to moderate interstitial and perivascular exudate containing lymphocytes, plasma cells and macrophages. Dogs with generalised demodicosis and pyoderma had lymphocytes, macrophages and plasma cells associated with the neutrophilic exudate. In chronic cases of generalised demodicosis, follicular hyperkeratosis predominates, and mononuclear inflammation of sudoriferous glands and sebaceous glands is present [9, 10].
\nPeri-folliculitis occurs in the early stage of the inflammatory process evidenced by the presence of macrophages and lymphocytes around the hair [7]. This finding is apparent both in dogs with the localised disease and in those with more severe clinical lesions [8]. As the disease progresses, mural folliculitis occurs due to the infiltration of lymphocytes and histiocytes into the follicular wall, causing injury to follicular keratinocytes. Hydropic degeneration, follicular keratinocyte apoptosis and follicular exocytosis occurs [9, 50]. Mural folliculitis, which has been reported most frequently in dogs with the localised disease [8], is observed to be a consistent and an important lesion pattern of active demodicosis. The histological lesion generated is often associated with diseases in which immune response is recognised as important in its pathogenesis [10, 50, 54, 55].
\nFinally, multiplication of Demodex in the interior of the hair follicles induces follicle dilation causing rupture and releasing mites into the dermal interstitium [10]. The observation of mural folliculitis and multifocal pyogranulomatous furunculosis more frequently in dogs with localised demodicosis indicates that the histological stages of follicular inflammation may have similar severity in the different clinical forms of the disease [8].
\nBecause they are natural inhabitants of the skin of mammals, mites of the genus Demodex usually do not generate adverse reactions to the host due to the capacity of the animal’s immune system [6, 11, 17, 26, 56]. This is due to the recognition of mite chitin by host keratinocytes through their toll-like receptors (TLR), specifically TLR2, triggering an innate immune response. In addition, studies report that the immune systems of healthy dogs are especially effective at detecting the lipases and proteases secreted by Demodex mite, possibly stimulating the adaptive immune response, which is more specific and effective for the control of the Demodex mite [17, 57].
\nThe reason for the progressive evolution of the disease in some dogs has not been completely elucidated. The most accepted hypothesis is that immune system dysfunctions play an important role in the manifestation of clinical signs of the disease in its different forms [7, 11, 13, 14, 15]. The proposition that the host immune system is the main mediator in the overpopulation of Demodex is sustained by the occurrence of the disease in patients who have undergone prolonged treatments with immunosuppressive drugs, in addition to clinical signs in immunodeficient mice, as well as in people and animals with chronic degenerative diseases [17, 56, 57]. However, studies in dogs indicate that immunosuppression occurs at various times in the course of the disease and may be induced by the action of the mite itself on the hair follicles and/or sebaceous glands and not as a primary trigger for parasitic proliferation [14, 17, 32, 42, 57]. This explains why not all immunosuppressed dogs develop clinical demodicosis and indicates that the manifestation of the disease may involve more than one factor.
\nUnlike humans, there is little evidence of humoral immune response being involved in canine demodicosis and although Ravera et al. [58] have shown the existence of immunoglobulin (Ig) G against D. canis with generalised juvenile demodicosis, the real meaning of this response remains unclear. On the other hand, dogs with generalised demodicosis tend to present functional immunodeficiency in T lymphocytes [7, 18]. Many of the studies indicate that the main mechanism of Demodex population control is cell mediated. When mite proliferation occurs, it is probable that there is impaired cellular immunity [7, 57].
\nThis immune dysfunction is defined by the exhaustion of T cells. This type of depletion is not uniform and is generally characterised by high levels of suppressor cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-10 and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β, low production of stimulatory interleukins, such as IL-2 and IL-21 and a reduction in circulating CD4+ [17].
\nHigher serum levels of IL-10 were observed in dogs with relapsing demodicosis, compared to healthy dogs and those with first manifestation. This change culminates in T cell suppression and antigen presentation ability by inhibiting the synthesis of cytokines and helper 1 T cells (Th1) [22].
\nLemarié et al. [59] observed a reduction in the expression and in vitro production of IL-2 resulting from a decrease in Th1 cell response and pointed to a functional irregularity of this class of lymphocytes, directly affecting the balance between Th1 and Th2 responses during the course of the disease. The establishment and perpetuation of demodicosis was attributed to suppression of the Th1 response to Th2, resulting in an inflammatory process capable of inducing tissue damage but not eliminating or containing the proliferation of the mite.
\nThe decrease in transcription of cytokines TNF-α and IFN-γ, and the unprecedented increase in IL-5, as evidenced by Tani et al. [20], appears to be due to Th2 lymphocyte overexpression in the presence of Demodex [59]. In addition, Yarim et al. [23] and Tani et al. [20] demonstrated an increase in circulating TGF-β concentrations in dogs with generalised disease compared to healthy animals. Elevated TGF-β levels may compromise the regulation of various biological processes, such as tissue homeostasis, angiogenesis, and cell differentiation, especially in cases of chronic disease, allowing the evolution of localised to generalised demodicosis [56].
\nConsidering that most of these previously described changes were observed in dogs with generalised demodicosis, a recent study investigated the serum levels of a selection of proinflammatory cytokines in dogs with localised and generalised demodicosis in order to observe the levels of certain proteins. There was no difference in serum cytokine levels between groups of diseased animals, but IL-6 was significantly higher in dogs with localised disease than in healthy animals. Thus, characterising the nonspecific inflammatory reaction that occurs shortly after tissue injury precedes the acquired immune response in the acute phase of the disease [16].
\nMoreover, a modern approach supports the involvement of the cholinergic pathway in the immunopathogenesis of canine demodicosis. In addition to acting as a neurotransmitter, acetylcholine (Ach) plays an important role as a mediator in the inflammatory process by inhibiting the release of certain proinflammatory cytokines, without affecting the production of inhibitory cytokines such as IL-10. The increased activity of its indirect biomarker, acetylcholinesterase, in the serum of dogs with demodicosis, has established the overproduction of Ach in diseased dogs, resulting in immunosuppression [26, 56].
\nFinally, it is known that TLR receptors play an important role in the identification and control of Demodex proliferation in the skin of healthy dogs [17]. However, in a recent study involving animals with demodicosis, important changes in the function of these receptors were detected. Kumari et al. [60] showed elevated expression of mononuclear type 2 TLRs (lymphocytes and monocytes), as well as a decrease in the expression of TLR types 4 and 6. These effects were directly attributed to the action of the mites, but it is not yet known how the mite stimulates or decreases the production of TLR receptors in the disease process [12, 60].
\nAlthough the D. canis mite is considered a commensal inhabitant of dog’s skin, demodicosis is one of the most frequent parasitic diseases in this species. Clinical signs such as alopecia, desquamation, erythema and crusting are common in dogs with localised and generalised demodicosis and may be aggravated by secondary bacterial infection. Pyoderma produces severe dermal microscopic inflammation; however, the histopathological findings of dogs with localised and generalised disease tend to be similar. In addition, the increase in the parasitic load of mites in the canine tegument induces the clinical disease, but does not define the severity of the lesions, indicating that the predisposing factor for the mite proliferation likely relates to the immunocompetence of the host.
\nLow production of stimulating cytokines and high levels of suppressor cytokines coupled with reduced numbers of CD4+ lymphocytes are invariably observed in dogs that develop clinical signs of demodicosis, indicating T-cell depletion. However, due to the multifactorial nature of the disease, immunological mechanisms that allow the excessive growth of the parasites in the dog skin is still misunderstood and this limitation in the understanding of the host-mite interaction makes that the impediment of diseased animals reproduction prevail as the main strategy of control until now.
\nCurrently, research groups from different countries have suggested several mechanisms to understand the immunopathogenesis of demodicosis and although the various hypotheses raised are not yet enough to establish the determining cause of clinical disease development, observed together they allow for new hypotheses that may serve as starting points for subsequent studies in the area.
\nAuthors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
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\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
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\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nYuekun Lai
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\n\nAbdul Latif Ahmad 2016-18
\n\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\n\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\n\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\n\nGang Chen 2016-18
\n\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\n\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
\n\nMyung-Haing Cho 2016, 2018
\n\nMark Connors 2015-18
\n\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
\n\nLiming Dai 2015-18
\n\nWeihua Deng 2017, 2018
\n\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
\n\nRon de Graaf 2014-18
\n\nHarald Haas 2017, 2018
\n\nFrancisco Herrera 2017, 2018
\n\nJaakko Kangasjärvi 2015-18
\n\nHamid Reza Karimi 2016-18
\n\nJunji Kido 2014-18
\n\nJose Luiszamorano 2015-18
\n\nYiqi Luo 2016-18
\n\nJoachim Maier 2014-18
\n\nAndrea Natale 2017, 2018
\n\nAlberto Mantovani 2014-18
\n\nMarjan Mernik 2017, 2018
\n\nSandra Orchard 2014, 2016-18
\n\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\n\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\n\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
\n\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\n\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\n\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\n\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\n\nFei Wei 2016-18
\n\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\n\nQi Xie 2016-18
\n\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\n\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
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She performed research in perioperative autotransfusion and obtained the degree of PhD in 1993 publishing Peri-operative autotransfusion by means of a blood cell separator.\nBlood transfusion had her special interest being the president of the Haemovigilance Chamber TRIP and performing several tasks in local and national blood bank and anticoagulant-blood transfusion guidelines committees. Currently, she is working as an associate professor and up till recently was the dean at the Albert Schweitzer Hospital Dordrecht. She performed (inter)national tasks as vice-president of the Concilium Anaesthesia and related committees. \nShe performed research in several fields, with over 100 publications in (inter)national journals and numerous papers on scientific conferences. \nShe received several awards and is a member of Honour of the Dutch Society of Anaesthesia.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Albert Schweitzer Hospital",country:{name:"Gabon"}}},{id:"83089",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Ojule",slug:"aaron-ojule",fullName:"Aaron Ojule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Port Harcourt",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"295748",title:"Mr.",name:"Abayomi",middleName:null,surname:"Modupe",slug:"abayomi-modupe",fullName:"Abayomi Modupe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Landmark University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"94191",title:"Prof.",name:"Abbas",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"abbas-moustafa",fullName:"Abbas Moustafa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94191/images/96_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Moustafa got his doctoral degree in earthquake engineering and structural safety from Indian Institute of Science in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at Department of Civil Engineering, Minia University, Egypt and the chairman of Department of Civil Engineering, High Institute of Engineering and Technology, Giza, Egypt. He is also a consultant engineer and head of structural group at Hamza Associates, Giza, Egypt. Dr. Moustafa was a senior research associate at Vanderbilt University and a JSPS fellow at Kyoto and Nagasaki Universities. He has more than 40 research papers published in international journals and conferences. He acts as an editorial board member and a reviewer for several regional and international journals. His research interest includes earthquake engineering, seismic design, nonlinear dynamics, random vibration, structural reliability, structural health monitoring and uncertainty modeling.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Minia University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"84562",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbyssinia",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"abbyssinia-mushunje",fullName:"Abbyssinia Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Fort Hare",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"202206",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abd Elmoniem",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Elzain",slug:"abd-elmoniem-elzain",fullName:"Abd Elmoniem Elzain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kassala University",country:{name:"Sudan"}}},{id:"98127",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdallah",middleName:null,surname:"Handoura",slug:"abdallah-handoura",fullName:"Abdallah Handoura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Supérieure des Télécommunications",country:{name:"Morocco"}}},{id:"91404",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdecharif",middleName:null,surname:"Boumaza",slug:"abdecharif-boumaza",fullName:"Abdecharif Boumaza",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Abbès Laghrour University of Khenchela",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"105795",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Ghani",middleName:null,surname:"Aissaoui",slug:"abdel-ghani-aissaoui",fullName:"Abdel Ghani Aissaoui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105795/images/system/105795.jpeg",biography:"Abdel Ghani AISSAOUI is a Full Professor of electrical engineering at University of Bechar (ALGERIA). He was born in 1969 in Naama, Algeria. He received his BS degree in 1993, the MS degree in 1997, the PhD degree in 2007 from the Electrical Engineering Institute of Djilali Liabes University of Sidi Bel Abbes (ALGERIA). He is an active member of IRECOM (Interaction Réseaux Electriques - COnvertisseurs Machines) Laboratory and IEEE senior member. He is an editor member for many international journals (IJET, RSE, MER, IJECE, etc.), he serves as a reviewer in international journals (IJAC, ECPS, COMPEL, etc.). He serves as member in technical committee (TPC) and reviewer in international conferences (CHUSER 2011, SHUSER 2012, PECON 2012, SAI 2013, SCSE2013, SDM2014, SEB2014, PEMC2014, PEAM2014, SEB (2014, 2015), ICRERA (2015, 2016, 2017, 2018,-2019), etc.). His current research interest includes power electronics, control of electrical machines, artificial intelligence and Renewable energies.",institutionString:"University of Béchar",institution:{name:"University of Béchar",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"99749",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel Hafid",middleName:null,surname:"Essadki",slug:"abdel-hafid-essadki",fullName:"Abdel Hafid Essadki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Nationale Supérieure de Technologie",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"101208",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Karim",middleName:"Mohamad",surname:"El Hemaly",slug:"abdel-karim-el-hemaly",fullName:"Abdel Karim El Hemaly",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101208/images/733_n.jpg",biography:"OBGYN.net Editorial Advisor Urogynecology.\nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly, MRCOG, FRCS � Egypt.\n \nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly\nProfessor OB/GYN & Urogynecology\nFaculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University \nPersonal Information: \nMarried with two children\nWife: Professor Laila A. Moussa MD.\nSons: Mohamad A. M. El-Hemaly Jr. MD. Died March 25-2007\nMostafa A. M. El-Hemaly, Computer Scientist working at Microsoft Seatle, USA. \nQualifications: \n1.\tM.B.-Bch Cairo Univ. June 1963. \n2.\tDiploma Ob./Gyn. Cairo Univ. April 1966. \n3.\tDiploma Surgery Cairo Univ. Oct. 1966. \n4.\tMRCOG London Feb. 1975. \n5.\tF.R.C.S. Glasgow June 1976. \n6.\tPopulation Study Johns Hopkins 1981. \n7.\tGyn. Oncology Johns Hopkins 1983. \n8.\tAdvanced Laparoscopic Surgery, with Prof. Paulson, Alexandria, Virginia USA 1993. \nSocieties & Associations: \n1.\t Member of the Royal College of Ob./Gyn. London. \n2.\tFellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Glasgow UK. \n3.\tMember of the advisory board on urogyn. FIGO. \n4.\tMember of the New York Academy of Sciences. \n5.\tMember of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. \n6.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in the World� from the 16th edition to the 20th edition. \n7.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in Science and Engineering� in the 7th edition. \n8.\tMember of the Egyptian Fertility & Sterility Society. \n9.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Ob./Gyn. \n10.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Urogyn. \n\nScientific Publications & Communications:\n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asim Kurjak, Ahmad G. Serour, Laila A. S. Mousa, Amr M. Zaied, Khalid Z. El Sheikha. \nImaging the Internal Urethral Sphincter and the Vagina in Normal Women and Women Suffering from Stress Urinary Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol18, No 4; 169-286 October-December 2009.\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nFecal Incontinence, A Novel Concept: The Role of the internal Anal sphincter (IAS) in defecation and fecal incontinence. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 2; 79-85 April -June 2010.\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nSurgical Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, Fecal Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse By A Novel Operation \n"Urethro-Ano-Vaginoplasty"\n Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 3; 129-188 July-September 2010.\n4- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n5- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n6- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n7-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n9-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n10-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n11-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n12- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n13-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n15-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n\n16-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n17- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n18-Maternal Mortality in Egypt, a cry for help and attention. The Second International Conference of the African Society of Organization & Gestosis, 1998, 3rd Annual International Conference of Ob/Gyn Department � Sohag Faculty of Medicine University. Feb. 11-13. Luxor, Egypt. \n19-Postmenopausal Osteprosis. The 2nd annual conference of Health Insurance Organization on Family Planning and its role in primary health care. Zagaziz, Egypt, February 26-27, 1997, Center of Complementary Services for Maternity and childhood care. \n20-Laparoscopic Assisted vaginal hysterectomy. 10th International Annual Congress Modern Trends in Reproductive Techniques 23-24 March 1995. Alexandria, Egypt. \n21-Immunological Studies in Pre-eclamptic Toxaemia. Proceedings of 10th Annual Ain Shams Medical Congress. Cairo, Egypt, March 6-10, 1987. \n22-Socio-demographic factorse affecting acceptability of the long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community. Journal of Biosocial Science 29:305, 1987. \n23-Plasma fibronectin levels hypertension during pregnancy. The Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 13:1, 17-21, Jan. 1987. \n24-Effect of smoking on pregnancy. Journal of Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 111-121, Sept 1986. \n25-Socio-demographic aspects of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 35-42, Sept. 1986. \n26-Effect of intrapartum oxygen inhalation on maternofetal blood gases and pH. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 57-64, Sept. 1986. \n27-The effect of severe pre-eclampsia on serum transaminases. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 479-485, 1986. \n28-A study of placental immunoreceptors in pre-eclampsia. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 211-216, 1986. \n29-Serum human placental lactogen (hpl) in normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women, during pregnancy and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:2, 11-23, May 1986. \n30-Pregnancy specific B1 Glycoprotein and free estriol in the serum of normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:1, 63-70, Jan. 1986. Also was accepted and presented at Xith World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Berlin (West), September 15-20, 1985. \n31-Pregnancy and labor in women over the age of forty years. Accepted and presented at Al-Azhar International Medical Conference, Cairo 28-31 Dec. 1985. \n32-Effect of Copper T intra-uterine device on cervico-vaginal flora. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 23:2, 153-156, April 1985. \n33-Factors affecting the occurrence of post-Caesarean section febrile morbidity. Population Sciences, 6, 139-149, 1985. \n34-Pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its relation to H.L.A. system. Population Sciences, 6, 131-139, 1985. \n35-The menstrual pattern and occurrence of pregnancy one year after discontinuation of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as a postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 105-111, 1985. \n36-The menstrual pattern and side effects of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 97-105, 1985. \n37-Actinomyces in the vaginas of women with and without intrauterine contraceptive devices. Population Sciences, 6, 77-85, 1985. \n38-Comparative efficacy of ibuprofen and etamsylate in the treatment of I.U.D. menorrhagia. Population Sciences, 6, 63-77, 1985. \n39-Changes in cervical mucus copper and zinc in women using I.U.D.�s. Population Sciences, 6, 35-41, 1985. \n40-Histochemical study of the endometrium of infertile women. Egypt. J. Histol. 8(1) 63-66, 1985. \n41-Genital flora in pre- and post-menopausal women. Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 4(2), 165-172, 1983. \n42-Evaluation of the vaginal rugae and thickness in 8 different groups. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 9:2, 101-114, May 1983. \n43-The effect of menopausal status and conjugated oestrogen therapy on serum cholesterol, triglycerides and electrophoretic lipoprotein patterns. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 12:2, 113-119, April 1983. \n44-Laparoscopic ventrosuspension: A New Technique. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 20, 129-31, 1982. \n45-The laparoscope: A useful diagnostic tool in general surgery. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:4, 397-401, Oct. 1982. \n46-The value of the laparoscope in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:2, 153-159, April 1982. \n47-An anaesthetic approach to the management of eclampsia. Ain Shams Medical Journal, accepted for publication 1981. \n48-Laparoscopy on patients with previous lower abdominal surgery. Fertility management edited by E. Osman and M. Wahba 1981. \n49-Heart diseases with pregnancy. Population Sciences, 11, 121-130, 1981. \n50-A study of the biosocial factors affecting perinatal mortality in an Egyptian maternity hospital. Population Sciences, 6, 71-90, 1981. \n51-Pregnancy Wastage. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 11:3, 57-67, Sept. 1980. \n52-Analysis of maternal deaths in Egyptian maternity hospitals. Population Sciences, 1, 59-65, 1979. \nArticles published on OBGYN.net: \n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n4-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n5-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n6-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n7-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n9- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n10-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n11- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n12-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n13-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. 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