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The first case of JEV was reported in Japan in the year of 1871. The virus was first isolated in the year 1935 from human brain, which was a fatal case. JEV is responsible for causing a high morbidity and high mortality specifically in the pediatrics age group [2]. Transmission cycle of JEV includes pigs which act as the reservoir/amplifying-host, water bird as carriers and mosquitoes as vector and humans are considered as the dead-end host. JEV is transmitted into human via infected Culex mosquitoes bite and thereby infected individuals develop viremia [3]. Transmission cycle starts mostly post-monsoon where the chance of mosquito breeding increases in paddy fields. JEV is single stranded positive- sense envelope RNA virus and is a member of family
Transmission of JEV starts with the infected mosquito bite where human dermis layer act as the primary site of infection. JEV replication occurs in peripheral system including PBMCs wherein the macrophages, dendritic cells (DCs) and monocytes become infected [7]. Such infection in peripheral system gets cleared off due activation of immune system, and that is the reason for low level of viremia in the blood [8]. During any viral infection, antigen presenting cells (APCs) such as dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages are the first cell types that trigger the cellular immune responses. They produce various cytokines, which includes IL-6 and TNF-α, and many other pro-inflammatory cytokines. Once JEV makes its entry into blood, it infects monocytes wherein the viral replication peaks up without any cell death and results in production of TNF-α [9] that results in the activation and differentiation of monocytes into monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MDDCs) and monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs). JEV has developed various immune escape strategies. JEV impairs with the process of DC maturation and where immature human monocyte-derived DCs (im-MDDC) helps in viral replication which takes place by surface expression of co-stimulatory cytokines/chemokine surface receptors [10]. JEV replication has been shown to take place in DCs via reducing the expression of co-stimulatory cytokines, hindering the T-cell activation and by escalating the Treg cells differentiation [11].
During JEV infection, interaction of host-pathogen in the monocyte cell lineage such as monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) increases the severity of the disease [12]. Macrophages acts as a hub of viral replication but in case of JEV infection, the productive replication of virus is limited followed by the increase sensitivity to the IFN response [13]. JEV modulates macrophages and DCs in distinguishing pattern. Macrophages get modulated through classical pathway by up regulating co-stimulatory molecules. DCs infected by JEV produce one of the anti-inflammatory cytokine, IL-10 and some of the pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-12 and IL-6, whereas macrophages infected by JEV does not produces IL-10 [14]. Such modulation of DCs and macrophages induces an inflammatory environment which then helps in permeability of BBB (blood brain barrier) and hence, the virus tends to spread into central nervous system (CNS). Infection of CNS causes functional damage to DCs including splenic DCs. Since dendritic cells helps in activating naïve T cells, their damage leads to an increase in viral circulation in CNS and hence, reduces the CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells response [15]. Although the mechanism of viral entry into the brain is not well understood but once it enters the brain cells, JEV is detected in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and in the nervous tissue [16]. One of the most characteristics pathogenesis of JEV is the breaching of BBB [17]. Neuron being the most important target cell during JEV however, when the infection gets into CNS, along with the neuronal cells, astrocytes also gets infected, which is a constituent of BBB and an important part of CNS. Astrocytes are also considered to be helping in the transmission of JEV to the cerebrospinal fluid from peripheral tissues. The microglial cell that is considered to be the resident immune cells/macrophage of CNS is also infected by JEV. Microglial cells play a very significant role in CNS during the JEV infection via acting as a virus reservoir [18]. Upon activation microglia produces proinflammatory cytokines like TNF-alpha and IL-6, which induce death of neuronal cell (Figure 1) [19].
Mechanism of Japanese encephalitis virus infection and involvement of immune cells. In blood JEV primarily infects monocytes and results in TNF-α production that results in the activation and differentiation of monocytes into monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MDDCs) and monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs). These cells are involved in naïve T cell activation, secretion of TNF-α and IL-6. JEV can cross the blood brain barrier (BBB) via direct or transmigration of virus harboring monocytes. After entry into the brain, JEV can infect neuronal cells that results in cell death. The transmigrated monocytes differentiate into macrophages which may disseminate the virus to microglia which act as the viral reservoir. Astrocytes are known to disseminate the virus to microglia which results in the activation of microglia leading to over expression of proinflammatory cytokine release.
The pathogenesis of JEV needs to be explored at dual phases in human which initiates at the peripheral tissues and then, involvement of central nervous system (CNS). Before entering into CNS, JEV replicates in the langerhans cells (skin dendritic cells), which gets transported into the lymphatic and peripheral tissues which results in increased viremia. During the initial infection in periphery tissue, the CD8+ T cell response prevents the dissemination of the JEV into the CNS. Lymphocytes harboring JEV can cross the BBB and via endocytosis process to penetrate the endothelial surface of CNS [20]. However, inability of host to produce antibodies against the infection and the immune evasion strategies of the virus makes this infection lethal. JEV propagation occurs in neurons that results in neuronal cell death. Neuronal cell death occurs via two mechanism; direct and indirect neuronal killing. Direct killing involves the JEV propagation inside the neuronal cells that results in cell death and indirect killing involves aggressive and intense inflammatory responses leading to up-regulation of inflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species that causes death of neurons [21]. In addition to cell death, proliferation and growth of neuronal progenitor cells (NPCs) also gets affected which could be the possible reason for the destructive neurological cases in JE survivors [22]. JEV can also cause abnormal neuronal development in fetus via crossing transplacental barrier [23]. In order to prevent the JEV pathogenesis, virus clearance from the peripheral nervous tissues during the initial phase of infection is crucial for designing effective therapy. Clearance of virus-infected cells and recovery during JEV infection relies on the several factors including IgM antibodies, T-lymphocytes and CXCL10 mediated viral clearance by neuronal cells [24].
During JEV infection, viral clearance via immune cells is a multiple step process which involves both innate and adaptive immunity. The initial step focuses on the inhibition or on limiting the spread of virus to any new cells. In addition, already infected cells are then either eliminated or replication of JEV is suppressed permanently. However, mechanism of virus clearance during JEV infection in the CNS tissue requires immense understanding of the level of JEV infection in the CNS tissue. One of the most reliable methods is cytolysis, either immune cytolysis or virus-induced. This method involves complete removal or elimination of virus infected cells or cells where the virus is propagating. The immunological processes that are required for clearance of virus are cell-type specific. However, in case JEV infection, the virus invade the host immune cells by cytolytic mechanism and hence, inhibiting the progression of NCP (neural progenitor cells pool). In order to combat such invasion, the activation of brain macrophages is crucial which gets initiated with the help of nerve cells. These macrophages then mediate non-cytolytic viral clearance by producing IFN-β and by supporting production of T-cells that eventually produces IFN-γ [25]. Further, virus secretes proteins/factors and makes cytokine imbalance and suppresses MHC-I present on the membrane surface.
In response to the JEV infection, several mechanisms of innate immune response get activated. After getting infection, host cells starts producing various types of cytokines including type-1 IFN along with TNF-α and IFN-γ. These cytokines induces inflammatory responses and hence, inhibits the viral replication. Furthermore, the IFN-α and IFN-β binds to the NK cells and initiates the lytic activity and hence, kills the JEV infected cells. This antiviral activity gets initiated by one of the cytokine IL-12 which produced at an early phase of infection. IFN-γ then activates the brain macrophages that expresses MHC-II molecules and subsequently, helps in more cytokine production that result in inhibition of viral replication [26]. Other than the cytokines, molecule like nitrous oxide (NO) also evidently exhibits antiviral activities against JEV infection and helps in inhibiting the viral replication by blocking protein synthesis and viral RNA and also in virus infected cells clearance [27]. Adaptive immune response is highly specific involving antigenic specificity display, self/non-self recognition, and immunologic memory. Generally, during flavivirus infection, the antibodies produced by the host cells along with the complement proteins helps in the destruction of the viral particles [28]. However, in case of JEV infection, the virus tends to evade and slips through the complement mediated mechanism of host cells and by inhibition of classical pathway. Additionally, the receptor present on the macrophages interacts with the components of the viral antigens and helps in generating soluble proteins, which then triggers adaptive immune responses promoting clearance of virus infected cells.
In the process of clearance or elimination of JEV infected cells, cell mediated immunity plays a vital role. Cytokines playing the lead in this mechanism is IFN-γ and IL-2 secreted by T-helper (Th) cells or T-cytotoxic (TC) cells. IL-2 helps in the alteration of naïve T cells into virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) generation, which then eventually causes killing of virus infected cells [29]. However, in case of JEV or any flaviviral infection, post exposure to the infected cells, the virus controls the release of CTL and other cytokines. The stimulated Th cells generates cytokines which includes IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-6 and TNF-α which tends to disturbs the cellular activities of JEV and hence, protecting the host from viral infection. These effector molecules are produced by TH1 cells, CD4+ and CD8+ Tc cells, which mediate anti-viral response in order to initiate cell-mediated immune responses. NO amongst these cytokines, both IFN-γ and TNF-α could possibly help in peripheral virus clearance but not from the CNS. IFN-γ helps in maintaining anti viral properties in host cells and IL-2 then, converts naive T cell (CTL) into effector T cell and hence, activates NK cells which in return eliminates virus infected cells or virions.
During JEV infection, the host cell recruits humoral immune mechanism, which is a very significant mechanism in the process of protection against the infection in human. Once the host cells get infected by the virus, host humoral responses initiates the process by identification of virus with the recruitment of Th cells that responds to the viral antigens. These Th cells then present these viral antigens or proteins to the B cells along with the help of macrophages. Subsequently, the B cells loaded with viral antigen then get converted to plasma cells and post expansion, starts secreting Abs after few days post JE infection. Thus, this is the initiation of the humoral immune response mediated by antibody production [30]. The antibody binds to the epitopes necessary for the fusion of viral envelope with the plasma membrane and thus, blocking the penetration of virus molecules into the host cells. Furthermore, the antibody can also acts an opsonizing agent in order to facilitate the phagocytosis of viral particles, which is mediated by Fc or C3 receptor. Thus, the mechanism of inhibition of virus propagation and reduction of virus generated cytopathic effects is shown by the JE infected neutralizing antibodies. Host immune responses are triggered 4–7 days post infection resulted after structural and non-structural proteins of virus and host cells interaction.
Viruses are a kind of pathogen that depends completely upon the host for its survival and its replication. Hence, in order to survive the virus has developed immune escape mechanism from complement system by secreting many inhibitory proteins/cytokines. However, the complement system has an adversary part to play in cases of any
Flaviviruses like JEV has taken the infection strategy into an advanced level by evading the detection machinery of the host-immune mechanism which is in responses to any viral infection to kill the virus- infected cells. This is the point where it has become a necessity of the moment to carry extensive studies on this subject. JEV modulates the host machinery in dual ways that is, by virus-mediated damage and by host- immune responses. JEV alters or inhibit both the innate and adaptive immune responses of the host. Since, no viral antigen is presented by the macrophages which are infected during the early infection phase, no adaptive immune responses is triggered during this phase. Escaping all the immune responses, JEV manages to disseminate into the CNS and causing damage to the CNS is what makes JEV infection more lethal. Any renewal and replenishment of tissues in CNS after infection is challenging. Host responses like CTL activation has been efficient in combating the virus induced MHC molecules. However, JEV comes with a counter viral strategy by activating the non-classical MHC molecules, since, these non -classical MHC molecules inhibits NK cells by binding to its receptors. NK cells are the crucial cells so as to say, which are efficient to kill the virus infected cells. To get a clear understanding of how to combat the viral immune escape strategy, many viral antigens/proteins are profiled and characterized. Such studies are a new approach towards generating effective vaccines against JEV along with other flaviviruses. Because of all these challenging viral strategies, it has become a necessary research step to reach to a point where viral eradication shall be feasible. In order to reach to this point, basic understanding of the JEV strategy on how JEV manages to trigger imbalance between host’s immunopathological and shielding mechanisms is very important. To combat spread of such lethal infection, vaccination against it should be made mandatory in the entire endemic region. Effective surveillance in the endemic region has to be considered especially in pediatric age, since; this age group is the mostly effected and has proved to be lethal.
The authors are grateful to the Vice Chancellor, King George’s Medical University (KGMU), Lucknow, India for the encouragement for this work. The authors have no other relevant affiliations or financial involvement with any organization or entity with a financial interest in or financial conflict with the subject matter or materials discussed in the manuscript apart from those disclosed.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Traditional societies have long considered what it means to be male or female, masculine and feminine. Ancestors have watched the sun and the moon for clues and signs as to natures of man and woman, masculine and feminine [1]. The creation stories around the world have always included roles of masculine and feminine in forming the world as we know it and its organizing principles [2, 3, 4]. Moreover, many places around the world did not organize their society within fixed, mutable concepts of positional understanding of masculine or feminine, but in the sense of balance, and acknowledged other possibilities of existence in between being male or female [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Both in human and animals, there has been recognition in diversity and transformative powers in the early times of society [1, 10, 11]. These societies had their own narratives on sex development and these remained throughout time.
Western narratives in sex and development have origins that can be traced back to medical and nonmedical philosophers over the last 2000 years. In Particular, the ideas from Aristotle, Plato, and Galen were influential medical thought on sex and development [12]. The ideas of how sex developed by these medical minds are somewhat strange today but set the early beginnings of scientific and medical understanding of sex development from the seventeenth century [12, 13]. For example, Aristotle did not see men and women as identical but nor did he see them as polar opposites [12]. Through the expansion of the Roman Empire, there was a strong influence of religious ideals of sex which had held until the seventeenth century. Of interesting note, and seldom discussed of Western thought, intersex people have been used to understand the true nature of sex and what it could or should mean and understanding normal and abnormal development [14].
From the seventeenth century with pioneering new medical and scientific technologies, it was possible to understand sex diversity in its elements such as genetics and chromosomes, hormones, enzymes, anatomy such as genitals and gonads, and the many others. These have been important to understanding how sex develops. This chapter does not intend to reproduce detail of each of these in defining what they are, their variations, and involvement in development. There are many textbooks and articles explaining each of these.
The chapter focuses on the narrative of the understanding of sex and development. Science as with every area of life is explained and understood through narratives. Facts never speak for themselves, rather they are understood within schemas and worldviews through those narratives. Sex and development is a good example of one such point. Science has demonstrated much diversity is the elements considered to make up sex – chromosomal, genetic, gonadal, internal genital, external genital, pubertal, and psychological [13]. These have been understood for some time now. Sex development through the elements of sex is understood through narratives, and these narratives affect people’s lives, physically, psychologically, and socially. Biologist Joan Roughgarden asks how do two fertilized eggs that start out looking about the same end up producing two adults as different as a man or woman, drag queen, or CEO [11]. How we understand the question and how it is narrated is of interest in this chapter. What is called normal and how it affects people who are outside normal is also important.
From narratives taught at school through to academic articles and books, the idea that biology controls development of the body. It is seen as a natural, biological process that begins from the joining of the two gametes – the egg and the sperm. From this point, a linear development progression begins that leads to a human being. It is that developing body that interacts with society. The chapter identifies how the current narratives either reinforce a biological essentialism or diminish the importance of biology in the narrative through social constructionism. There are issues with narrating through a biological essentialism of sex while also using a social construction of gender. Development cannot be reduced to either.
Rather the chapter focuses on the need to consider an alternative version of develop that is not focused on development like a mechanism nor as a social construction of development. The alternative is one of sex/gender narrative of becoming. It is a means of embodiment as through embodied being becomes from pre-birth through death. It is a narrativity of becoming that recognizes both a biological and social, and cultural being interacting with the surrounding environment.
The purpose of the chapter is not to debate the physiology, but how the narratives of these in development occur. It will do so through the differentiating between sex development or sex becoming. As the chapter will illustrate, the difference in the narrative is the difference of how people react to the body and the outside world throughout their life and also how medicine and society reacts to people of sex/gender diversity.
Before continuing on the focus of sex and gender development, it is important to have a brief discussion of particular framings that have been utilized in interpreting sex development. These framings have often limited discussion and the historicity of such framings have often either been ignored or been forgotten in relation to discussion of sex development.
The two framings of focus here that influence the discussion of sex development are biological determinism and social constructionism. The influences of both of these have had political impact on the biological and social lives of people over the last many hundreds of years. In particular, these framings have had negative impact on diversity of sex and gender. It is important to break these down to understand the nuggets of truth in them, if there are any, and separate from issues to have oppressed groups of people.
Biological determinism is the basic idea is that there is an underlying true essence that discontinues between forms of the essence and has a constancy in the absence of change over time (p. 13) [15]. Biological determinism represents the claim that the present states of human societies are the specific result of biological forces and the biological “nature” of the human species [16]. Biological determinism refers to the idea that human behavior originates in and is dictated by biological entities or processes, either innate or constitutional (p. 16) [17]. The essence indicates that certain phenomena are natural, inevitable, universal, and biologically determined, and any variation is attributed to the imperfect manifestation of the essences (p. 10) [15].
Biological determinism of sex thus is the criteria that determine as two discrete true forms – male and female – with no overlap or ambiguity. The biological traits (genetic, hormonal, neuro-atomical, and so on) determine a person’s sex as male or female development through life (and holds their place in social life) with a heterosexual orientation (p. 10) [15]. Furthermore, it suggests that not only the biological traits, but also psychological and orientation reside within the individual as essence of their being (p. 13) [15].
Cultural determinism is another form believing that there are determinist attributes of being male or female that continues the Western ideals, for example, through gender. Gender is the viewpoint that women and men do differ because of socialization and that women are at least equal to and possibly superior to men [19]. It is another way to foil for biological determinism except for the biological but including virtually everything in the human social world such as capitalism, colonialism, urbanism, poverty, sexism, racism, social structure, imperialism, family structure, and an assortment of other social, economic, and political variables [18].
Social constructionism is the any social influence on individual experience [15]. Burger and Luckman propose that reality is socially constructed, and that the sociology of knowledge must analyze the process in which this occurs [20]. Social constructionism is not the trait of the individual such as taken from an essentialist position. Social constructionism sees it as a process external to the individual [15]. It suggests that the power and structures have control over the individual, and their traits are non-consequential. Moreover, while essentialists suggest universal values, social constructionists acknowledge there may be some universal traits, but there is no universal standard for such traits (p. 15) [15].
Social constructionism is often reflected through the notion of gender and development. The idea is that gender is not reliant on biological development, but the social structures in which the individual develops. It is not the gendered traits of the individual but the result social processes that are external to the individual that impact upon any traits of the individual [15]. Gender is defined by interactions between people, by language, and by the discourse of a culture [15]. Rather than conceiving of sexuality as an unchanging individual essence that we might trace over time, we can investigate its contingency upon historically specific frameworks of thought and practice (p. 91) [21].
Sex and gender development is still framed as both oppositional and disembodied. Like many concepts referred to in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, they are seen as either/or concepts. While one framing focuses on biology or physiology drives development and behavior, the other framing disregards it in favor of the social and institutional derivation.
Basing sex/gender development in either biological determinism or social constructionism is both misleading and has negative impact on people, but especially those who do not fit within the ideals of male or female. Intersex and transgender people who have had various names over the years have been the most severely impacted through these framings and still continue till today. Both deny or ignore critical elements of how human beings become who they are.
Though Western feminists in particular long criticized the notion that the behavior and abilities of women are uniquely determined by their biology [22], they adopted the social constructionist framing established by medical professionals from psychological theory – plasticity thesis. While trying to overcome being bounded by biology, they shift the focus from biology to psychology, while maintaining the oppositional binary of being male or female.
What these narratives of biological determinism and social constructionism indicate are binary understandings and how the Western concepts of opposition hold in discourse. Science in all of its forms from biological through social science has been influenced by such discourses. Science is a process of narrating around the discover of facts and evidence. In itself, it is a set of information that is available to be women into narratives. These narratives are also influenced by ideologies and their worldview. It is time for a different discourse that recognizes truths while not essentializing individuals into a particular structure and form. It is also necessary to understand that people are not just machines open to receiving and performing or adopting social structures.
Though a person’s biology does not define a person’s life, it is still very important in the development of a person. The consideration of biology as a mechanical system or a controlling essence do a disservice to the embodiment of people and their life experience. The implicit denial of the biological events of our lives has also failed to appeal to people’s ideas of “common sense” [22]. At the same time, nonrecognition of the effects and/or interconnections of society and the environment also neglect major impacts on a person and development. Both determinism and constructionism in its forms deny connectedness and agency of the person and community.
Understanding the framing of sex/gender, it is now possible to begin to consider the narrating of the sex and gender development or becoming. Narrating is core to the human experience. Human beings are self-reflexive, narrative beings transformed its raw experiences into abstractions [26]. Becoming indicates a person with capabilities and agency, a life plan, make choices and responsible to others [27]. It is organic yet susceptible to significant environmental, social, and cultural influences, for example, it assumes that it includes meaning and is value laden [27].
Self-narration is an experience of temporal dimension that gathers events together into a coherent and meaningful structure that gives significance to the overall configuration, that is, the person [28]. Narration cannot be only understood in objective social categories, and these cannot adequately account for the lived dynamic aspects, rather resulting in reductive and reified understandings [28].
To ensure an illustrative difference, the chapter will discuss a difference between the development of sex and gender and (sex) becoming. The distinction is important as it illustrates how these narratives are written into people’s lives and what impact these narratives have.
Development since the early 1600s has been used to infer improvement, but for many individuals and collectives has resulted in quite the opposite. In terms of sex and gender, development implies a procedural sense or something being developed. It also indicates that such processes will follow linear paths from the beginning to the end. There is a determinist connotation within development and questions as to whether there is agency or autonomy possible in development. Development also suggests that that any deviations from the linear development processes are abnormalities. A clear example of such deviations is a population referred to as having disorders of sex development [29]. While there is a diversity of possibilities of the various biological parts of becoming, those not part of the ideal type are considered out of the normal, abnormal, or atypical.
In contrast, becoming is used to suggest organic nature of “becoming a person.” Becoming involves more than an individuated process. It has a multitude of influences and interconnections from the social, spiritual/cultural, and environmental embodiment of the person. Further, individual becoming always involves and is part of community sustenance and identity. Becoming is ongoing with the possibility of transformation from pre-birth through death. It is not linear nor immutable. Becoming is a narrativity of the socialized sex through the embodied physiological being with the surrounding community and context depending world.
This part of the chapter will discuss sex and gender development and the differences and similarities. It will also set out how biological determinism and social constructionism are or are not embedded in sex/gender development. It will then move to sex becoming and how that differs from sex/gender development.
To begin with, it is important to briefly describe the common narrative of sex and sex development. The common narrative also indicates particular understandings of what is abnormal, even disease, and outside of the common narrative. These variations outside of the norm have had impact on people outside of the standard ideal of the heterosexual male or female.
The narrative of sex/gender and its development must begin with the structures upon which it is based. That is, there is a norm, a standard pattern all life follows and that norm states that sex is an oppositional binary of being male or female with the male includes particular biological characteristics while the female has other characteristics. There are other general characteristics that are shared between the two – males and females.
The narrativity of sex development has an assumed foundation of an egg representing female and a sperm representing male. These are discrete and oppositional and the only possibilities. Females have XX chromosomes and particular physiology while males have XY chromosomes and particular physiology distinct from females. There are three core assumptions: it is binary (two different forms, male and female) which have distinct anatomical structures and biological functions; each form has different physical characteristics; and each form has different psychological and behavioral characteristics [30, 31]. There are two different species as male and female and not just two different reproductive systems (women have ovaries, a womb, and lactate while men are sperm producers) [32, 33, 34]. There are many texts defining these differences. Outside of these are mistakes of nature or abnormalities.
Sex development begins as process-based and linear. The very beginning of development is where the egg and the sperm meet and the egg provides an X and the sperm either an X or Y chromosome. Depending on what gene is provided from the sperm, X or Y, will determine if the newly formed zygote is a male or female. The zygote then begins the development process into either male physiology or female physiology. The presence of a Y chromosome makes the embryo develop as a male (individuals with Y will develop testes); in its absence, the default development is along the female pathway (ovaries will develop) [33]. Sex development theory assumes a master template (a master gene) as the norm that triggers a subordinate gene which cascades to downstream genes in a descending hierarchy of control [11]. As an analogy, development occurs as though a bowling ball was accurately rolled to hit a genetic kingpin at just the right spot and cause all the genetic bowling pins behind to fall down in perfect order and producing a normal baby is bowling a genetic strike [11]. This assumes there is a close linear association of “3G” sex – genetic, gonadal, and genitals – as core markers of sex [33]. The sex will then lead to the direction of other related sex characteristics. The chromosomes lead to a linear development of other anatomical structures including those often referred to as sex structures (e.g. ovaries, testes, uterus, scrotum, vagina, and clitoris) and most importantly the brain and the neural system [35].
From the time of birth, the linear development continues along the chromosomal pathway albeit at a slower pace until puberty. At puberty, sex development continues with “secondary sex characteristics” of body hair, breasts, voice, pitch, menstruation, and sexual sensations and desires [13, 35, 36]. One’s biological sex further develops into adulthood. Later in life, other factors change such as menopause in women. Up till recently, it has also been assumed that this determined sex will also determine one’s sexual relations, and hence the system of heterosexuality.
Development assumes an oppositional binary whereby from chromosomes to hormones to gonads to secondary sex characteristics there are only two choices: male (XY) or female (XX). The assumption is social sex social roles and function, expression follows on from sex development as male or female as biology established [37]. In another words, sex is understood here as a status determined by nature that unfurls into sociopolitical roles. Sex is so fundamental in the developmental program and experience is secondary to that of development in forming the male brain and male nature, or to a female brain and female nature [33].
The general sex development theory at its core is biological determinism. It infers that social development derives from the biological essence. The narrative imposed on these development systems upholds the oppression based on biological systems. It also maintains that any variation and difference is abnormal or not socially acceptable.
Prior to the 1950s, the term gender was not used, and social roles, expressions, and others relations to sex came within the umbrella of the term “sex.” The assumption was that the development of biology would extend to the developing of matching social roles and expressions and so on of society. When held strictly to such ideas, it became biological essentialism in that the person’s biology dictated the person’s position and function in society. Enforcement of biological determinism has led to sex oppression over the years, which has been often centered through patriarchy. Biological determinism of race and sex which began in the seventeenth century was recognized as having large social repercussions, especially for women and people of sex diversity [38]. Feminists have long criticized biological determinism that subordinated women to the behavior and abilities of women uniquely determined by their biology [22].
Gender as a concept and understanding arose with the rise of plasticity of human being [24]. The psychological theory posited that human beings are malleable or there is a plasticity of human beings [24]. This was the idea that humans are malleable beings and not fixed and subordinated to biological traits such as race and sex. It has its roots in the work of Konrad Lorenz concept of imprinting into dominance and adopted by Dr. John Money in establishing gender to imprint intersex people into the male–female binary [23]. The biological morphology (outer (and sometimes inner)) body was malleable and alterable [25]. The intersex and transgender persons’ bodies were alterable to fit the assigned or re-assigned gender. Dr. Robert Stoller extended the concept of gender to suggest that once a gender was assigned at birth, biology virtually superfluous except to medical professionals and produced the raw material (linear development) upon which gender developed which became known as the sex/gender split [23, 25, 39, 40, 41, 42].
Gender indicated that irrespective of the diversity of biology, a person’s development began from the assignment of gender at birth along with any necessary alteration of biology to match that assignment. A person’s gender identity derives from an inner sense of self – the psychological self – that usually matches the assignment at birth [23, 39, 43]. That sense of self develops social cues around them into the masculine and feminine person they were assigned to be. Gender development enables a concentration on the development psychological phenomena such as thoughts, behavior, and personality [23, 39]. A person has the ability to take roles that are not based on their biology in society and therefore be equal to each other – that is equality of man and woman (at least in theory). Gender development is the way a person perceives, expresses, and experiences sex identity within social relations of a social-political environment through imposed expectations (such as getting married and having children), norms, qualities, and behaviors upon an individual which vary across history societies, cultures, and classes [11, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49]. Gender development is a complex process within the sociopolitical world. It is an integration of one’s “inner sense of being male or female” experienced within the sociopolitical expectations and is influenced by other’s view of themselves [50].
Gender development begins at the time of birth, though some cues are even learnt pre-birth. Late in the pre-birth process, the fetus recognizes cues of acceptability within society of what it means to be their gender [51, 52]. After birth and by the age of 5 years, a child recognizes their gender; however, the child also recognizes the what gender recognition is acceptable or needs to be concealed/suppressed within the social setting and expects them to be [53, 54]. Through the early years, the infant continues to pick up those cues around them. As the child develops, they encounter endless gender clues and hints in the real world including gender stereotypes, encouraging or discouraging words, expressions, or body language from others, and sex segregation of adult social roles [33]. These clues and hints are taken on board in the person’s gender development. Consciously or unconsciously, developing gender with its associated patterns of permitted freedoms is quickly understood including the boundaries of that gender [34].
From childhood onward, gender development is fortified through internal and external sense of their psychological self [13, 36]. Development includes socially appropriate cues of being male or female including the socially constructed roles, behavior, activities, and attributes [55]. Development is reinforced through carers, whether it is family or other members of society their own social interests in the child’s gender becoming are reinforced [56]. These considerations influence one’s inner sense of self as expectations about the characteristics men and women have, and as gender norms dictating double standards for how women and men should behave, influencing people’s interests, self-concept, performance, and beliefs about capabilities in gendered domains [33].
Moreover, as one matures, one continues to author gender as cued by relationships, society, and sociality [56]. This continues with the child as their status as sex determined, and gender authored. This becomes their sociopolitical status of life which is not escapable. It is central to and entangled within one’s social and legal life of recognition and relationality. At an early age, they pick up on cues about acceptable and non-acceptable relationships, even though they yet may not know their favored sexual relationships [53, 54]. As they turn to their teens, they begin to form relationships usually favoring culturally accepted values, such as heterosexual [53, 54]. The infant uses these ques. as a guide together with the gendered world around them in becoming their gender. These relationships primarily adhere to the sociopolitical way of life.
Gender introduced by Western feminists into the public sphere derived from and was based in the work of Dr. John Money and Dr. Robert Stoller. They accepted that through gender it was possible to socialize a person into an assigned sex stable sexed subject [23]. The focus of the theory was to normalize intersex and transgender people into the male female binary as they were creating ambiguity of the two-sex system. The sex/gender split introduced by Dr. Stoller was essential to feminist work. Removing biology as the root of the diversity enabling a capturing of these populations and normalizing them with the binary, oppositional system. Moreover, gender did not interfere with the broader institutional, patriarchal system, but only remove biology as an essence upon which it was built. This enabled women to be equal in social and psychological development as men. It was this idea that feminists adopted introducing gender into the public sphere [23, 39].
Western science has had an interesting relationship with biological diversity. As far back as the Greeks such as Aristotle and Plato, there was recognition of the diversity of being beyond male or female even though there was little acceptance of them as full human beings [12, 14]. Since the modern science period, there has been a large discovery of various diversities of sex and gender.
Sex development and diversity are not generally considered as possibility. When sex development ranged beyond the standard norm, they as considered as abnormal sex development. Though sex diversity was not fully accepted, especially in the West, under various names people we call intersex and transgender people today still existed.
Due to greater awareness of biological diversity and social unrest of norms including increasing awareness and recognition of gays and lesbians, and fear of communism, there was a need to protect the binary and diminish and erase diversity [23]. Gender was such an institution to remove sex and maintain the binary including its meaning and basis in society. Dr. John Money established gender it was to erase the possibility of intersex people and ensure they conform to being male or female to fit into society. He believed that in spite of the physiological characteristics, intersex children were malleable and could be assigned a gender – male or female – and raised accordingly [57]. Once assigned, there may be necessity to change the child’s body to match the assignment – completing what nature did not finish – and encourage child and parent bonding and development of gender [25].
Dr. Robert Stoller also worked with Money’s notion of gender in his work with transgender people. Transgender was earlier understood as a biological reality, but this was transformed by Stoller as an independent psychological phenomenon (p. 31) [23]. The development of gender identity as a psychological reality shifted sense of embodiment that transgender people once had (p. 99) [25]. Though transgender people may have desired transformative support of particular biological parts, they still would relate to the world through their body. The focus of gender changed that indicating that the relationship was through their psychological being.
Both for intersex and transgender people, they were seen as diseased and in need of a cure [11]. By fixing these groups, they could live successful lives in society. Such an implementation of social construction upon the bodies and lives of these groups was still rooted in biological determinism – the belief that there are only two human which are male or female.
Though gender was an attempt to overcome the problems of biological determinism, through using social constructionism, it is questionable to what extent it has done so. Gender and its development are underpinned by cultural determinism based in the male and female ideal (minus the control of biology). It has not freed society of the shackles of the binary understanding of the world as an immutable state and erased diversity. Though there is a use of the term gender diversity, it is in the sense of social constructionism and not including biological diversity such as intersex people exemplify nor does it provide for and enable embodiment.
The development of sex and gender indicated a linear process of development as either male or female. Any deviation was a developmental error. This has led to nonrecognition of people who are no longer recognized as a person without the help of medicine to rehabilitate them into the standardized norm as a male or female, even if it was the opposite to that assigned at birth (as with transgender people).
Narrativity of becoming is not just a different name but indicates a different way to understand a narrative of how a person becomes who they are. As mentioned earlier, it is organic interaction and interconnections of their embodied being within a social-cultural and environmental place. Embodiment moves beyond the body as a bodily form to a conception that through the body provides realms of agency, practice, custom, and so on [58]. It infers social relationality and connectedness – a sense of belonging. Embodiment indicates the agency and experience of the world through a person’s bodily form, mediated from physiology within and the cultural, social, political, and environmental world without [58]. Becoming throughout their life is inclusive of overlapping and intersecting multiplicities such as sex/gender, race, ethicality, class, (dis)ability, and so on. Becoming is a process of evolving, reinventing, or transforming nature. [62]. It is a mediation between stasis and change [28, 63] where nothing is resolved or in closure, yet often contradictory as it accommodates the emergence of new possibilities or transformations of the whole and the parts of one’s becoming [50, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66].
The very beginning of sex becoming is prenatal. As various physiological interactions begin, there are decisions made as to “pathways” of becoming of the future being. Each physiological part of a person is a the consequence of dozens of different genes and numerous pathways by which cells are assembled, differentiated, and assigned alternate functions in sex becoming [13]. Even chromosomes do not operate in isolation but require certain biochemicals called enzymes to makes the genes effective [11]. As Joan Roughgarden suggests as analogy, it is like a committee (chromosomes, hormones, enzymes, and other physiological members) that meets throughout becoming even at the early physiology stages before society and culture even have become part of the person’s becoming [11]. This analogy is important to indicate that diversity in biology and physiology is important in becoming but is not an automatic process but organic with multiple possibilities.
The processes continue from the time of birth. The only difference is that from the time of birth the social, cultural, and environmental members of the committee have more voice on the committee that they had pre-birth to continue the analogy further. Becoming continues through childhood, adolescence into adulthood. Even late into the later stages of life becoming, or even slowing of life, continues. Becoming is a recognition of the interconnectedness not only of the people around them but also the land from which they derive.
Sex becoming is the embodiment of being and belonging as male, female, both, or neither relating how they see themselves, and how they think others see them, in performing social roles, expressions, and functions through their biological body [51, 59, 60, 61]. Such a becoming enables people to connect with their spiritual and cultural ancestral beings and contribute to overall human potentiality and community sustenance and identity. Although sex becoming will always in and through social relations, the relations will not necessarily completely define us where reciprocity exists and there is respect for uniqueness of being.
Becoming is organic enables transformative possibilities. Though it recognizes biological and physiological importance, it is not as a controlling force as in biological determinism. Rather, it is in the sense of embodiment, that is through the body (whether it is in the form that one is born with or has been transformed due to medical necessity or gender-confirming need) with the social and environmental interconnectedness. What becomes clear is social constructionism does not provide the basis for embodiment and interconnectedness but leads back to a type of determinism.
The aim of this chapter was not to go through the various biological mechanisms involved in sex development. As mentioned near the beginning, there are numerous texts out there providing eloquent discussions of the various parts and their functions in the development process.
Rather, the chapter has aimed to focus on the narratives used in describing the development process. All facts are only understood when incorporated within a narrative. As noted in the chapter, all meaning is understood through narratives. Whether in early times, in the modern era, or the technological era, narratives are how humans understand the world. It is through these narratives that it is possible to indicate what something is worth and how it is valued. The narratives are also central to social organization and understanding how a person fits into the world around them and what functions they may have within society.
Sex and gender development narratives are bound within narratives that have been maintained over many years through religious and scientific dominions. The early understanding was through early form and the more direct biological determinism. Though it has largely been debunked regarding race, there is still a strong support for such ideas today regarding sex and sex development. Many of the texts do not use the words today but when read contextually still maintain such a theory.
The introduction of social constructionism, however, was aimed to curve the impact of sex determinism, or at least that is how some in the gender studies have argued. The idea of social constructionism is that biology should not and does not control destiny. Though there was oppression linked to biology as destiny, and hence the purpose for introducing social constructionism, at the same time it has led to the abandonment of embodiment. Furthermore, in particular for sex/gender development has been implemented as the same ideology as a binary, oppositional system of male and female only not based on biology determining future roles and functions of people. The result has been a cultural determinism and enforcement of a Western ideal of what is means to be male or female and the spreading of its particular narrative of sex/gender development.
The group or population that has suffered the most of both of these ideas has been those of sex/gender diversity. While under sex biological determinism has led to limited or no recognition and acceptance, under social constructionism it led to enforced transformation into assigned or reassigned genders which often also involved changing the morphology of the body to match their newly assigned genders. A greater impact for both intersex and transgender people was the loss of embodiment as the move to gender concentrated a person’s knowledge and sense of oneself was based in their psychology. Not only did it deny a relationship with the person’s body and being, but also it was an individualizing process separating people from community and connectedness. The effect of social constructionism, or even it could be argued cultural determinism, was a loss of ability to develop a diversity of being, for example as intersex or transgender, that was outside of the framing of maleness or femaleness.
Realizing development as a becoming enables a return to embodiment. It is a relation to the body (even if it be transformed from that at birth) and at the same time, a relatedness to the social and environmental world around them. Mover, becoming was organic, not linear nor immutable. It provided a means of agency yet still had bounds of social and cultural responsibility.
Understanding development as becoming recognized the complex organic being with multiple interconnected communicating with each other. From both internal and external directions, the physiological, social, psychological, and cultural multiplicities communicate and discuss at various stages of becoming of what possibilities there are and which direction to become. It is an ongoing process that continues through death where even some cultures would suggest that some of these multiplicities continue becoming in some way.
Becoming does not deny that there are external forces, yet at the same time recognizes that agency derives through the embodied being, and not simply a psychological sense of self. It is a means of acknowledging a cultural and spiritual connectedness of being along with its collective identity rather than the individualized and atomized notion of being. Becoming is a narrativity of the socialized sex through the embodied physiological being with the surrounding community and context depending world.
Understanding development through a different paradigm does not deny biological or physiological reality but does change the narrative of how life, society, and the surrounding environment connect and organize together. It provides a narrative of cohesiveness yet respect for difference and uniqueness, while individuals have duties to one another. As such, it provides a space of relationality rather the separateness and individuality that derives from sex/gender development.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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Accordingly, 80 medicinal plant species were reviewed; leaves and roots are the main parts of the plants used for preparation of traditional medicines. The local practitioners provided various traditional medications to their patients’ diseases such as stomachaches, asthma, dysentery, malaria, evil eyes, cancer, skin diseases, and headaches. The uses of medicinal plants for human and animal treatments are practiced from time immemorial. Stream/riverbanks, cultivated lands, disturbed sites, bushlands, forested areas and their margins, woodlands, grasslands, and home gardens are major habitats of medicinal plants. Generally, medicinal plants used for traditional medicine play a significant role in the healthcare of the majority of the people in Ethiopia. The major threats to medicinal plants are habitat destruction, urbanization, agricultural expansion, investment, road construction, and deforestation. Because of these, medicinal plants are being declined and lost with their habitats. Community- and research-based conservation mechanisms could be an appropriate approach for mitigating the problems pertinent to the loss of medicinal plants and their habitats and for documenting medicinal plants. Chromatography; electrophoretic, macroscopic, and microscopic techniques; and pharmaceutical practice are mainly used for quality control of herbal medicines.",book:{id:"8502",slug:"plant-science-structure-anatomy-and-physiology-in-plants-cultured-in-vivo-and-in-vitro",title:"Plant Science",fullTitle:"Plant Science - Structure, Anatomy and Physiology in Plants Cultured in Vivo and in Vitro"},signatures:"Admasu Moges and Yohannes Moges",authors:[{id:"249746",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Admasu",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"admasu-moges",fullName:"Admasu Moges"},{id:"297761",title:"MSc.",name:"Yohannes",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"yohannes-moges",fullName:"Yohannes Moges"}]},{id:"70658",title:"Factors Affecting Yield of Crops",slug:"factors-affecting-yield-of-crops",totalDownloads:4179,totalCrossrefCites:31,totalDimensionsCites:46,abstract:"A good understanding of dynamics involved in food production is critical for the improvement of food security. It has been demonstrated that an increase in crop yields significantly reduces poverty. Yield, the mass of harvest crop product in a specific area, is influenced by several factors. These factors are grouped in three basic categories known as technological (agricultural practices, managerial decision, etc.), biological (diseases, insects, pests, weeds) and environmental (climatic condition, soil fertility, topography, water quality, etc.). These factors account for yield differences from one region to another worldwide. The current chapter will discuss each of these three basic factors as well as providing some recommendations for overcoming them. In addition, it will provide the importance of climate-smart agriculture in the increase of crop yields while facilitating the achievement of crop production in safe environment. This goes in line with the second goal of 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of United Nations in transforming our world formulated as end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.",book:{id:"8153",slug:"agronomy-climate-change-food-security",title:"Agronomy",fullTitle:"Agronomy - Climate Change & Food Security"},signatures:"Tandzi Ngoune Liliane and Mutengwa Shelton Charles",authors:[{id:"313819",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliane",middleName:null,surname:"Tandzi",slug:"liliane-tandzi",fullName:"Liliane Tandzi"},{id:"314316",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles Shelton",middleName:null,surname:"Mutengwa",slug:"charles-shelton-mutengwa",fullName:"Charles Shelton Mutengwa"}]},{id:"59402",title:"Robotic Harvesting of Fruiting Vegetables: A Simulation Approach in V-REP, ROS and MATLAB",slug:"robotic-harvesting-of-fruiting-vegetables-a-simulation-approach-in-v-rep-ros-and-matlab",totalDownloads:2820,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"In modern agriculture, there is a high demand to move from tedious manual harvesting to a continuously automated operation. This chapter reports on designing a simulation and control platform in V-REP, ROS, and MATLAB for experimenting with sensors and manipulators in robotic harvesting of sweet pepper. The objective was to provide a completely simulated environment for improvement of visual servoing task through easy testing and debugging of control algorithms with zero damage risk to the real robot and to the actual equipment. A simulated workspace, including an exact replica of different robot manipulators, sensing mechanisms, and sweet pepper plant, and fruit system was created in V-REP. Image moment method visual servoing with eye-in-hand configuration was implemented in MATLAB, and was tested on four robotic platforms including Fanuc LR Mate 200iD, NOVABOT, multiple linear actuators, and multiple SCARA arms. Data from simulation experiments were used as inputs of the control algorithm in MATLAB, whose outputs were sent back to the simulated workspace and to the actual robots. ROS was used for exchanging data between the simulated environment and the real workspace via its publish-and-subscribe architecture. Results provided a framework for experimenting with different sensing and acting scenarios, and verified the performance functionality of the simulator.",book:{id:"6265",slug:"automation-in-agriculture-securing-food-supplies-for-future-generations",title:"Automation in Agriculture",fullTitle:"Automation in Agriculture - Securing Food Supplies for Future Generations"},signatures:"Redmond R. Shamshiri, Ibrahim A. Hameed, Manoj Karkee and\nCornelia Weltzien",authors:[{id:"182449",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:"A.",surname:"Hameed",slug:"ibrahim-hameed",fullName:"Ibrahim Hameed"},{id:"203413",title:"Dr.",name:"Redmond R.",middleName:null,surname:"Shamshiri",slug:"redmond-r.-shamshiri",fullName:"Redmond R. Shamshiri"},{id:"241193",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoj",middleName:null,surname:"Karkee",slug:"manoj-karkee",fullName:"Manoj Karkee"},{id:"241194",title:"Dr.",name:"Cornelia",middleName:null,surname:"Weltzien",slug:"cornelia-weltzien",fullName:"Cornelia Weltzien"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"5",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83156",title:"Biomimetic and Hemisynthetic Pesticides",slug:"biomimetic-and-hemisynthetic-pesticides",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105158",abstract:"Pests are responsible for most losses associated with agricultural crops. In addition, due to the indiscriminate use of synthetic pesticides, several problems have arisen over the years, such as pest resistance and contamination of important planetary sources such as water, air and soil. This awareness regarding pest problems and environment has led to the search for powerful and eco-friendly pesticides that degrade after some time, avoiding pest persistence resistance, which is also pest-specific, non-phytotoxic, nontoxic to mammals, and relatively less expensive in order to obtain a sustainable crop production Biodegradable biomimetic pesticides can be a potential green alternative to the pest industry.",book:{id:"11318",title:"Pesticides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11318.jpg"},signatures:"Ahissan Innocent Adou, Garrick Bibian, Odile Bordelais, Léa Farouil, Muriel Sylvestre, Sarra Gaspard, Marie-Noëlle Sylvestre and Gerardo Cebrián-Torrejón"},{id:"83167",title:"Physiological Mechanisms of Tolerance to Drought and Heat in Major Pulses for Improving Yield under Stress Environments",slug:"physiological-mechanisms-of-tolerance-to-drought-and-heat-in-major-pulses-for-improving-yield-under-",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106054",abstract:"Reduction in biomass and pollen fertility are the two major constraints resulting in poor grain yield in major pulses grown under rainfed agrosystem. Generally, pulses are encountered into both heat and drought stresses during terminal reproductive stages. Though pulses have many adaptive features to counter the adverse effects of various abiotic stresses but yield is substantially reduced when the magnitude of these stresses is very high. The factors have been identified to enhance grain yield under stress environments which include promotion of biomass in the above ground part enabling crops to reserve a maximum amount of photosynthesis and water in the plant system itself before the onset of drought and heat stresses during reproductive stages. Various physiological mechanisms and fertility enhancement components including genetic diversity in key traits have been discussed here to improve yield of pulses under stressed conditions.",book:{id:"11330",title:"Plant Response Mechanisms to Abiotic Stresses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11330.jpg"},signatures:"Partha S. Basu, Sushil Kumar Chaturvedi, Pooran Mall Gaur, Biswajit Mondal, Surendra Kumar Meena, Krishnashis Das, Vaibhav Kumar, Kalpana Tewari and Kusum Sharma"},{id:"83160",title:"State of the Art of Yam Production",slug:"state-of-the-art-of-yam-production",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106504",abstract:"Yam is a labor-intensive and weed-sensitive food crop. The labor-intensive nature of the yam means that the production process requires the attention of the farmer all year round. However, the dwindling labor situation and the proliferation of weeds have forced farmers to think of modern ways of controlling weeds on their farms, that is, the adoption of chemical (herbicides) weed control. Even though the adoption of these chemicals has no doubt brought relief to the farmers and has resulted in increased yam production over the years, it has also brought in its wake, negative externalities of environmental pollution, human health effects, and food quality issues. The study was thus designed to investigate how yam is produced, the human and environmental health effects of how yam is produced, and food quality effects of how yam is produced. This was done through literature review, and field and laboratory experiments. It was revealed that, in recent years, new innovations have been introduced in yam production, the manner in which farmers handle herbicides in their yam production process exposes them to high doses of pesticides, thereby endangering their lives. The study findings also suggest that the use of herbicides in yam production does not affect the quality of the yam.",book:{id:"11619",title:"Root Vegetables",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11619.jpg"},signatures:"Abukari Wumbei, Sopkoutie Kengni Nerlus Gautier, Joseph Kwowura Kwodaga, Djeugap Fovo Joseph and Yamdeu Joseph Hubert Galani"},{id:"83168",title:"Improvement of Tertiary Irrigation Networks, Changes in Cropping Patterns, and Increasing Cropping Index at Kendal Indonesia",slug:"improvement-of-tertiary-irrigation-networks-changes-in-cropping-patterns-and-increasing-cropping-ind",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106266",abstract:"Increasing food crop production remains a top priority for the Indonesian government, as demand increases as the population grows. One of the obstacles faced in increasing production is climate change. One of the adaptations to climate change in agriculture is to establish policies for the development and modification of infrastructure that can save water resources management and establish institutions involved in the planning and implementation of water resources management. Kendal Regency, Central Java Province, is one of the regions that contributes to food availability in Indonesia. These conditions support the development of food crops, especially rice, corn, and soybeans. Since 2015, the government and farmers have made improvements to the tertiary irrigation network in paddy fields. This activity aims to increase the cropping index and achieve cropping patterns for one year. In the implementation of irrigation network improvement activities, the community of farmers using water usually works together in determining the location for repairs and making suggestions for improvements to the government. Improvements to irrigation networks were able to increase the cropping index by 0.37 from 1.85 in 2015 to 2.22 in 2016 or equivalent to an area of 8,880 ha (standard area ±24,000 ha).",book:{id:"11623",title:"Irrigation and Drainage - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11623.jpg"},signatures:"Meinarti Norma Setiapermas, Anggi Sahru Romdon and Yulis Hindarwati"},{id:"82580",title:"Predicting Trends, Seasonal Effects, and Future Yields in Cow’s Milk through Time Series Analysis",slug:"predicting-trends-seasonal-effects-and-future-yields-in-cow-s-milk-through-time-series-analysis",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105704",abstract:"A dairy is a place that is used for handling milk and milk products. Dairy products are basically based on milk. Milk is used to prepare dairy products, such as butter, cheese, and milk powder. There is always a great demand for milk and milk products among people. This study attempted to investigate the trends in the actual yield of cow’s milk production at Andassa dairy farm. We used secondary data for the study of the daily milk production of cows at Andassa dairy farm. The specific objectives of the study were—to identify whether the milk production is time-dependent or not; to predict in which season the milk production is high or low; to examine the daily trend analysis of milk production; to fit the appropriate model; and to forecast the milk production for the future. The study was conducted based on quantitative variables. So, the dependent variable is the average daily milk, and the independent variable is the time measure at which milk production is measured each day. The study used both descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze the data that were collected from the dairy farms in the sector. This study covered a total of 179 days of milk production. The results reveal that the milk yield of cows is declining, and that milk output is time-dependent, according to the time series plot, and that the model is ARIMA.",book:{id:"10887",title:"New Advances in the Dairy Industry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10887.jpg"},signatures:"Birhan Ambachew Taye, Alemayehu Amsalu Alen, Ashenafi Kalayu Nega and Bantie Getnet Yirsaw"},{id:"81881",title:"Cassava Production Enterprise in the Tropics",slug:"cassava-production-enterprise-in-the-tropics",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104677",abstract:"Cassava, a tropical root crop, provides the staple food for millions of people around the world. It is one of the tuber crops that could be cultivated on a small scale in an environment with erratic rainfall, and without necessarily needing heavy equipment and machineries. Cassava could be successfully cultivated by resource-poor farm family. Farmers’ productivity could be as much as 70 tonnes per hectares under favourable conditions. However, smallholder farmers do among other things improve productivity through proven cultural practices and a mix of organic and inorganic measures. Irrigation is very necessary for achieving bumper harvest in areas with shortage of rainfall and insufficient soil moisture content. The concept of sustainability in the practice of agriculture has been on the front burner world over in recent time. Therefore, the cultivation of cassava with the aim of increased productivity without jeopardising the factors of production meant for future time is encouraged. Practices that combine traditional knowledge with modern technologies that are adapted to the needs of small-scale farmers are on the increase around the world. Depending on the purpose, cassava could be harvested anytime from eight month. Cassava leaves could serve as vegetable and the stems use as fire wood.",book:{id:"11311",title:"Tropical Plant Species",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11311.jpg"},signatures:"Raufu Olusola Sanusi, Deola-Tayo Lordbanjou, Azeez Olalekan Ibrahim, Mohammad Babakatcha Abubakar and Oluwole Olalekan Oke"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:331},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:13,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 17th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa is a Full Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Alicante, Spain, and has been the vice president of International Relations and Development Cooperation at this university since 2010. She created the research group in applied biochemistry in 2017 (https://web.ua.es/en/appbiochem/), and from 1999 to the present has made more than 200 contributions to Spanish and international conferences. Furthermore, she has around seventy-five scientific publications in indexed journals, eighty book chapters, and one patent to her credit. Her research work focuses on microbial metabolism (particularly on extremophile microorganisms), purification and characterization of enzymes with potential industrial and biotechnological applications, protocol optimization for genetically manipulating microorganisms, gene regulation characterization, carotenoid (pigment) production, and design and development of contaminated water and soil bioremediation processes by means of microorganisms. This research has received competitive public grants from the European Commission, the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, the Valencia Region Government, and the University of Alicante.",institutionString:"University of Alicante",institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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Kendrekar, MSc, MBA, Ph.D., is currently a visiting scientist at the Lipid Nanostructure Laboratory, University of Central Lancashire, England. He previously worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Ben-Gurion University of Negev, Israel; University of the Free State, South Africa; and Central University of Technology Bloemfontein, South Africa. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan. He has published more than seventy-four journal articles and attended several national and international conferences as speaker and chair. Dr. Kendrekar has received many international awards. He has several funded projects, namely, anti-malaria drug development, MRSA, and SARS-CoV-2 activity of curcumin and its formulations. He has filed four patents in collaboration with the University of Central Lancashire and Mayo Clinic Infectious Diseases. His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",institution:null},{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. K. Kantharaju has received Bachelor of science (PCM), master of science (Organic Chemistry) and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry from Bangalore University. He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. 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