Examples of polyphenolic compounds from grapes (names and chemical formulas).
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"425",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Pesticides in the Modern World - Effects of Pesticides Exposure",title:"Pesticides in the Modern World",subtitle:"Effects of Pesticides Exposure",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The introduction of the synthetic organochlorine, organophosphate, carbamate and pyrethroid pesticides by 1950's marked the beginning of the modern pesticides era and a new stage in the agriculture development. Evolved from the chemicals designed originally as warfare agents, the synthetic pesticides demonstrated a high effectiveness in preventing, destroying or controlling any pest. Therefore, their application in the agriculture practices made it possible enhancing crops and livestock's yields and obtaining higher-quality products, to satisfy the food demand of the continuously rising world's population. Nevertheless, the increase of the pesticide use estimated to 2.5 million tons annually worldwide since 1950., created a number of public and environment concerns.\nThis book, organized in two sections, addresses the various aspects of the pesticides exposure and the related health effects. It offers a large amount of practical information to the professionals interested in pesticides issues.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-454-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5165-4",doi:"10.5772/943",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"pesticides-in-the-modern-world-effects-of-pesticides-exposure",numberOfPages:390,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"231a93684b2f371567b7afb37c32180d",bookSignature:"Margarita Stoytcheva",publishedDate:"September 12th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/425.jpg",numberOfDownloads:62015,numberOfWosCitations:130,numberOfCrossrefCitations:28,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:94,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:13,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:252,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 12th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 9th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 16th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 15th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 14th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"6375",title:"Prof.",name:"Margarita",middleName:null,surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6375/images/1631_n.jpg",biography:"Professor Margarita Stoytcheva graduated from the University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy of Sofia, Bulgaria, with titles of Chemical Engineer and Master of Electrochemical Technologies. She has a Ph.D. and DSc. degrees in chemistry and technical sciences. She has acted in research and teaching in several Universities in Bulgaria, Algeria and France. From 2006. to the present she has participated in activities of scientific research, technological development and teaching in Mexico at the University of Baja California, Institute of Engineering, Mexicali, as a full time researcher. Since 2008. she has been a member of the National System of Researchers of Mexico. Her interests and areas of research are analytical chemistry and biotechnology.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"10",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"368",title:"Pestology",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-plant-biology-pestology"}],chapters:[{id:"19590",title:"Chronic Exposure to Pesticides- Neurological, Neurobehavioral and Molecular Targets of Neurotoxicity",doi:"10.5772/17276",slug:"chronic-exposure-to-pesticides-neurological-neurobehavioral-and-molecular-targets-of-neurotoxicity",totalDownloads:3233,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Binukumar B.K and Kiran Dip Gill",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19590",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19590",authors:[{id:"27835",title:"Prof.",name:"Kiran",surname:"Gill",slug:"kiran-gill",fullName:"Kiran Gill"},{id:"27837",title:"Dr",name:"Binukumar",surname:"Bk",slug:"binukumar-bk",fullName:"Binukumar Bk"}],corrections:null},{id:"19591",title:"Dermal Exposure to Sub-Toxic Amount of Chlorpyrifos - Is It Neurotoxic?",doi:"10.5772/16535",slug:"dermal-exposure-to-sub-toxic-amount-of-chlorpyrifos-is-it-neurotoxic-",totalDownloads:2910,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Nilesh Kumar Mitra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19591",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19591",authors:[{id:"25480",title:"Prof.",name:"Nilesh",surname:"Mitra",slug:"nilesh-mitra",fullName:"Nilesh Mitra"}],corrections:null},{id:"19592",title:"Effect on Workers’ Health Owing to Pesticides Exposure: Endocrine Target",doi:"10.5772/18203",slug:"effect-on-workers-health-owing-to-pesticides-exposure-endocrine-target",totalDownloads:3303,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Lidia Caporossi and Bruno Papaleo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19592",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19592",authors:[{id:"30731",title:"Dr.",name:"Lidia",surname:"Caporossi",slug:"lidia-caporossi",fullName:"Lidia Caporossi"},{id:"30733",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",surname:"Papaleo",slug:"bruno-papaleo",fullName:"Bruno Papaleo"}],corrections:null},{id:"19593",title:"Health Problem Caused by Long-Term Organophosphorus Pesticides Exposure - Study in China",doi:"10.5772/17519",slug:"health-problem-caused-by-long-term-organophosphorus-pesticides-exposure-study-in-china",totalDownloads:2095,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Zhi-Jun Zhou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19593",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19593",authors:[{id:"28563",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhijun",surname:"Zhou",slug:"zhijun-zhou",fullName:"Zhijun Zhou"}],corrections:null},{id:"19594",title:"Pesticide Exposure of Farmworkers’ Children",doi:"10.5772/21878",slug:"pesticide-exposure-of-farmworkers-children",totalDownloads:2259,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Paloma I. 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A constant presence in the state-of-the-art scientific literature consists of studies aiming at identifying and testing various possibilities to re-use various by-products generated in the field of vine crops and wine industry. A positive economic impact, together with a positive social and environmental impacts on long term are aimed, actions focusing on obtaining high-value added products, and on thoroughly defining the benefits of organic over conventional viticulture [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8].
Waste from economical activities related to vine cultures may be solid or liquid. Wastes may be generated in different technological phases of wine industry, and in other grape-based foods or beverages. Also, a significant amount of waste comes from the cultivation of vines itself. Solid waste materials may be grape stalks, grape seeds, grape pomace and others. Grape stalks are the major byproduct of the vineyards, and may be an important source of cellulose, lignin, sodium (Na) and potassium (K) [9], while grape pomace is the major waste from wine industries [10]. Grape pomace consists of skin residues, pulp remains, stalks, and seeds. Proportion of these has a high variability depending on fruits maturity, grape cultivars, as well as the technological processes applied. Studies conducted to obtain its elemental profile revealed carbon as the most abundant (54%), followed by oxygen (38%), hydrogen (6%), nitrogen (2%) and traces of sulfur (0.08%) [11].
According to Eurostat [12] updates, the central European country of Romania, with a total area under vines of 183,717 hectares, ranks fifth among the EU member states in this economic domain, and the annual production was of approx. 974 thousand tons of grapes in 2019 according to FAO database [13]. General characteristics of Romanian vineyards and widespread cultivated varieties, together with particular pedoclimatic conditions will be presented in the next sections. Native Romanian varieties of
Transition from conventional to organic agriculture is one of the main goals of the European Union, the aim is to continuously improve the quality of the environment and life. Organic agriculture, by eliminating the systemic treatments with pesticides and fertilizers, has the potential to generate agricultural products with low risk of contamination, safer for human and animal consumption, and implicitly may lead to revitalization of biodiversity worldwide [3, 5, 7]. Currently, the vine is one of the most widespread crops and is grown mainly in various temperate regions around the world and a minority in some tropical areas. On the other hand,
Valorization of by-products generally requires a specific evaluation of composition and biological activities. Also, the recovery of valuable compounds from grape-based waste is an emerging issue in the context of circular economy, and should be performed in the most eco-friendly manner. Suitable extraction techniques and cost-effective analytical laboratory procedures need to be developed and applied.
The use or re-use of vines parts for so-called nutraceuticals, or cosmeceuticals, or other consumer-goods applications, are basically centered on phytochemical and microbiological characterization. The diversity of collected data (phytochemical, spectroscopic, others) are used in chemometric strategies for predicting a qualitative response for many applications. In the context described in the above, the information and experimental results presented in this chapter aim at providing useful data and tools, as it was graphically suggested in Figure 1.
Graphic representation of the research concept on
In the last years, the organic cultivation of
From the organic culture point of view,
In conventional culture, negative effects may appear on plants and soils due to application of fungicides [14], soil acidification due to fertilizers use [21, 22], and tillage [20]. The pesticides significantly affect soil microbial communities, including beneficial species such as mycorrhizal fungi [14], thus changing the interactions between vines and microorganisms and finally, modifying the phytochemical profile of grapes.
Fungicides are the main pesticides used in conventional viticulture, while copper-based fungicides (Bordeaux mixture, copper fungicide - a mixture of 20% copper and 80% neutralized copper sulfate) are the only effective methods allowed for organic viticulture. However, prolonged use of copper can also have profound effects on microbial communities, as copper accumulates in the topsoil after fungicide application [23]. Copper becomes mobile in soil pH of 5.5–6.5 and thus more available to organisms, which can create stress for microorganisms and affect their enzymatic activities [14, 23]. Also, tillage and fertilization [22], as well as weed-type wild plant communities, which grow in vineyards, especially between vineyards [15] influences the physicochemical and microbial properties of the soil. In contrast, low-input measures of organic viticulture may provide better conditions to support a higher diversity of beneficial microorganisms in the soil (
Vine varieties (
The most difficult issue in quality evaluation of both organic (complies with the rules of organic farming, and is certified by a control and certification body) and conventional vineyards is the aspect related to the pedoclimatic environment (zone, climate, and soil). A recent paper [19] revealed the importance of internal (grape genetics, rootstock) and external factors (pedoclimatic conditions), that together with cultivation techniques lead to obtaining the grapes colored in the right point, rich in sugars, high aromas, and extractive compounds. In this regard, Romania, by geographical position and climatic conditions, offers good adaptability, short and perfect acclimatization of various grapes varieties. Also, it offers particular conditions of soil for high resistance of the wine against phylloxera and other diseases. These aspects contribute to the increase of vineyards quality and productivity. It is well known that cultivation of grapes for wine production, as well those dedicated to consumption as fresh fruits, is mainly done in the hills with slopes, with different altitudes, and particularly, with an open valley, ventilated by winds [30, 31, 32, 33]. Plains and mountains are also suitable places for vine growing. Most of the vineyards in Romania are positioned on the gentle hill slopes (
Romania has an important abundance of
Foods that promote human health and well-being are core segments of fast-moving consumer goods, with a growing awareness of the food-health relationship among consumers around the world. Due to the richness and variety of bioactive substances contained in grapes and their positive effects on human health, they are an important raw material for various applications.
Grapes from varieties cultivated in Romania contain significant concentrations of phenolic compounds with a strong antioxidant activity [36]. The
Some other studies of recent years [38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44] have aimed at studying bioactive compounds that are present in food, and have properties that may contribute to protection against chronic diseases.
A significant interest for the potential health effects of some phytochemicals such as flavonoids and other polyphenolic compounds was noticed in the last period. Thus, potential health benefits of compounds such as isoflavones and/or resveratrol etc. have been evaluated against cardiovascular diseases [45, 46], cancer [47, 48, 49], osteoporosis [50], and cognitive decline [51]. The potential mechanisms and food safety issues have been discussed in relation to their potential health contribution.
The presence of phenolic compounds in the diet has been a negative feature for a long time, if they reduce the availability of nutrients, leading to a low nutritional value of food. Since the ‘French paradox’ was identified, and highlighting that a moderate consumption of red wine (rich in polyphenols) contributes to lowering the rate of cardiovascular morbidity among the French population, special attention was paid to the study of phenolic compounds as food ingredients [52]. Currently, numerous studies indicate that the presence of phenolic compounds in food is important in terms of their antioxidant stability and antimicrobial protection [52, 53, 54].
Innovation in the field of functional foods must constantly guarantee the safety of products [55]; contributes to the improvement of the nutrition - health relationship, by substantiating it on a scientific basis; contributes to the conservation of biodiversity and the sustainable development of the food sector [56, 57, 58].
The sanogenic effects of polyphenols depend on the amount consumed and their bioavailability [59, 60]. The bioavailability of polyphenols is the subject of various research, in particular on intestinal absorption and influencing factors (chemical structure – e.g., glycosylation, esterification and polymerization, food matrix, etc.). According to the World Health Organization report published in 2003, over 50% of the population of Europe, North America and other industrialized regions have used complementary natural medicines at least once [61]. Regarding to the sanogenic effect of polyphenols in grapes, even if there is a series of research in this field, there is still a wide range of untapped information [62, 63]. On the other hand, taking into account the multitude of foods, with synthetic chemical compounds that become toxic to the body, especially when certain substances reach the systemic circulation, it is desired to find new natural and non-invasive solutions such as “health-protective foods”, beneficial for various diseases often caused by pollution, an accelerated pace of life, uncontrolled eating [64, 65].
Starting from the practical uses of grapes, as food, their bioactive compounds and derived products are associated with the prevention of many pathophysiological processes, including cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, tumor diseases, diabetes, and other illnesses. A correct and complete understanding of phytochemical compositions and antimicrobial activities of different anatomical parts of grapes from
A lot of attention was paid in the last period of time, both in research and development in the food industry, to functional foods and beverages, formulated with natural ingredients, with certain and scientific substantiated target physiological functions. Some of the functional beverages existing on the market include grapes and their derived products as source of biological active compounds. Not in the last, dairy products and meat products are ideal matrices [62].
Grape products, such as grape juice and grape skin extract, can be incorporated into yogurt, resulting in an increase in the content of phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity. The degree of acceptability by consumers, from sensorial point of view, was high, aspect important in terms of product marketability [56, 58, 62].
Phenolic compounds are widely distributed in grapes [30, 54, 63]. The phenolic composition of a single grape variety depends on the anatomical part (whole grape pulp, skin or seeds). Grape extractable phenolic compounds represent 10% or less in pulp, 60–70% in seeds and 28–35% in skin. The phenolic content of the seeds can range between 5% and 8% by weight. Grape seed extracts are very good source of proanthocyanidins (usually oligomers and polymers of polyhydroxy-flavan-3-oils,
About 75% of the world’s grape production is destined for the wine industry, so that grape pomace is an abundant by-product of the wine industry. In total, residual skin, seeds and stalks forming pomace represent approximately 25% of the total weight of the grapes used in the winemaking process [50]. In fact, grape pomace consists of two fractions: pomace without seeds (residual pulp, skin and stalks) and seeds [50]. Both fractions are rich in bioactive compounds, such as phenolic compounds [37].
The most abundant phenolic compound in pomace is represented by anthocyanins concentrated in the skin, respectively flavonols present especially in seeds, ranging from 56 to 65% of the total. Recent studies have shown the potential for recovery of phenols and antioxidant fibers from skin, respectively of seed oil from pomace [64, 71]. Considering that phenolic compounds are the most important secondary metabolites with antioxidant properties in grapes, the total content of phenolic compounds in grape pomace extracts is usually well correlated with their antioxidant activity [30]. Extracts obtained from pomace can be used in food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and other products in the form of liquid extracts, concentrates or powders [64]. Grape pomace extracts have been used as food protection factors due to their antioxidant capacity, prevention of lipid oxidation in fish products, and antimicrobial activity against various bacterial strains, such as
A high antioxidant capacity of the grape pomace flour sustains the delayed lipid oxidation, this property being by high interest in the context of concerns regarding the use of natural antioxidants in foods, in order to find out an alternative to the widely used synthetic ones.
Grape pomace extracts have nowadays a wide range of applications, from fortified beverages and yoghurts and use as ingredient in osmotic solution to obtain dehydrated fruits with high phenolic compounds to cosmetic applications. Not in the last, the extracts obtained from grape pomace were successfully incorporated into edible chitosan films, both hydrophobic and hydrophilic, providing antioxidant properties and prolonging life of the food products [44, 58, 64, 65, 71]. Grape seed extracts, rich in polyphenols, have been used to reduce the formation of acrylamide during the Maillard reaction [53].
Cosmetics with grape polyphenols are currently marketed, such as day or night cream and face serum from Pure Super Grape® (Marks and Spencer - UK), mattifying, anti-wrinkle and anti-wrinkle protection fluid from Caudalíe® (France). There are few brands in the field of food supplements that claim to use polyphenols, mainly resveratrol, from grapes. For example: 100 Natural®, Nature’s Way®, Maximum Strength®, GrapeSeedRich®. These products confirm the commercial potential of bioactive compounds extracted from grapes or grape by-products [65, 72]. Some studies showed the differences in phenolic compounds concentrations in grapes anatomical parts. Thus, phenolic compounds concentration in seeds (70%) is higher than in skin (20%) and in pulp (10%) [73].
Recent research has evaluated the use of pomace flour from grapes and seeds, respectively, in various products such as popcorn, cereal bars, biscuits and cookies, extruded snacks and muffins, resulting in high-fiber products with antioxidant potential and consumer acceptability.
Pinot Noir grape fiber can be used as an alternative source of antioxidants and dietary fiber when added to yogurt and salad dressing, not only to increase the content of fiber and phenols, but also to delay the oxidation of lipids during storage, expanding shelf life of these products.
The addition of grape pomace fiber to unconventional products, such as cod and seafood, has led to a minimization of changes in flavor, color, texture and oxidation of lipids during freezing. The antioxidant dietary fiber in grapes added to chicken breast burgers and fish muscles has led to improved oxidative stability and free radical scavenging activity [62, 73].
According to some authors, a percentage between 2 and 5% of the grapes weight is represented by grape seeds that constitute approximately 38–52% of the solid waste generated by the wine industry. In general, grape seeds contain about 40% fiber, 10–20% lipids, 10% protein, phenolic complexes, as well as sugars and minerals. About 80% of the sugar-free dry matter of the grape seeds consists of indigestible fractions, mainly cellulose and pectins [30, 73].
Grape seeds are highly appreciated for the nutritional properties of their oil, known as rich source of unsaturated fatty acids (oleic and linoleic), and phenolic compounds [73]. Grapes seed oil is widely marketed in some countries, and is used for years in numerous applications, especially in cosmetics formulations [41, 62, 71]. However, recently reported data have confirmed its promising bioactive properties and new specific uses for obtaining organic products.
Grape seeds contain 8–15% (w/w) oil with a high content of unsaturated fatty acids (oleic acid and linoleic acid), which represent more than 89% of the total essential fatty acids. Linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid receiving a lot of attention, together with the conjugated linoleic acid, due to their biological effects. Thus, recent studies have shown the beneficial effects of the grape seed oil, such as hepatoprotective, neuroprotective action and in reducing the level of cholesterol in the liver [42, 46, 47, 48].
In the food industry, grape seed oil can promote lower production costs, as it is more competitive compared to other types of oil in economic terms, and may be a new food source for human consumption. In addition, grape seed oil has a high burning point, which is why it can be considered as a potential biodiesel [11].
Food industry is constantly searching for new strategies that may lead to inhibition of the spoilage microorganisms growth. Recent studies focused on new natural compounds with antimicrobial activity capable to replace classical chemical preservatives. Several products obtained from grape pomace, in particular from grape seeds, have been proposed to act as food spoilage control additives.
The growth of mesophilic aerobic bacteria, lactic acid bacteria,
Grape seed extracts showed bactericidal effects against
The antimicrobial effect of the grape pomace products is usually attributed to different phenolic compounds. Several studies have shown the predominant role of the phenolic acids (mainly gallic acid, followed by p-hydroxybenzoic and vanillic acids) compared to flavonoids. In this respect, gallic acid has been shown to be the strongest antimicrobial agent in grape seed extracts [53, 54]. Although the effect of inhibition of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms by grape extracts has been widely studied, there is still some research that highlights the ability of products obtained from pomace to promote activity or protect probiotic microorganisms against various external factors.
The effect of phenolic compounds on the growth of lactic acid bacteria may have a significant variation, depending on the chemical structure and concentration of each phenolic compound, the species of microorganisms, their growth in the environment and the growth phase. Some authors found that pomace and grape seed extracts have promoted the growth of
Procyanidin extract from grape seeds has shown anti-obesity properties in animal and human studies. Recent studies suggest that procyanidin extract from grape seeds has a protective effect on intestinal permeability, but the mechanism is still unknown. The extract has been reported to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties and the ability to modulate the intestinal microbiota. Based on these properties, it was supposed that the mechanism of intestinal barrier function mediated by procyanidin extract from grape seeds is associated with reducing the inflammation and changes within the intestinal microbiota [42, 74].
Some
Recent research work using a system of ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (UHPLC–MS/MS) on Tannat grape skin extracts showed that the main polyphenols constituents are flavonoids, phenolic acids and phenols. Also, the study demonstrated the bioavailability of these compounds
As described in previous chapter, various beneficial compounds were reported to be present in grapes-as harvested and grape-based products, and having roles in balancing human metabolic processes related to oxidative stress [74].
Red grapes harvested from Romanian organic and conventional cultivated vineyards have been studied, several phytochemical characteristics such as total phenolic content, total flavonoids, antioxidant activity have been determined, together with antimicrobial activity, and also information on the chemical bonding has been collected. Grape extracts from different anatomic parts that are main components of grape pomace (skins, seeds, and pulps remains) were used in experiments. Main perspective of these studies was to identify and test some possibilities to re-use the by-products generated in economic activities related to vine cultures, and also to differentiate, whenever possible, between the two types of culture management (organic and conventional).
Processes aiming at obtaining high-value added products from wastes generated by wine industry, and also evaluating benefits of organic over conventional viticulture for human health, both need phytochemical and biological data, as well as comparisons/differentiation between varieties and/or cultures characteristics. In the following paragraphs, information on the laboratory protocols and analytical instrumentation applied, together with the chemometric algorithms used to obtain complementary data were detailed.
Different instrumental analytical techniques were reported by scientists as tools to identify and quantify antioxidants in water and hydroalcoholic extracts obtained from different grapes anatomic parts, and also for genetic characterization [3, 4, 19, 36, 71, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78]. Top instrumental techniques such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography (GC), with various detection devices are used to obtain detailed information on the bioactive compounds profile and content, or on genetic information (geographical mapping etc). Spectroscopic techniques like ultraviolet–visible (UV–VIS), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and Raman, are widely used to establish the antioxidant activity of grapes samples, to identify and/or quantify classes of antioxidant species (
Antimicrobial activity is an important characteristic for any material intended to be used in applications related to health, food or others [19, 72]. In this study, disc diffusion assay and minimum inhibitory concentration methods have been used to evaluate this property of red grape extracts against some bacterial strains isolated from natural environment, some important conclusions have been drawn and were presented below.
Considering the large-scale application of developed laboratory protocols, grapes samples were mainly characterized through spectroscopic methods such as absorption techniques of UV–VIS and FTIR, and Raman scattering. These techniques are routinely used in laboratories, and generally accepted as providing cost-effective, rapid measurements, with a convenient sample treatment, or non-destructive. Even if the recorded spectra are often not readily useable, and need data processing and analysis, further use of chemometrics may help to extract meaningful conclusions from multivariate data.
Analytical protocols included the classic steps of sampling, sample preparation, and qualitative and/or quantitative analysis. For the sampling step, grapes samples of four varieties were harvested from Romanian vineyards (out of which one was a native wine variety) as described in previous published works [3, 4, 19, 75], and then representative portions from each sample were taken for further treatment. The four varieties studied were Merlot, Pinot Noir, Feteasca Neagra and Muscat Hamburg. Grape skins and seeds were dried in the oven at 40°C for 48 hours and then stored at room temperature in closed vials, while the pulp fraction was frozen and maintained at - 18°C, and defrosted in the day of laboratory tests. To obtain the grape extracts, classic maceration and ultrasound assisted extraction procedures have been applied, both at room temperature, and using either deionized water (<0.05 μS/cm) or hydroalcoholic (50%, v/v) solvents, for a total extraction time of 24 hours. For maceration, magnetic stirring at 150 rpm has been applied for the first 3 hours, and for the second method, the ultrasound field of 45 kHz has been applied for the first 30 minutes. Then, for the remaining time up to 24 hours, samples rested at room temperature, in dark and non-humid atmosphere. For dry grape skins and seeds samples a 4% (dry weight/volume dw/v) ratio was used, while for the pulp samples, the grape fraction to solvent volume was of 12% (w/v). In general, extractions using 50 mL of solvent were proved sufficient for one set of analysis. Separation of liquid and solid fractions was performed by centrifugation at 1000 rpm, for 10 minutes, and filtration (Whatman 4).
This technique uses the interaction of the light with wavelengths in the range 200–800 nm with the molecules existing in the material of interest. An absorption phenomenon appears, with non-bonding and π-bonding electrons provide the strongest absorbances. Aromatic molecules, antioxidants such as phenolic molecules, flavonoids in particular are examples of molecules where UV–VIS spectroscopy may be successfully applied. The method is considered to have a limitation in sensitivity, because of the inability to differentiate between molecules absorbing in the same wavelengths range. Samples are either scanned as they are, or prepared according to specific protocols indicating qualitative or quantitative determinations.
Antioxidant activity (AA), total polyphenols content (TPC) and total flavonoids content (TFC) have been determined in this study, by using UV–VIS spectroscopy.
Table 1 shows examples of antioxidant compounds that may be present in grape-based samples [4, 36, 75, 77]. As may be observed, the general structure of polyphenols contains at least one aromatic ring, with at least one hydroxyl group bonded on it. These compounds are classified considering the number of rings and the functional groups bound in the structure, and thus there are: phenolic acids, flavonoids, stilbenes, and lignans, coumarins, tannins. The health benefits of bioactive phenolic compounds have been demonstrated, and their contribution to the wine quality in terms of sensory perception (color, taste, mouthfeel, flavor, astringency, bitterness) have been recently discussed in detail [79].
Examples of polyphenolic compounds from grapes (names and chemical formulas).
With respect to flavonoids structure, in Figure 2 one may observe that it contains two benzene rings (A and B) and an oxygen containing pyran ring (C). Flavonoids’ classification in six subclasses is generally accepted, and the difference between them is given by the oxidation level of the C ring of the basic 4-oxoflavonoid (2-phenyl-benzo-γ-pyrone) nucleus, and thus there are: flavanols, flavones, isoflavones, flavanones, anthocyanidins and flavonols. Table 1 shows the example of quercetin which belong to flavonols sub-class. The antioxidant activity of flavonoids, as for polyphenolics in general, is due to the presence and position of the multiple hydroxyl groups in their structure.
General structure of flavonoids and their subclasses.
In the following paragraphs, the analytical protocols applied to generate quantitative phytochemical data of studied grape samples will be provided.
Two vibrational spectroscopic techniques were used during experiments, the infrared (IR) light absorption and Raman scattering, both aiming at investigating the chemical functional groups of organic compounds in studied grape samples, and potential changes occurring while applying extraction procedures. Gathering information on differences between grapes sampled from organic and conventional vineyards was also in the scope of this study.
The Fourier Transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer used was Vertex 80v (Bruker) equipped with diamond attenuated total reflection (ATR) crystal accessory, and samples were placed on the measurement position without any additional preparation. The absorption frequencies were recorded in the mid infrared range of 4000–400 cm−1, the average spectrum of 32 scans (with baseline and atmospheric correction), was declared an experimental result, and considered for further data processing. Same IR scanning procedure was followed for each of the studied samples.
Raman spectra for studied samples have been recorded with a Xantus 2 (Rigaku) spectrometer, using a light source of 1064 nm, at a power of 490 mW. The average of 5 scans (with baseline correction) was taken as the experimental result for each sample, and presented as intensity vs. Raman shift in the wavenumber range of 2000–200 cm−1.
To evaluate antimicrobial activity of the grapes extracts, observation and quantification of the growth of several strains of bacteria isolated from natural environments during their contact with studied samples. Both disc diffusion and minimum inhibitory concentration assays were applied [3]. First, several bacterial strains were isolated from different habitats, grown in agar meat broth, and incubated at 37 ± 0.2°C, then characterized by classical microbiological techniques. These bacterial cultures were used to prepare inocula for the antimicrobial testing, colonies from 24 h-old plates were picked, suspended in appropriate media, and aerobically grown at 37°C for 24 h. It worth mentioning at this point that all the operations related to antimicrobial activity determination were performed according to a lab-protocol that avoided contamination (
For the disc diffusion method, a volume of 20–50 μL of fresh bacterial culture with the optical density at 600 nm between 0.2 and 0.4 was spread on Petri dishes with the media. Sterile 6 mm paper disks were impregnated in the grape extracts for 1 h, then placed on the Petri dish at approx. 15 mm from edge, and at 30 mm distance between each other, and in the end incubated at 37 ± 0.2°C for 2 days. One considers a sample as having antimicrobial activity, if after the above-mentioned incubation time, a clear area (halo) may be observed on the inoculated Petri dish around the disk impregnated with the respective sample.
The minimum inhibitory concentration of grape extracts was determined as the lowest concentration of the sample that completely inhibited the growth of tested microorganisms, as visually detected by the normal human eye. The incubation time considered was 48 h at 37 ± 0.2°C, and control samples without grape extract were tested in each set of experiments.
In is well known that chemometrics is generally applied to provide additional information to the direct interpretation of experimental data collected through various laboratory techniques. The usefulness of chemometrics may arise from both its descriptive approach
Several chemometric methods have been applied during the study, as valuable tools aiming at a further interpretation of the instrumental analytical data. In this respect, we may list herein the multiple linear regression, bivariate correlations of data (on the basis of Pearson coefficients), and the SPSS classification through hierarchical cluster analysis. Also, multivariate analysis and corresponding methodologies have been applied to process large data sets generated by the vibrational spectroscopic used for samples characterization [82]. Other techniques like principal component analysis (PCA), agglomerative hierarchical clustering (AHC) and discriminant analysis (DA) were also applied in this study [38, 39, 83, 84, 85], as well as combinations between them [70, 82, 86].
The Statistical Package for the Social Science v24.0 software for MS Windows (SAGE IBM® SPSS®) was used when measured phytochemical parameters and antimicrobial activity were taken into consideration for data analysis. The significance of differences between various experimental groups was evaluated at 5% level of significance.
For statistical analysis of spectral data, the XLSTAT software, 2021.1.1 version has been used (©Addinsoft, USA). First, Box-Cox transformation [82, 87, 88] was applied to obtain approximately normally distributed values. Then, principal component analysis (PCA) was used to reduce the dimensionality of the spectral data to a smaller number of components. The analysis of the score plots (FTIR and Raman data) for the first three principal components (PCs) was based on the partial bootstrap method [89], in order to estimate the proximity between the observations and to know which observations are significantly different from each other. Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering (AHC) was performed using the Euclidean distance as the distance measure and single linkage (Ward’s method) strategy to link clusters within the data set [76]. Discriminant Analysis (DA) was applied considering that when the number of variables exceeds the number of samples, one method of multivariate discrimination is to use principal components analysis and then to perform canonical variates analysis [83, 84]. Combining both PCA and DA approaches, in so called PC-DA model, leads to improving the efficiency of classification, as this procedure automatically finds the most diagnostically significant features [85, 86, 90].
Beyond the technical details of their specific application on the data recorded by laboratory and instrumental techniques, these chemometric methods aimed to complete the direct interpretation of the analytical results. Thus, additional information regarding potential correlations between the potential valuable compounds that may be extracted from studied grape samples, their antimicrobial activity, and the vineyard management type, grape varieties, or grapes anatomic parts used to prepare the studied extracts, etc. was of a significant interest once one started to apply the chemometrics.
By using the lab-investigations protocols, together with data processing and analysis using the chemometrics as described in previous sections, important information on the grape-based products from Romanian vineyards, either of organic and/or conventional type. Synthetic data were presented in this sub-section, together with cross-references where details of the research may be found. However, at the moment of submission of this chapter, some experimental data are the subject of articles being drafted or under the review process, and may be consulted in the near future.
Phytochemical characterization of extracts prepared from grapes parts harvested from Romanian vineyards (organic and conventional management types) confirmed the variability described by the literature [91, 92, 93]. As examples, the type of vineyard management, the extraction solvent and/or method influenced the TPC, TFC, AA, pH, or conductivity of some prepared extracts, while for some others differences were not significant [3, 4, 19, 75].
Table 2 presents some phytochemical parameters of grape skin, seeds and pulp (hydroalcoholic extracts obtained by room temperature maceration) of Feteasca Neagra variety of
Phytochemical parameter [unit] | Vineyard Type | Grape parts studied | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Skin | Seeds | Pulp | ||
TPC [mg GAE/g] | Organic | 71.98 ± 4.04ab | 150.92 ± 4.87b | 0.88 ± 0.06 |
Conventional | 22.17 ± 0.58ab | 64.48 ± 1.36b | 0.39 ± 0.02 | |
TFC [mg Quercetin/g] | Organic | 87.72 ± 5.95 | 158.36 ± 11.10 | 8.29 ± 0.04 |
Conventional | 47.02 ± 2.87 | 122.14 ± 7.18 | 8.29 ± 0.05 | |
AA [mg Ascorbic Acid/g] | Organic | 23.99 ± 2.16a | 286.58 ± 10.47 | 14.81 ± 0.04 |
Conventional | 23.82 ± 2.62a | 157.07 ± 9.31 | 11.12 ± 0.02 |
Phytochemical characteristics of Feteasca Neagra variety grapes parts (hydroalcoholic extracts).
Significant difference (p ≤ 0.05) among grapes’ varieties.
Significant difference (p ≤ 0.05) between vineyard type, with regards to phytochemical characteristics of extracts (one-way ANOVA, Tukey test).
For the Pinot Noir variety, in the aqueous extracts prepared from organic grape skins a total flavonoids content of 0.317 ± 0.035 mg Quercetin/mL, almost triple than same extracts prepared from grapes originating from a conventional vineyard (0.109 ± 0.034 mg/mL), when the extraction method was classical maceration. For the case of ultrasound-assisted extraction, the TFC in organic grape skins aqueous extracts was over two-fold higher than the same kind of extracts but prepared from conventional cultivated grapes (recorded values were 0.297 ± 0.028 mg Quercetin/mL, and respectively 0.139 ± 0.074 mg Quercetin/mL) [4]. The use of hydroalcoholic solvent showed similar behavior, in the sense that TFC was higher for samples from organic vineyards, than from conventional vineyard, but to a lower extent [3].
For two studied grape varieties a different behavior was found when the extraction procedure in water as solvent was applied. Thus, for Merlot (wine variety) and Muscat Hamburg (table grapes) aqueous extract, regardless the extraction method at room temperature (maceration and ultrasound-assisted), significant differences were recorded in the pH and conductivity measurements, when the vineyard type was considered. For the Merlot variety, pH and conductivity of the organic grapes skin extracts were always higher than for the conventional vineyard harvested samples, while for Muscat Hamburg variety an opposite variation was found for the pH (lower for organic originating samples extracts that for conventional ones), while no notable differences were found for conductivity values [4]. The explanation of these findings could be inferred from correlations with the specific treatments used in the vineyards, according to the management type of each culture [3, 4, 19, 75, 94], and further research is desirable.
For all studied grape varieties, regardless the solvent used in the initial step, the extracts prepared from dried seeds had higher values of TPC, TFC and AA than extracts prepared from dry skins and from grape pulp, regardless the vineyard type where the samples originated, and regardless the extraction method, if either maceration or ultrasound assisted, at room temperature [3, 4, 19, 40, 75].
For the hydroalcoholic extracts, while for the grape skins extracts TPC, TFC and AA had close values with regards to the vineyard type, if either organic or conventional, for the grape seeds’ extracts, the experimental findings show significant differences between the organic and conventional samples, for these three phytochemical parameters, for the wine-type grapes (Feteasca Neagra, Merlot, Pinot Noir), while for the table grapes variety (Muscat Hamburg), the values were similar. The ANOVA algorithm, and the technique of multiple comparison applied on these measured values confirmed the differences between the antioxidants content (p < 0.05), and stated that TPC is the parameter the most influenced by the vineyard type, for both skins and seeds of studied grape varieties [3, 40].
A series of experiments were conducted aiming at evaluating whether the extraction procedures applied lead to obtaining samples with compounds that may have antimicrobial properties. Control samples without grapes extracts were tested for each set in the same conditions with the studied grapes extracts. Several bacteria strains were first isolated from ordinary environments, characterized and stored according to standardized procedures, and then used during the tests [3, 19, 40]. It was found that hydroalcoholic extracts prepared from grape skins originating from conventional type of cultures had a significant antibacterial activity against strains of
The mid-infrared spectroscopy with Fourier transformation (FTIR) has been used to obtain spectra of studied samples, in the wavenumbers range of 4000 cm−1 to 400 cm−1. Figure 3 shows some examples of the spectra obtained for the native Romanian variety Feteasca Neagra, on hydroalcoholic extracts prepared from three anatomic parts of grapes harvested from organic, and respectively from conventional vineyards. As may be observed in this plot, measurements results are spectra with important similarities. Thus, all FTIR spectra showed strong peaks at 3275 cm−1, assigned to O-H stretching vibration, and in the range 1043–1055 cm−1, that may be assigned to C-O stretching, and to stretching vibrations of O-H and C-OH. Also, the peaks of 2979 cm−1 and around 2900 cm−1 could be assigned to asymmetric and symmetric stretching vibrations of -CH-, -CH2-. -CH3 from carbohydrates. The signal in the range of 1635–1643 cm−1 can be assigned to the aromatic C=C stretching vibrations which may correlate with the presence of anthocyanins, and also to C=O stretching vibration, while this finding may correlate with the presence of flavonoids like flavonols, flavons, isoflavones or flavanones. The peak recorded at 877 cm−1 was associated with the aromatic cycle C-H bending vibrations [4, 75, 77, 94]. Similar behavior was recorded for extracts of other grape varieties, provided by both organic and conventional vineyards, and are the subject of paper under review.
Mid-infrared (FTIR) spectra recorded for grapes anatomic parts from organic (solid lines) and conventional (dashed lines) cultures of Feteasca Neagra vineyards (hydroalcoholic extracts).
Unfortunately, information on some production parameters such as the irrigation level, crop yield, others, were not available for this study. Thus, further research will be considered, aiming at evaluating to what extent the recorded phytochemical data relate to the organic/conventional cultivation system only, and/or to some specific agronomic practices.
As may be observed in Figure 4, similar spectra were obtained by using Raman spectroscopy, and the additional data processing and data analysis through chemometric techniques have been useful to extract further conclusions, and will be detailed below.
Raman spectra recorded for grapes anatomic parts from organic (solid lines) and conventional (dashed lines) cultures of Feteasca Neagra vineyards (hydroalcoholic extracts).
However, given the limited conclusions that may be extracted from the direct interpretation of the infrared and Raman spectra recorded for studied samples, chemometric methods have been applied considering the spectral data. Some results were published [94] and the following paragraphs will present some statistical analysis of samples indicated in Table 3, together with the additional information they could provide for the experimental findings. Codes indicated in this table correspond to those indicated in Figure 4. Multivariate analysis has been applied to FTIR and Raman spectral data recorded for hydroalcoholic extracts obtained from the four red grapes varieties indicated in the table, and for the three grapes parts studied - skin, seeds. and pulp.
Grape variety | Vineyard type | Sample code |
---|---|---|
Merlot | Organic | M-O |
Conventional | M-C | |
Feteasca Neagra | Organic | FN-O |
Conventional | FN-C | |
Pinot Noir | Organic | PN-O |
Conventional | PN-C | |
Muscat Hamburg | Organic | MH-O |
Conventional | MH-C |
Samples codes used in the chemometric analysis of spectral data.
For the easiness of reading, conclusions extracted from statistical analysis were presented graphically in Figure 5. As may be observed, the figure shows information on the classification based on vineyard type, and the color and shape codes are explained in its caption. The work flow of the statistical analysis was as described in previous section.
Statistical classification of the red grapes hydroalcoholic extracts (skin/seeds/pulp), based on vineyard type (organic/conventional).
A notable finding was that the decomposition of both FTIR and Raman spectral data through PCA revealed that with the first three principal components (PCs) a percentage higher than 90% of the total variability (the sum of percentage of variability explained by that PC and the preceding one) of the analyzed data was included. The PCA score plots showed that the investigated red grape varieties (
Further analysis performed using Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering (AHC) allowed a clear view of the similarities and differences between red grape parts extracts. For instance, AHC derived from grapes skins, FTIR data has grouped both organic and conventional extracts into two main classes/clusters (variance decomposition for the optimal classification: within-class 97.2%, between-classes 2.8%); at a lower dissimilarity level subclusters division allow a classification based on vineyard type (excepting PN-O), a differentiation was found for each grape variety between organic and conventional vineyards. From the classification obtained by using AHC based on Raman spectral data, organic and conventional extracts were similarly included into two main clusters (variance decomposition for the optimal classification: within-class 77.7%, between-classes 22.3%). Subclusters division based on Raman data shows notable differences between organic and conventional vineyards excepting Pinot Noir variety. The AHC algorithm applied on both FTIR and Raman data for seeds and pulp extracts lead also to grouping in two clusters, for both organic and conventional vineyards.
In the end, after the application of PCA on FTIR and Raman datasets, the first three principal components scores were retained for further analysis – classification and cross-validation through PC-DA. The result was, for all the three grape parts studied (skin, seeds, pulp) that all the extracts have been correctly classified through PC-DA, with only one exception (PN-O/FTIR data for skins).
For the case of the native Romanian variety Feteasca Neagra, and considering the vineyard management type only as criterion (conventional/organic), one may observe in Figure 4 that application of AHC algorithm on FTIR data may provide a classification for all grape parts extracts (except FN-O/pulp) of the while the FTIR spectral data allow classification through, while application of the same algorithm on Raman data, a classification is possible only for seeds and pulp extracts. Another conclusion that may be extracted from Figure 4, is that once the PC-DA method is applied, a classification may be obtained while using both infrared and Raman spectroscopy datasets.
Romania is one of the major vine growers in the European Union, and in the same time, concerned with expanding the application of the principles of the circular economy in this field, with positive economic, social and environmental impacts on long term. The pedoclimatic conditions in the country offer the possibility of obtaining vine productions of an important variability, with qualitative and quantitative benefits. Subsequently, the composition of grape-based direct products (wine, food and beverages, others) and by-products (grape pomace, others) may vary, and thus leading to the desirable market variety. Extracting high-added value components from wastes in the vine-related industries may be a significant action in this context. Also, application of organic type of management to vineyards has the potential to significantly contribute to the sustainability in this field.
This chapter presents useful tools on how to characterize grape-based products extracts, and offers information on some cost-effective techniques suitable to collect, process and interpret experimental data. Thus, the information provided may contribute to taking informed decisions with regards to valorization of by-products generated in vine cultures.
This research was funded by the project CNFIS-FDI-2021-0075 - ProResearch: Quality, Performance, Excellence - concepts for a stimulating and competitive environment in research (2021), and the UEFISCDI the project-contract no. 364PED (2020).
Nature is the eternal source of inspiration for mankind. Even the slightest interaction with the environment can refresh the senses and rejuvenate the mind [1]. Today’s societies are increasingly compromising and creating a deteriorating natural environment, with far fewer opportunities to experience satisfying contact with nature as an integral part of our daily lives. The development of urbanization leads to urban stress, which affects not only school children but also adult cognitive development in the workplace.
Facts and concerns related to adult at workplace: As office environments become increasingly stressful and people spend more time at work, short breaks in nature can spur them to be more productive and improve their health overall. The benefits of nature are believed to have a huge impact on adults in the workplace who are exposed to high levels of stress. In the workplace, being close to nature not only improves employee satisfaction, but even promotes an individual’s productivity, creativity, and happiness. With more and more employers realizing the importance of employee health, the provision of green space in office buildings is increasingly becoming an important design element. Numerous studies have found that students perceive outdoor spaces on campus as landscaped, well-maintained, and safe; however, they feel that outdoor furniture, sports equipment and lighting are completely inadequate, more importantly; outdoor spaces lack the facilities that can support learning and social connection.
Facts and concerns related to children at school environment: The educational environment in a campus setting holistically entails the interface of indoor and outdoor spaces. At any level of education, the outdoor space is an essential consideration for designers or school administrators. Similarly, the campus environment can be classified into the physical environment and the social environment even as the duo has significant implications for planning and administration. While the physical environment serves as the physical location where campus life or activities takes place, the social environment is the location for interaction, social norms, and connection among students, staff, and other members of the university community. However, the available shreds of evidence are in agreement with the urban studies, which depict improved performance of the students in classrooms with greener views. It also establishes that students can cope with stressful events when they have proximity to nature [2].
How and why green space promotes mental health? A philosophical point here is whether it matters how and why green spaces can benefit mental health, or only that it does. The green space and health research area should consider directing its efforts along with these two complementary agendas. It is clear that engagement with green spaces offers benefits in terms of mental health and well-being, and thus green space can act as a preventative measure to promote elite mental health. Therefore, a research program needs to investigate the potential benefits of green space through a range of measures of interest unexplored to date and to examine the extent of these benefits (Figure 1) [3].
Methodology (source: Author).
For humans, nature is an infinite source of inspiration. Even a brief connection with nature can refresh your senses and spirit. Today’s culture has resulted in an increasingly degraded natural environment with far fewer opportunities to enjoy pleasant communion with nature in everyday life. The increase in urbanization leads to urban stress, which affects not only the cognitive development of children at school, but also the cognitive growth of adults at work.
Cognitive development: Cognitive development is the construction of thought processes, including remembering, problem-solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to adulthood [4]. Through the interaction of inherited and learned elements, cognitive development refers to how a person observes, thinks about, and understands his or her surroundings. Information processing, intelligence, reasoning, literacy skills, and memory are all components of cognitive development.
Mental health and green space: Green space is a broad term that refers to both controlled and unprotected natural areas, such as protected areas, wilderness areas, and city parks. Green spaces are often created for recreational or esthetic purposes, especially in urban areas. Although global urbanization has reduced access to and participation in green spaces, there is strong evidence that neighborhood green levels are associated with mental health and well-being. Compared with cities with less green space, people in urban areas with more green space experience less mental discomfort, anxiety, and depression, feel better, and have a healthier cortisol profile.
Biophilia: Biophilia is defined as a natural human desire to be associated with nature. Natural materials, natural light, plants, nature views, and other natural world experiences are incorporated into the modern built environment through biophilic design, which is an extension of biophilia. Six principles of biophilic design:
Environmental characteristics—Color, water, air, sunlight, plants, animals, and natural materials are all well-known features of the natural world that can be brought into the built environment. Geology and landscapes.
Natural forms and shapes—Biomorphic art, architecture, and design are all examples of natural feature simulation.
Natural processes and patterns—Using time, change, and transitions to transform the sensory experience of a location; complementary contrasts, the play between balance and tension; rhythm, ratios, and scale.
The use of light and space—Understanding how and why people react to light in all of its forms (warm, cool, shaped, filtered, diffused, inside vs. outside) can help you make better decisions about how to use it.
Place-based relationships—The historical, cultural, geographic, spiritual, or ecological value of a location is linked to its meaning.
Evolved human-nature relationships—We have been transformed by our complex relationship with Nature, and we still react strongly to the echoes of our long history [5].
The therapeutic application of green space for mental health: Green spaces are often used to provide structured therapeutic interventions to vulnerable groups such as at-risk youth, people with dementia or mental illness, probationers, and stressed employees. For example, wild green spaces are used to care for people with dementia and to improve social contact and a sense of belonging. Reducing stress, agitation, anger, apathy, and depression also improves emotional well-being [6].
The theory of cognitive development developed by French scientist Jean Piaget (1896–1980) is the most well-known and influential theory of cognitive development. He analyzed that a child’s knowledge as being made up of schemas, which are defined as “fundamental units of knowledge used to organize past experiences and provide a foundation for understanding future ones.” Through his studies, Piaget declared that cognitive development occurred in four stages throughout one’s childhood where (as shown in Figure 2),
Stages occur in order.
Children did not skip stages but passed through each one.
There are visible changes from one stage to the next.
The stages occur as building blocks, each one using pieces from the last stage.
The four cognitive development stages as per Piaget’s theory of cognitive development [
These stages always actually happen in the same order, and each one builds on the previous one. These four stages are as follows [8]:
Sensorimotor stage (infancy): This phase acknowledges six substages where Intelligence is exhibited through motor activity without the use of symbols. Around the age of 7 months, children learn object permanence (memory). Physical development (mobility) enables an infant to begin developing new psychological capabilities. At the end of this period, some symbolic (language) abilities are acquired.
Preoperational stage (toddlerhood and early childhood): Intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols, language matures, memory and imagination develop, but thinking is done in a nonlogical, nonreversible fashion throughout this stage, which includes two substages. The dominant mode of thought is egocentric.
Concrete operational stage (elementary and early adolescence): This stage is characterized by seven types of conservation (number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, and volume). Intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible). Egocentric thoughts get diminished.
Formal operational stage (adolescence and adulthood): In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. Early in the period there is a return to egocentric thought.
Embracing therapeutic landscapes as part of academic green space—The Healthy Academic Greenery Framework (HAGF) summarizes the most important relationship between academic greenery and the physical, mental, and social well-being of students.
This allows for a more detailed discussion of the results of using Hofgarten, its implications and perceived well-being. Comparing health experiences with well-established theories of greenery and well-being, such as Völker and Kiestemann’s four-dimensional appropriation and attentive recovery theory that extend the concept of the therapeutic environment, compares the results of the Hofgarten study with those of previous studies conducted in different scenarios or in different populations context. The allocation size is no different (as shown in Figure 3). It is important to recognize that the relevant dimensions are dynamic and intertwined aspects of the interdependent structure of health promotion rather than easily identifiable dimensions. From intangible experiential or symbolic meanings to tactile interactions such as social contacts and physical interactions, these parameters suggest different approaches to health policy [9].
Healthy academic green space framework (HAGF).
Green space’s health benefits can be explained by a multitude of biopsychosocial pathways. It is possible to divide them into three domains, each focusing on a different function of green spaces (as shown in Figure 4).
Three domains of pathways linking green space to positive health outcomes [
Recent studies have shown that green spaces have positive effects on children’s overall well-being, such as mental health, physical fitness, and social skills.
Physical development: In medicine, childhood is considered an important age for the development of large and fine motor skills in children, and children who play in their natural environment perform better on relevant tests than on regular playgrounds. Childhood overweight/obesity and sedentary lifestyles are common during epidemics. However, exposure to green space has shown a relatively low prevalence of the aforementioned traits. Myopia is less likely to develop from exposure to sunlight and spending time on green school grounds. Research shows that children of all ages enjoy physical activities such as walking and biking when they have more access to outdoor spaces.
Mental development: A study of the link between green spaces and cognitive development in children found that minor associations, such as having a greener window view, could positively affect attention span and academic achievement, as well as improve imagination, creativity, and intelligence. Notable benefits are: (a) stress relief, (b) improved concentration, (c) increased self-confidence, (d) sense of community and sense of community.
Social development: Observations have shown that children performed better on attention and spatial working memory tasks after walking in nature than walking on city street [11]. Similar studies have found higher standardized test scores. Socialization and community activities among peers, neighbors, and children are usually done in local parks, which can reduce parental stress and improve children’s behavior [12].
According to a study by the University of Twente, increases in the level of focus and higher productivity are noticed in employees working in offices with green spaces.
Less sick days: Green spaces carry an effect on health and well-being. A Harvard study revealed that green offices experience 30% lesser sick days when compared with other employees, it was also observed that there were 30% fewer symptoms of sick building syndrome, watering eyes, headaches, dizziness, nausea, heart palpitations, chronic fatigue, tremors, cancer, etc.
Better office cooperation: Green spaces stand as areas of social interactions. The same goes for office spaces as well. A green office reportedly reduces hierarchical friction, encourages collaboration, cultivates employees’ engagement with others, and allows more worker/user relationship-building opportunities.
More focus: Like children, greenery affects cognition as much as 26% in adults also, when compared with non-greened buildings. Workplaces end up with less productivity when an employee is physically present and mentally absent. In an experimental study, analysis of participants reveals an increase in subjective concentration levels in the case of green office, whereas, in the typical office, no difference was observed over time.
Energy savings and the environment: The experimental study reveals that participants in the green office perceived an increase in air quality, which was a persistent effect in the long term since plants’ respiration naturally contributes to the air quality, temperature, and humidity levels in any area, resulting in power savings.
Curb appeal: Benefits of green offices remain the same for office or employee turnover, such as attracting people to take up the job or enter a rental agreement [13].
The Gyaan Centre is platform to invite renowned women artists, designers, and education advocates to create artwork, host events, and exhibit art installations. Comfortable environment assimilates and provides opportunities to learn to read, write, and develop traditional artisan skills unique to the region. The school is well equipped with the all-necessary infrastructure include classrooms, a library, a computer center, and a bus facility to transport girls from neighboring villages. The school is essential and core structure of Gyaan Centre, an exhibition space and women cooperative revolve around. The Gyaan Centre is symbol of the infinite possibilities of women’s strength reminiscing the historic, enchanting and sustainable architecture of the Rajasthan (Figure 5).
Gyaan Centre, Jaisalmer.
The Gyaan Centre is inspired by feminine symbols across cultures, specifically symbols of strength, encompassing on a structure of three ovals to represent the power of femininity and infinity. The spectacular ellipse structure blends seamlessly into the planes of sand dunes within the region of Jaisalmer, with putting arciform walls, which imitate the organic design of Rajasthan’s fort.
Organization of spaces: Siting and orientation of the ellipse axis with the solar climatic angles, which forms larger and wider shadows through the day to enjoy the central court for various activities (as shown in Figure 6). Introvert spaces considering the climatic consideration courtyard planning inspired from traditional architecture of the region. The height-to-width ratio is maintained by enhancing the high parapet wall; further it imitates the skyline of the fortress in the region.
Longitudinal and latitudinal sections to understand the shadow.
Use of landscape elements: Large hardscape paved plaza to accommodate functional aspects of school activities, such as assembly, breakout space in between classes, and outdoor learning spaces as well it traps and captures the rainwater runoff inspired from “Tanka,” the traditional rainwater harvesting system in the arid climatic region. The relatively small softscape pockets compliment as a visual retreat in the monochromatic floors of courtyards. Introduction of flexible shade structure to improve the usability at time of mid-day hours. Water-sensitive landscape design approach considering minimal and locally sourced vegetation pallet associated with cultural roots of the people.
The organic form of the building inspired from the sand dunes, cladded with locally sourced material, and inspired from the traditional building design principles the built mass amalgams with the context. The seamless integration of the indoor and outdoor environment is preserved by slight level difference between courtyards and classrooms access passage (as shown in Figure 7). The high ceiling permits thermal comfort by reducing the indoor temperature, the clearstory windows serve to release the hot air and opportunities for filtered indirect light.
Indoor outdoor experience, Gyaan Centre.
Delta-plantsoen considers for redevelopment to become the first playground in the Grevelingenveld, which is a neighborhood square in Rivierenbuurt. The design program was challenging considering the unique requirement of the context, however, strategically resolved during the design process by introducing significant landscape elements and experiences. The promising interface and continuous user pool requirements and the tractability in land use allocation where green spaces are allowed to be used as school play yard provide an endless opportunities for communities, cultures, and livable cities.
The interplay of contrasting experiences, passive naturalist and active urban characters are assembling with the undulating threshold between the two extremes known as “ribbon.”
Organization of spaces: The square is divided in the three broader segments; the outer edge is defined by site extent. The ribbon itself encompasses an intermediate zone as well as encasement to innermost core (as shown in Figure 8).
Site plan, Christian elementary Jan van Nassau school.
Use of landscape elements: The ribbon, a unique landscape element, is introduced, which acts as buffer between experimental and fundamental play opportunities. The ribbon is confining element to define the extent of urban oasis and provide a contemplative visual retreat for kids and also provide the opportunities for parents to sneak-peak into the wild. The ribbon also hosts a distinctive design program for all the age groups from passive grass mounds around inner core and rock climbing, skating, and leisure seating toward the outer interface facing the active zone. The central natural playground is a space where children are free to construct and destruct their own play spaces from natural materials and fast-growing plants such as willow and reeds.
Strategically designed access points invite users all cross immediate and larger context. Well integrated with the school interface and allows all-time vehicular conflict free access for all age kids. The interwoven circulation allows the thoroughfare and facilities natural surveillance on the user (as shown in Figure 9).
Indoor outdoor experience, Christian elementary Jan van Nassau school.
Titan Integrity Campus, in keeping with its vision of creating elevating experiences for the people it touches and significantly impacts the world it works in, wanted to create a safe and sustainable property for its manpower within the urban agglomeration of Bengaluru. Titan Integrity field is placed on 6.5-acre site that contains a waterbody on the eastward and a road toward the north. The design has a very unique attachment with the site and the adjoining lake (as shown in Figure 10).
Titan trinity campus, Bengaluru.
The aim was to build a campus that retains natural beauty and focuses on energy and resource conservation while enhancing the quality of life of its employees. The aim is of utilizing each potential view and feature to the lakeside makes any user a spectator of this serene setting. Lake and green spaces create an ample microclimate, thus minimizing mechanical cooling (as shown in Figure 11). Also, green terraces are an extension of indoor building areas that enable one to work outdoors and stimulate interaction amidst flora and fauna.
Conceptual view (source:
Organization of spaces: Office building with all its ancillaries is proposed around this bio lake. Building is oriented with longer sides facing North–South to bring in glare free natural light. Porosity in planning and form allows continuous movement of breeze with wind tunnels creating venturi effect. Common areas are open and non-air-conditioned.
Porosity in structure allows continuous movement of air with wind tunnels making a venturi effect. The design is in such a way that each department has its own zonal area but is well connected to the various departments through voluminous atria, which brings in light and allows hot air to escape. The depth of area is perceived in such a way that the entire office space is filled with daylight as long as the sun allows, thus reducing the use of artificial light.
Use of landscape elements: The bio-lake alters the micro-climate and makes the place cooler than it would have been, through evaporative cooling, and also by reflection of incoming solar rays. Being quite a large body of water, it absorbs a lot of heat during the day, only to release at night. In total, 405 trees and shrubs, such as Mahagony, Champaka, and Termianila were planted on site, in 2017, and over the years, the vegetation has taken over the building, gradually making it a part of the landscape. The three-floor structure has terrace gardens at every level, which are reminiscent of rice fields, and are connected through stairs inducing a feeling of elevated ground. These terraces also provide insulation to office spaces below, thus reducing electric load, resonating with the idea of a sustainable building.
The design has a very special connect with the site and the adjoining lake. The idea is of exploiting every view possible to the lakeside, makes any user a spectator of this serene setting (as shown in Figure 12).
Indoor outdoor experience
Landscape Architect: Sasaki, Walker and Associates
The design of Googleplex creates a strong identity for the campus and provides a much-needed civic space, blurring distinctions between the private and public realms.
The primary vision was to merge the idea of workplace with the experiences found in an educational environment into a new way of working and maintenance of an edge. The campus is designed to mimic the loosely structured nature of a university field. Clive Wilkinson Architects found that the nature of the company as well as the existing building complex was perfectly suited to merge the idea of workplace with the experiences found within an educational environment (as shown in Figure 13).
Googleplex office view.
Organization of spaces: The existing opportunities were pushed to a new level to better serve the overall goals of the community. The master plan for the entire campus incorporates the language of a campus: outdoor sports activities, food, a common, and a park. The resultant building setup follows a straightforward distribution of work neighborhoods on a “Main Street” circulation set up (as shown in Figure 14). All shared resources are settled on this street and vary from meeting rooms, to technical school speak areas, to micro-kitchens and library lounges. The campus’ four buildings are organized to make internal courtyards, connected to at least one another by glass bridges emphasize a way of community. A multipurpose amenities building is at the center of the field within the main court.
Spatial configuration and circulation.
Use of landscape elements: At the lower level of the park, a brick plaza provides for frequent concerts and civic gatherings. The plaza’s daring, stripy pattern continues up the slope through a series of terraces and shallow pools. Rows of cherry trees and fern provide color and texture of the composition. The presence of water suggests the fluid boundary between the park and field. Public art has been used extensively throughout the site (Figures 15 and 16).
Indoor comfort spaces
Outdoor view
A sinuate yellow brick path ties the campus’ three gardens. The contemplative East Garden’s circular mounds echo the nearby hills seen within the distance on the far side. The Central Garden acts as a congregation place for the whole community. The West Garden is dedicated to recreation, whereas the tiny low, elegant, rectangular garden contains a boccie court. Natural ventilation is key to all the spaces in order to negate the necessity for mechanical instrumentality.
The detailed deliberation above for both School Campus and Workplace provides a fresh insight to architects and policymakers for designing the spaces as well as formulating bye-laws. The importance of integration of Green Spaces within and around the built environment is witnessed through these case studies. Hence, even small efforts by policymakers for strengthening the bye-laws definitely bring cognitive development for the children at School Campus as well as reduce the urban stress and enhance the productivity at Workplace.
Moreover, architects and policymakers should also put an effort to bring the associative factors such as symbolic, experiential, active, and social spaces while designing School Campus as mentioned in the Healthy Academic Green Space framework responsible for physical, mental, and social well-being, which act as three pillars for cognitive development in children. This also helps in the formal stage development, preoperational and operational stage development as well as sensorimotor stage development in children. The learnings of the case studies as mentioned in Table 1 are indicating the same.
School Campus | ||
---|---|---|
Benefits | Case Study 1 | Case Study 2 |
The Gyaan Centre, Jaisalmer, India | Delta-Plantsoen, Netherlands | |
Psychological benefits | The space within the Centre periodically acts as a marketplace to share the women’s creations. Such place gives the tourists opportunities to venture to the nearby dunes to experience the sunset and harness the locational criteria of the Centre. | Bringing a natural playscape like this into the heart of the neighborhood increases children’s daily contact with nature, an important factor for a healthy childhood. |
Ecological benefits | The elliptical shape of the structure helps in creating a cooling panel of airflow in the hot and dry environment. The wall permits air to flow through the building and keep the Sun and sand out. | Trees were selected based on their morphological characteristics to serve specific functions. A small hollow, which holds rainwater act as a sustainable drainage system in the courtyard. |
Social benefits | Renowned female artists, designers and education advocates are invited to create artwork, host events, and present installations. Students also learn to read, write, and develop ancient skills distinctive to the region. | A small pavilion stores playing equipment, which can be used by the local children. Sports equipment are also available for the local sports coaches. |
Comparative analysis of case studies: School campus.
The associative attributes such as energy efficiency, work-leisure congregation spaces, green-blue spaces in its various forms and scales should also be incorporated for better competence and productivity of the employees (as mentioned in Table 2). The integration of these spaces not only improves attention and memory, but also reduces the number of thoughts that lead to depression. Additionally, it also encourages physical activity, which can be considered as a valuable long-term investment in improving health.
Workplace | ||
---|---|---|
Benefits | Case Study 3 | Case Study 4 |
Titan Integrity Campus, Bengaluru, India | Googleplex, California, USA | |
Psychological benefits | Green terraces not only permit one to figure outdoors and stimulate interaction amidst the flora-fauna, but also offer trails to relish leisurely walks. The component of surprise that changes because of the change in the atmosphere around revitalizes the senses. | The garden areas of varied scales are sited throughout the campus and act as quiet pondering spots for workers. Instead of offering employees’ traditional cubicles and conference rooms, the campus is set up with fluid spaces. |
Ecological benefits | The terraces affect the micro-climate on the site, along with the water in the bio-lake. The landscaped terraces covered in grass, insulate the building, thereby reducing the heat load and creating comfortable conditions. Large trees provide natural shading and make the outdoors comfortable during hot summers. | The landscaped exterior offers environmental sustainability and a low-water landscaping plan. Natural light and fresh air are intelligently incorporated in the design. Perimeter bioswales and bioretention zones collect stormwater runoff for onsite treatment. |
Comfort | A green wall on the western façade of the building shields the usable areas from harsh western sun. While the green buffer zone in between green wall and usable areas cuts off the radiation, the terraces conjointly offer insulation to workplace areas below. | The work areas for cryptography engineers, accommodates 3–4 workers where they can have productive work singly as well as collaboratively. The rooms are set on exterior of the building to welcome natural light. |
Comparative analysis of case studies: Workplace.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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In this context, this chapter presents key subjects while implementing a quality management system at materials science laboratories and some considerations on strategies for effectively implementing such systems.",book:{id:"5486",slug:"quality-control-and-assurance-an-ancient-greek-term-re-mastered",title:"Quality Control and Assurance",fullTitle:"Quality Control and Assurance - An Ancient Greek Term Re-Mastered"},signatures:"Rodrigo S. Neves, Daniel P. Da Silva, Carlos E. C. Galhardo, Erlon H.\nM. Ferreira, Rafael M. Trommer and Jailton C. Damasceno",authors:[{id:"20571",title:"Prof.",name:"Erlon H.",middleName:null,surname:"Martins Ferreira",slug:"erlon-h.-martins-ferreira",fullName:"Erlon H. 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The quality practices or quality management systems adopted by industries will further evolve due to the changes of quality concepts as time goes by. This chapter discusses the change of quality concepts and the related revolution of quality management systems in the past century. The quality concepts were gradually changed from the achievement of quality standards, satisfaction of customer needs, and expectations to customer delight. Since merely satisfying customers is not enough to ensure customer loyalty, the enterprises gradually focus on customers’ emotional responses and their delight in order to pursue their loyalty. The emotion of “delight” is composed of “joy” and “surprise,” which can be achieved as the customers’ latent requirements are satisfied. Thus, the concept of “customer delight” and the means to provide the innovative quality so as to meet the unsatisfied customers’ latent needs are elaborated on. Finally, a framework of innovation creation is developed that is based on the mining of customer's latent requirements. This outline will manifest the essential elements of the related operation steps.",book:{id:"5486",slug:"quality-control-and-assurance-an-ancient-greek-term-re-mastered",title:"Quality Control and Assurance",fullTitle:"Quality Control and Assurance - An Ancient Greek Term Re-Mastered"},signatures:"Ching-Chow Yang",authors:[{id:"11862",title:"Prof.",name:"Ching-Chow",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"ching-chow-yang",fullName:"Ching-Chow Yang"}]},{id:"62915",title:"Advanced Methods of PID Controller Tuning for Specified Performance",slug:"advanced-methods-of-pid-controller-tuning-for-specified-performance",totalDownloads:3476,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"This chapter provides a concise survey, classification and historical perspective of practice-oriented methods for designing proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controllers and autotuners showing the persistent demand for PID tuning algorithms that integrate performance requirements into the tuning algorithm. The proposed frequency-domain PID controller design method guarantees closed-loop performance in terms of commonly used time-domain specifications. One of its major benefits is universal applicability for both slow and fast-controlled plants with unknown mathematical model. Special charts called B-parabolas were developed as a practical design tool that enables consistent and systematic shaping of the closed-loop step response with regard to specified performance and dynamics of the uncertain controlled plant.",book:{id:"6323",slug:"pid-control-for-industrial-processes",title:"PID Control for Industrial Processes",fullTitle:"PID Control for Industrial Processes"},signatures:"Štefan Bucz and Alena Kozáková",authors:[{id:"21933",title:"Ms.",name:"Alena",middleName:null,surname:"Kozakova",slug:"alena-kozakova",fullName:"Alena Kozakova"},{id:"213658",title:"Dr.",name:"Štefan",middleName:null,surname:"Bucz",slug:"stefan-bucz",fullName:"Štefan Bucz"}]},{id:"75699",title:"Data Clustering for Fuzzyfier Value Derivation",slug:"data-clustering-for-fuzzyfier-value-derivation",totalDownloads:292,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The fuzzifier value m is improving significant factor for achieving the accuracy of data. Therefore, in this chapter, various clustering method is introduced with the definition of important values for clustering. To adaptively calculate the appropriate purge value of the gap type −2 fuzzy c-means, two fuzzy values m1 and m2 are provided by extracting information from individual data points using a histogram scheme. Most of the clustering in this chapter automatically obtains determination of m1 and m2 values that depended on existent repeated experiments. Also, in order to increase efficiency on deriving valid fuzzifier value, we introduce the Interval type-2 possibilistic fuzzy C-means (IT2PFCM), as one of advanced fuzzy clustering method to classify a fixed pattern. In Efficient IT2PFCM method, proper fuzzifier values for each data is obtained from an algorithm including histogram analysis and Gaussian Curve Fitting method. Using the extracted information form fuzzifier values, two modified fuzzifier value m1 and m2 are determined. These updated fuzzifier values are used to calculated the new membership values. Determining these updated values improve not only the clustering accuracy rate of the measured sensor data, but also can be used without additional procedure such as data labeling. It is also efficient at monitoring numerous sensors, managing and verifying sensor data obtained in real time such as smart cities.",book:{id:"9976",slug:"fuzzy-systems-theory-and-applications",title:"Fuzzy Systems",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Systems - Theory and Applications"},signatures:"JaeHyuk Cho",authors:[{id:"329648",title:"Prof.",name:"JaeHyuk",middleName:null,surname:"Cho",slug:"jaehyuk-cho",fullName:"JaeHyuk Cho"}]},{id:"39778",title:"GPS and the One-Way Speed of Light",slug:"gps-and-the-one-way-speed-of-light",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"2387",slug:"new-approach-of-indoor-and-outdoor-localization-systems",title:"New Approach of Indoor and Outdoor Localization Systems",fullTitle:"New Approach of Indoor and Outdoor Localization Systems"},signatures:"Stephan J.G. Gift",authors:[{id:"141106",title:"Prof.",name:"Stephan",middleName:null,surname:"Gift",slug:"stephan-gift",fullName:"Stephan Gift"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"115",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"77466",title:"Optimization of Model Predictive Control Weights for Control of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor by Using the Multi Objective Bees Algorithm",slug:"optimization-of-model-predictive-control-weights-for-control-of-permanent-magnet-synchronous-motor-b",totalDownloads:141,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98810",abstract:"In this study, the model predictive control (MPC) method was used within the scope of the control of the permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM). The strongest aspect of the MPC, the ability to control multiple components with a single function, is also one of the most difficult parts of its design. The fact that each component of the function has different effects requires assigning different weight coefficients to these components. In this study, the Bees Algorithm (BA) is used to determine the weights. Using the multi-objective function in BA, it has been tried to determine the weights that reduce the current values together with the speed error. Three different PI controllers have been designed to compare the MPC method. The coefficients of one of these are tuned with BA. Good Gain Method and Tyreus-Luyben Method were used in the other two. As a result of experimental studies, it has been observed that MPC can control PMSM more smoothly and accurately than PI controllers, with weights optimized with BA. With MPC, PMSM has been controlled with 15% settling time than other controllers and also with no overshoot.",book:{id:"10778",title:"Model-Based Control Engineering - Recent Design and Implementations for Varied Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10778.jpg"},signatures:"Murat Sahin"},{id:"78164",title:"Use of Discrete-Time Forecast Modeling to Enhance Feedback Control and Physically Unrealizable Feedforward Control with Applications",slug:"use-of-discrete-time-forecast-modeling-to-enhance-feedback-control-and-physically-unrealizable-feedf",totalDownloads:63,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99340",abstract:"When the manipulated variable (MV) has significantly large time delay in changing the control variable (CV), use of the currently measured CV in the feedback error can result in very deficient feedback control (FBC). However, control strategies that use forecast modeling to estimate future CV values and use them in the feedback error have the potential to control as well as a feedback controller with no MV deadtime using the measured value of CV. This work evaluates and compares FBC algorithms using discrete-time forecast modeling when MV has a large deadtime. When a feedforward control (FFC) law results in a physically unrealizable (PU) controller, the common approach is to use approximations to obtain a physically realizable feedforward controller. Using a discrete-time forecast modeling method, this work demonstrates an effective approach for PU FFC. The Smith Predictor is a popular control strategy when CV has measurement deadtime but not MV deadtime. The work demonstrates equivalency of this discrete-time forecast modeling approach to the Smith Predictor FBC approach. Thus, this work demonstrates effectiveness of the discrete-time forecast modeling approach for FBC with MV or DV deadtime and PU FFC.",book:{id:"10778",title:"Model-Based Control Engineering - Recent Design and Implementations for Varied Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10778.jpg"},signatures:"Derrick K. 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Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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