Certain chitosan formulations/composites used for controlled drug delivery [1].
\r\n\t
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"91f2c0e7f5034e547f391dc5b0883e3c",bookSignature:"Prof. Arunkumar Chandrasekhar, Mr. Venkateswaran Vivekananthan and Dr. Bhaskar Dudem",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10964.jpg",keywords:"Piezoelectric, Triboelectric Nanogenerators, Theoretical Investigations, Surface Modification, Textile Based Tengs, E-Skins, Power Portable-Electronics, Self-Powered Motion Sensors, in-Vitro/Vivo Applications, Drug Delivery, Human-Machine Interaction, Artificial Intelligence",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 7th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 4th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 3rd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 22nd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 21st 2021",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Chandrasekhar has published fifty research articles, six journal cover pages, and three book chapters in reputed international journals. He is a holder of three registered patents and a member of the Royal Society of Chemical (MRSC).",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Vivekananthan is an experienced researcher in nanogenerators with more than 30 publications to his credit, a member of RSC, currently at Jeju National University, South Korea.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Dudem is currently with the University of Surrey, England. His research resulted in more than 30 publications with a focus on wearable and flexible piezo/triboelectric nanogenerators for energy harvesting and sensing applications among other topics.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"226215",title:"Prof.",name:"Arunkumar",middleName:null,surname:"Chandrasekhar",slug:"arunkumar-chandrasekhar",fullName:"Arunkumar Chandrasekhar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226215/images/system/226215.jfif",biography:"Arunkumar Chandrasekhar, Ph.D., is currently an Assistant Professor in the Department of Sensors and Biomedical Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, India. He worked as a postdoctoral researcher at the Nanomaterials and Systems Laboratory, South Korea. He obtained his Ph.D. in Mechatronics Engineering from Jeju National University, South Korea, where he was a recipient of a scholarship from the Korean Government Scholarship Program. Dr. Chandrasekhar also received the prestigious Brain Korea 21+ Business Research Award from the Ministry of Education for excellence in research work. He is interested in wearable triboelectric nanogenerators, battery-free electronic devices, energy storage devices, microelectromechanical systems, and self-powered devices.",institutionString:"Vellore Institute of Technology University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Vellore Institute of Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"313713",title:"Mr.",name:"Venkateswaran",middleName:null,surname:"Vivekananthan",slug:"venkateswaran-vivekananthan",fullName:"Venkateswaran Vivekananthan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002qoLsLQAU/Profile_Picture_1618388626115",biography:"Venkateswaran Vivekananthan is currently a Post Doctoral Associate in the Faculty of Applied Energy Systems (Major in Mechatronics Engineering) at Jeju National University, South Korea. He is a recipient of NRF Creative Challenge Support award as Principal-Investigator. He received his PhD degree in Feb 2020 with President award for outstanding research and academic work. His research focuses on energy harvesting using triboelectric and piezoelectric nanogenerators for self-powered sensor systems.",institutionString:"Jeju National University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Jeju National University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"315573",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhaskar",middleName:null,surname:"Dudem",slug:"bhaskar-dudem",fullName:"Bhaskar Dudem",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/315573/images/system/315573.png",biography:"Bhaskar Dudem is currently working as a Post-Doctoral Research Fellow (from Oct 2019) at the Advanced Technology Institute (ATI), University of Surrey, England, UK. He received the Master of Technology (MTech., 2012) from the Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kanpur, India. Afterwards, he was as a teaching faculty member at K.L. University, India (2012–2014). In Aug 2018, he received a PhD degree from the Department of Electronics and Radio Engineering, Institute for Wearable Convergence Electronics (IWCE), Kyung Hee University, South Korea. He also worked at the same institute as a Post-Doc for a year (Sep 2018–Sep 2019). His research interests include wearable and flexible piezo/triboelectric nanogenerators for energy harvesting and sensing applications, anti-reflection coatings, solar, and hybrid energy cells, resulting in more than 30 works published in reputed peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:"University of Surrey",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Surrey",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"24",title:"Technology",slug:"technology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247041",firstName:"Dolores",lastName:"Kuzelj",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247041/images/7108_n.jpg",email:"dolores@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8878",title:"Advances in Microfluidic Technologies for Energy and Environmental Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7026c645fea790b8d1ad5b555ded994d",slug:"advances-in-microfluidic-technologies-for-energy-and-environmental-applications",bookSignature:"Yong Ren",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"177059",title:"Dr.",name:"Yong",surname:"Ren",slug:"yong-ren",fullName:"Yong Ren"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6826",title:"The Use of Technology in Sport",subtitle:"Emerging Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f17a3f9401ebfd1c9957c1b8f21c245b",slug:"the-use-of-technology-in-sport-emerging-challenges",bookSignature:"Daniel Almeida Marinho and Henrique Pereira Neiva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6826.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"177359",title:null,name:"Daniel A.",surname:"Marinho",slug:"daniel-a.-marinho",fullName:"Daniel A. 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Among bio-molecules polysaccharide like chitin/chitosan which carried skeletal architecture in many animals besides feedstock used in rational designing of smart materials consequently [1, 2]. S&T vitally explored chitin/chitosan for comprehensive growth and economic progression in assorted fields including clinical, medical, pharmaceutics and environment along with fulfilling sophisticated nanotechnology requirements [3]. Today scientific modernism and industry inventively carry out R&D in pharmaceutics, environment, and bio-technology which fortify livelihood and offers accessible facilities via copious trustworthy merchandise [1, 2, 3, 4]. For this purpose, chitin/chitosan matrix is fore-mostly investigated to derive innovative formulations owing innate exclusive, multi-functional and particular variable characteristics devoid in customary stuff and counter parts [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6].
\nChitin own β-[1,4]-2-acetamido-2-deoxy-D-glucose/N-acetylglucosamine monomeric unit as linked via glycosidic bonds which occurs as the second copious natural polymers after cellulose to cater numerous remarkable prospective needs in prevalent modernization [1]. Chitin is regularly produced all over the world with capacity of 1500 tons/annum. Chitin/chitosan is frequently utilized in biochemistry, microbiology, chemistry, polymer engineering, pharmacy, medicines and material sciences [4]. Flexible raw chitin undergoes alkaline deacetylation to derive chitosan matrix own further facile molding via assorted biological/physicochemical amendments to yield better capable composites, hybrids and blends exceeded over counterpart cellulose. Chitin/chitosan owe elite characters viz.; highly flexible, bio-compatible, bio-degradable and non-toxic. Nano-technology signified chitin chemistry in S&T via preparation of various innovative, creative and widely usable matrix formulations from lithe chitosan [7, 8]. Model chitin/chitosan matrix can be improved which offers requisite beneficial applications in recent modernization [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Thus, chitosan is extraordinarily impressive to derive easy formulations accredited to innate proactive ▬NH2/▬OH functionalities as executed via varied physic-chemical chemical alterations viz.; ▬NH2/▬OH acylation or alkylation and primary amine N-quaternization besides C-6 carboxylation [1]. Extensive adaptations in chitosan imparts inclusive cationic characters due to protonation of primary ▬NH2 to ammonium ion ▬NH3+ which resulted acid to alkaline pH dependency and extra solubility [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Liberal breakthrough are offered in many fields including nanoscience, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals and tissue engineering scaffolds procured via chitin/chitosan outstanding character viz.; biodegradable, biocompatible, non-toxic and antifungal/microbial immunogenic profiles [9]. Some chitosan derived superior formulated materials in nanoscience/biotechnology along with case study of fluoride mitigation from water are summarized in this chapter.
\nChitosan is mucoadhesive due to inherent cationic nature and hydrophobic interactions that found weaker than anionic polymeric carbomer. Sustainable mucoadhesive character offers high cohesive/adhesive bonds within polymeric matrix as comparatively weak mucus gel layers. The rational chemical, biological or physical treatments on raw chitosan framework gets improved via complexation with multivalent anionic excipients like inorganic/organic ionic drug components. Some strategic alterations in its skeletal are partial due to cationic substructures imparting ionic interactive mucoadhesion. Oral bioavailability involving with such mucoadhesive chitosan particularly not gets achieved if mixed with polyanionic carbomer. However cationic character and ultimately mucoadhesive properties can be enhanced up to 3/4-fold by trimethylation at NH2 functionality via PEGylated derivatization or immobilization of thiol groups. Chitosan forms disulfide bonding with mucus gel layer glycoproteins yields most mucoadhesiveness [10]. Gelling material: Macromolecular polymer gel called hydrogel can be constructed through the cross-linked polymeric network using hydrophilic monomers by chain/step growth, besides a purposeful cross-linker employed to endorse net-like structure owing void imperfections. Such hydrogel absorbs water via hydrogen bonding, resulted self-healing alike to expand typical firmness hitherto mechanical elasticity. Self-healing spontaneously forms new bonds within a hydrogel matrix during reconstructive covalent dangling surface chaining or via non-covalent hydrogen bonding. Inherently flexible chitosan skeleton have motivated the R&D of self-healing hydrogels are invoked as reconstructive tissue engineering scaffolds besides in passive and preventive utility.
\nChitosan hydrogels are resulted for
Chitosan own ▬NH2/▬OH functionality which own pronounced cationic characters and makes it facile for the permeation enhancement due to interactive structural reformation of tight junction-associated proteins [1]. Rationally designed degree of deacetylation and molecular mass of raw chitosan found to control permeation enhancement and toxicity besides fairly more epithelial permeability to the greater extent [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. Chitosan is facile to blend with assorted permeation enhancer doping agents can lead synergistic effective phenomenon resulted 4-fold improved activity. Chitosan-cyclodextrin derived nanoparticles exhibit more permeation enhancement for small peptides as a carrier, nevertheless 30-fold additional permeation enhancement is achieved on certain mucosal membranes via thiol formation/derivatization of chitosan [6]. Many chitosan blends/composites are employed for effective drug delivery of assorted biomaterial/drugs in the treatment of cancer [1], optical [2], and colon diseases [4] as shown in Table 1. Based on inherent chitosan’s molecular weight of low, medium and higher the
Chitosan formulations | \nUtility | \nApplications | \n
---|---|---|
Chitosan derived nanogels | \nFor optical pH-sensing analysis | \nResponsive hybrid nanogels derived from chitosan shown nonreversible pH-sensitivity. Highly stable chitosan-nanogel quantum dots are also used. | \n
Zinc-pectin-chitosan hybrid | \nResveratrol drug delivery in colon | \n1% chitosan formulation with pectin/drug 3:1 ratio at pH 1.5 exhibited best performance of drug release at colon. | \n
Chitosan-zidovudine composite | \nStops Zidovudine loss in human plasma, with long life | \nExtended retention time (shelf life) for composite that gathers in kidney than heart, liver, spleen, lung and brain. | \n
Sodium alginate-chitosan composite | \nFor vaginal delivery of drug | \nChitosan-sodium (ratio 1:4, w/w) alginate composite shown controlled release of chlorhexidine digluconate drug. | \n
Cyclosporin A-chitosan hybrid | \nExtraocular administration | \nEnhanced therapeutic index of challenge drugs used in extraocular diseases. | \n
Chitosan-based polyelectrolyte coats | \nDrug delivery on skin | \nFilms/coats viable for notable drug release/permeation through skin. | \n
Chitosan nanospheres loaded by 5-fluorouracil | \nDelivery of 5-fluorouracil for cancer treatment | \nThese stable nanosized chitosan particles can entrap and deliver drugs in tumor cells. | \n
Chitosan-tripolyphosphate composite own drug | \nInsulin delivery for diabetic disease | \nChitosan improve bio-availability besides intestinal sorption resulted low blood glucose. | \n
Chitosan-DNA nanostructures | \nEntrapped plasma DNA carrier | \nChitosan-nanostructures guard entrapped plasma DNA from nuclease filth. | \n
Chitosan conjugated complex | \nEncapsulated conjugate delivery | \nHighly targets tumor cells. | \n
Chitosan doped drugs | \nFluorescein drug gets effectively delivery | \nPotent drug delivery on epithelial cells of ocular mucosa. | \n
Certain chitosan formulations/composites used for controlled drug delivery [1].
Chitosan-nanostructured frameworks involved rationally designed biological/physicochemical cross-linking within its matrix via alteration at hydroxyl/primary amino functionalities. Cross-link skeleton are reframed as stable droplets via emulsion followed by high-speed stirring random collisions, while precipitation is elicited by coalescence of chitosan droplets with alkali solutions. Ultrafine chitosan NPs owing narrow particle size 1 and 10 nm also achieved by means of reverse micellar medium to be used for effective drug delivery. Methodical encapsulation of other conjugates in chitosan matrix is viable to get prominent NPs using surfactant dissolved in an organic medium to yield reverse micelles with advanced R&D view to be utilized in macromolecule delivery. Fractional conjugation of PEG at alkaline conditions resulted self-aggregated amide linked soluble composites which ensnare insulin drug via electrostatic interactions with residual cell proteins. Table 1 shows a selection of studies on the utilization of chitosan NP composites for drug delivery systems.
\nAdvanced alterations in chitosan frameworks to yield assorted nanostructured matrix can proffer myriad biomedical/pharmaceutical applications. Chitosan is comparatively safe due to abundance in nature from renewable sources, biodegradable and biocompatible nature; yet unmodified chitosan usage is limited by virtue of huge hydrophobicity and high viscosity which tends facile coagulation with proteins at high pH. Despite many limitations still chitosan is vulnerably amazing matrix for drug delivery purpose. These nanocomposites derived from chitosan are prestigiously advantageous over conventional counterparts due to enormous surface area and supplementary features procured through blending/grafting/impregnation particularly for clinical utility. Chitosan matrix plays vital role in tissue engineering and fabricated composite of this bio-polymer acts as good bone implant materials. Research efficacy of chitosan derived hybrid/composite materials cater many challenges and own myriad functionality in S&T [17].
\nBiological polysaccharides like chitin/chitosan proved the most excellent model toward the formulation with hydroxyapatites via tempted apatite nucleation which resulted HA crystal growth by virtue of super-active ▬C〓O, ▬OH and ▬NH2 functionalities. Quality and quantitative share of staples chitosan besides other vital factors like presence of inorganic ions, pH and temperature governs effective mineralization of hydroxyapatites. α,β-Chitosan staple-HA crystals of chondroitin sulfate scaffolds are obtained as major bio-matrix hosting embed guests practicable for native physicochemical and hierarchical controls anticipated in bio-mineralized tissue replacement materials. Chitosan has elevated empathy for charged octacalcium phosphate/OCP acting as a herald to enamel, dentine and bones compartmentally formulated crystals own orientated/alternated hydrated-apatite coating akin hydroxyapatite/HA. Nano-hydroxyapatite yields via chitosan-gelatin networking surface are facile to modulate under amicable conditions of adjustable charges, templates density; temperature [1, 17]. Chitosan is facile for intervening poly-anionic linear 1-4-R-D-galacturonosyl/methyl esters/1-2-R-L-rhamnopyranosyls impart apatite-formation due to innate carboxyl functionality which undergoes mineralization along with catalytic heterogeneous apatite nucleation. Skilled chitosan-apatite hydrogels with increased strength obtained via rationally designed egg-box skeleton with Ca2+ cations [18].
\nEver growing scientific decisive exigent it needs stepping-up adoptable chitosan matrix to overcome native restraining traits and to avail its innumerably challenging applications. Prime barriers in chitosan utility imparted due to certain restrictive characters viz.; reduced mechanical stability/strength, weak crystallinity and low solubility in water as well as in organic solvents ultimately constrained practical utility. Hence, raw chitosan seek vital formulations/modifications performed under doping, blending, grafting and impregnation methodologies which enhance limiting features establishing enough shelf-life for its advanced applications. Mechanical stability gets achieved by manipulating environmental factors and processing conditions viz.; temperature, chemical/ionic stabilizing agents in fabrication of chitosan based matrixes [19].
\nMultifunctional composites/hybrids/matrixes fabrication put global R&D inputs in modern S&T developments. Chitosan-based materials due to inherent biocompatibility, biodegradability and mucoadhesiveness are used in numerous biomedical applications, including prolong/control release of drugs/cell/genes, cartilage/bone-tissue scaffolds, wound dressings, blood anticoagulants, and space filling implants [20]. Crude chitosan as diverse semi-solid structure undergoes facile and assorted alterations/modifications in mild conditions like at lower pH (than pKa 6.3), yields non-Newtonian, shear-thinning fluid. Such formulations own good mucoadhesiveness due to cationic nature as imparted by free ▬OH/▬NH2 interaction with mucin by hydrogen/electrostatic forces, thus acts as suitable excipient for buccal, nasal, ocular and vaginal dosage [1]. Chitosan formulations have shown penetrative enhanced and active transport via epithelium layer encloses tight junctions [1]. Chitosan show high susceptibility to environmental factors and processing conditions like heating and freezing thus impose stressful degradation of its skeleton.
\nRather, variable molecular weight, polydispersity, controlled deacetylation degree, purity and % moisture determines degradation/splitting of β-1,4-glycosidic/depolymerization and
Chitosan is available in many grades of purity depending on molecular weight, and deacetylation degree. Chitosan manufacturing methods greatly responsible for different qualities and properties with resulted corresponding deviations. Further specifications are frequently curtailed and mislead its utility features. While chitosan recoveries from sources engross demineralization, deproteinization and decoloration which imparts certain impurities, like ashes, heavy metals, and protein causing complex dissolution and impede preparations. Chitosans purity affects biological immunogenicity/biodegradability also alters solvent solubility and mechanical strength/stability while, microbiological contamination enhances its enzymatic hydrolysis/degradations. So chitosan based material formulations seeks contaminants free and high quality extra [21].
\nAssorted molecular weight distributions in preparation of chitosan matrix is viable for significant physicochemical and biological features like hydrophilicity, viscosity, water-uptake ability, biodegradability, and mucoadhesion. Based on original resources and corresponding preparation methodologies the commercial grade chitosan own average
The degree of deacetylation viably accounts ratio of glucosamine to
Basically chitosan is hygroscopic thus capably forms hydrogen bonding via inherent ▬OH and ▬NH2 functionalities which affects relative humidity i.e., moisture content depending on storage in surrounding temperature independent of DD or MW. While water-uptake capacity/hydrophilicity of chitosan based materials found to decrease with enhancement of degree of de-acetylation as absorbed water plays critical role in solid formulations by affecting concern flow properties and compressible tensile strength. Fluctuated moisture level in chitosan derived material alters physicochemical and mechanical properties as dehydration decreases crushing strength besides augmented friable disintegration. Higher moisture content imparts faster pronounced damage via hydrolysis and limits chitosans applicability, thus it need to optimize/reformulate or moisture. Swelling index testing is used to investigate water-uptake ability changes upon long-term storage of chitosan materials for both semi-solid and solid formulations.
\nThe environmental factors are very crucial for sensitive chitosan and it can be stored in closed containers at temperatures of 2–8°C particularly in ascertaining shelf-life. The extra stable chitosan materials provide reliable quality of chitosan. The crucial environmental parameters like humidity and temperature alters physicochemical properties and applications of chitosan [22].
\nMoisture i.e., ambient relative humidity of chitosan strongly controls transport followed Fickian process, as high humidity is viable for an anomalous diffusion kinetic. Humidity > 60% is responsible for water penetration more intensively via chitosan chains, thus % moisture increased significantly resulted plasticizing/swelling and prolong storage results hydrolytic damage besides alter physicochemical and biological characters. Ambient humidity 75% is viable for greater swelling of chitosan and liable for better and faster release of drug as a carrier. Overall, undue hydration at elevated humidity fades mucoadhesiveness of chitosan based drug carriers due to “dilution” of functionality accessible for mucin adhesive interactions. Suitable humidity conditions are important for storage of solid chitosan formulation products as rate of hydration found extensive at high RH. Also proper air-tight containers are advisable in order to protect hygroscopic products against interfering environmental humidity.
\nHeat/temperature variably affects the water content in chitosan-based materials. Elevated temperature > 40°C can origins major moisture loss/dehydration that gives decreased hardness and mechanical strengths. Atmospheric temperature found to influence degradation and hydrolysis rate of chitosan matrix, mainly in liquid and semi-solid phases. However, chain hydrolysis is not observed in the chitosan storage at 5°C, thus verifies storage in a refrigerator at 2–8°C.
\nHydrolysis is problematic in pharmaceutics due to its dissolution in diluted acids as scheduled in chitosan-based formulations. Acid catalyzes splitting of polymer chains/linkages depending upon acid type/concentration, treatment time, and temperature besides decreases its average molecular weight, viscosity and weaken mechanical strength. Chitosan hydrolysis is performed usually under specific organic acids like lactic, formic, lactic, and mineral acids hydrochloric. Faster chain damage observed if lower DD chitosan which own extra porosity and electrostatic repulsion between protonated NH2 which promotes penetration of acid inside its flexible skeleton. Chitosan gets decomposed in aqueous acetic acid at 5°C and intrinsic viscosity under specific solvent and temperature direct affects polymers average molecular weight. Mark-Houwink exponent explores alterations in chitosans specific conformation via amplified chain length indicated framework as α = 0 consign compact sphere and α = 0.7 refer random coil while α = 2 own rigid ceilings helpful in determining average molecular weights.
\nSterilization eliminate/remove/kill/deactivate all living forms and species present on, or chitosan matrix employed for drug administered owing high microbiological purity. Chitosan formulations/materials are usually sterilized either physically or chemically leading irreversible alteration in its structural features and function via many techniques like filter sterilization, steam sterilization, dry heat, ethylene oxide activated, and γ-radiation exposures. Sterilization of chitosan gels can be achieved through saturated steam found to cause chain/linkage scission resulting about 50% decrease in viscosity and loss of molecular weight. Similarly, autoclaving sterilizes chitosan films and reduces inherent tensile strength via interchain crosslinking of amino groups which ultimately weaken polymeric solubility. There are no significant changes observed in structure of chitosan through autoclaving also its molecular weight is unaffected once steam sterilized prior to autoclave. Gamma/γ-irradiated sterilization cause significant chain scissions owing low water sorption capacity and decreases molecular weights depending on doses of irradiation and polymer chain rearrangements. Epoxide exposure causes minor changes in morphology and physicochemical features of chitosan restricted to surfaces. Ultraviolet light displayed degradation of chitosan via free radical formations that can destruct amino/hydroxy groups.
\nHeat is frequently employed in chitosan-based formulation which is responsible to change polymeric properties, like aqueous solubility, viscosity, and its appearance. Chitosan decompose/damage is on heating at rising temperature and span of heating. The first stage degradation occurs at 30–110°C due to evaporation of the residual water and second thermal damage in chitosan skeleton observed over temperature range 180–340°C. Differences in glass transition temperatures resulted diverse increasing molecular weight chitosan. Third stage degradation is viewed at 470°C due to subsequent weight loss of chitosan. Thus, chitosan matrix is advisable to heat up to temperatures below glass transition temperature with unaltered physicochemical features. Still the gentle heating is necessary to dissolve chitosan in acidic solution since overheating cause’s polymer discoloration and depolymerization which eventually change rheological properties. The added/doped drugs, plasticizer or additives in chitosan matrix reduces its glass transition temperature. Thus excipients employed in chitosan formulations preparation are doped at the temperature 120 and 170°C. Thermal decomposition alters electrostatic charges resulting higher hydrolysis and accelerated aggregations.
\nFreeze-drying or lyophilization is established drying way in which chitosan is dried by sublimation of ice which is advantageous to prevent aggregations.
Chitosan polymer owes poor stability over time renders unsuitable/inapplicable in the pharmaceutical products. Thus, effortful researches are done to improve the stability of chitosan formulations without affecting its chain damage as shown in Figure 1 [24].
\nStrategic upgrading for stability of chitosan matrix to improve their productivity.
Chitosan is very susceptible to physicochemical degradation upon storage thus it needs to apply proper excipients so as to improve stability of chitosan-based systems. Dry heat exposure/steam sterilization have own remarkable consequence on properties and performance chitosan formulations. Thus developed assorted stabilizing additives to protect chitosan during thermal processing and sterilization. Polyols like mannitol, sorbitol, and glycerol as
Stabilizing polyols like disaccharides act as water replacement agents and interact via hydrogen bonding replaced water besides highly viscous sugar hinder labile materials from disruption via freezing. This plasticizer added to chitosan formulations can manipulate water-uptake capacity/hydrophilicity and mechanical strength that consequence prolonged and controlled drug release profile. Metal ions like Zn(II) are also added to enlarge colloidal stability of chitosan polyelectrolyte formulations due to imparted stabilization attributed to coordinate bondings tune to morphological alteration and swelling properties.
\nChitosan blends/hybrids are obtained via nonionic additives responsible to improve physicochemical properties than both constituting agents. Mixtures of chitosan with starch, poly-vinyl alcohol, pol-ethylene oxide and polyvinylpyrrolidone enhances material stability of resultant blended matrix. Chitosan undergoes specific interactive blendings as achieved via hydrogen, ionic and/or dipolar interference with residual component’s dependent miscibility display decreased moisture sensitivity. Blended modification controls water-uptake capacity and own higher thermal degradation compared to pure chitosan and proportionated addition. Such blending controls and improves thermal/hydrolytic stability besides biodegradability which conveys resistive enzymatic degradation.
\nChitosan skeleton undergoes significant modifications via various physicochemical crosslinking. Added agents-chitosan blends forms chemical crosslinking via covalent bonding and physical crosslinking via ionic bonding. Chemical guard the physicochemical stability of chitosan since gelation is irreversible higher stability is achieved through more covalent bonds besides hydrogen/hydrophobic bondings. Rather chemical crosslinking changes biological properties and limits practical pharmaceuticals utility. Crosslinking level markedly influenced swelling ability, mucoadhesiveness, acidic stability of microparticulates and color alterations.
\nWhile ionic/physical crosslinking bridges negative charged components like citrate, sulfate, phosphate groups binds faster onto cationic chitosan which prevents protonation of chitosan amino groups to yield polyelectrolyte complexes. Physical modification is simple, facile and mild requires no catalysts and extra purification in contrast to chemical crosslinking. Chitosan-acyclovir crosslinking are achieved via solvent change with sodium citrate salting shown better physical stability to drugs viable for its controlled release. Microparticulate delivery systems derived from chitosan are strongly depends on surface electrostatic charges that gets altered upon storage, so strategies are developed to prevent aggregation and corresponding zeta potential changes. Improved microparticles stability is attributed due to added nonionic stabilize polyoxyethylene sorbitan sodium monooleate over ionic crosslinkings.
\nDespite the great potential of using chitosan in drug delivery or tissue engineering systems, its poor long-term stability is a substantial drawback in the scaling-up of chitosan pharmaceutical applications. Upon storage, chitosan undergoes gradual chain degradation followed by destruction of its functional groups which as a consequence leads to irreversible loss of its physicochemical properties. Both intrinsic (degree of deacetylation, molecular weight, purity, and moisture level) and extrinsic factors (environmental storage conditions, thermal processing, sterilization, and processing involving acidic dissolution) are acknowledged as crucial parameters affecting the stability of the chitosan-based formulations. To improve chitosan stability, several strategies (addition of the stabilizing agent during the preparation process, blending with hydrophilic polymer, and use of ionic or chemical crosslinkers) have also been reported. As there are no universal principles to preserve chitosan-based products upon storage, preformulation studies and selection of the most proper storage conditions are essential to provide their maximal stability.
\nChitosan is facile to sophisticated biological and physicochemical adaptations in its inherently flexible skeleton so as to yield novel composite/blend which own huge and widespread applications than its contemporary cellulose [1, 2, 3, 4, 25]. Qualitative and quantitative framework changes in chitosan matrix can offer highly facile industrial grade suitable formulations/fabricated products and solutions have provided ever demanding exertion in water and wastewater treatments. Biosorption of fluoride from water onto fabricated chitosan-graphite novel composite is illustrated.
\nChitosan gelling obtained via dissolution in acetic acid at mild acidic pH gets intertwined via invasive hydrophilic/phobic interaction and induces impulsive entanglement in self-standing microsphere hydrogel as shown in Figure 2.
\nPreparation scheme for chitosan gelling (scale-5 mm).
This phenomenon followed by coagulation in alkaline solution which subsequently yields viscous droplets/bids are further treated with graphite resulting desired fabricated chitosan doped graphite composites FCDGC. Chitosans hydrogel on drying or evaporation causes dramatic shrinkages in its pore size to impart porosity owing elevated specific surface area. This micro-porosity is attributed to space zones of contacts between chitosan fibrils though impregnation onto ▬OH/▬NH2 by doped graphite surfaces as shown in Figure 3.
\nMechanistic layers of graphite and chitosan yielding doped bio-composite illustrated inset flexible change in chitosan skeletons.
The fluoride anions are facile to sorbed by FCDGC due to diffusive interaction via weak intermolecular forces as bridge to connect fluoride onto activated surfaces of adsorbent that ultimately enhanced sorption capacity. Although, amine/hydroxyl groups of FCDGC plays vital role in bio-sorption of fluoride, however, other functionalities also affect fluoride sorption may be due to surface complexation, physic-sorption and chelation affinity suitable for scavenging fluoride at pH 6.5. Further, decreased in fluoride sorption in above pH > 6.5 is interpreted due to ligand-exchange between fluoride and counter anion hydroxide coordinated on immobilized FCDGC. This developed FCDGC displayed a surface controlled monolayer sorption of fluoride with interactive heterogeneous distribution and diffusion to cationic sites/surface of adsorbents. The mechanistic view of fabricated chitosan doped graphite biocomposite FCDGC and insight for elevated bio-sorption is depicted in Figures 4 and 5 respectively.
\nMechanistic view of fabricated chitosan doped graphite composite/FCDGC.
View of fluoride interactive adsorption mechanism on of FCDGC active sites.
Micro to nanoscale smart materials own certain multi-dimensional switching characters ever utilized in advancement of science due to repetitive self-healed auto-altering of temperature, pressure, heat, electricity and light environments [26]. Smart approaches aid designing of rational chitosan materials that convey salutary purpose and usage including piezoelectric, shape memory polymers, thermo-responsive polymers, photomechanical stuff, self-healing materials and thermoelectric resources, besides hydrogels, nanoassemblies, super-active surfaces and bio-conjugates. Biopolymer chitosan based fabricated materials owe auto-adjustable mechanical strength and depth by virtue of intrinsic cenotaph ability along with inventive status on stress disburses. This chapter sum up revolutionary growth and interest to supply various vital applications. Typically designed parameters can formulate stylish compatibility in chitosan skeleton that can able to counter slight changes in adjustable environment. Chitosan permits rapid changes/transitions via synergic merge of individual characters of foreign components in resultant matrix so as to yield enviable properties which hold uniqueness to carry innovative functionalizations. Thus, smart and responsive nanoassembly/nanoparticles are sensibly designed by means of advanced nanobiotechnology. Chitosan based 3D hydrogels are able to absorb enormous water while sustains invariable stability to bear volume phase/gel-sol phase transitions due to adoptable alterations. These hydrogels possess various physic-chemically stimulated characters viable to bring various responses. Smart surface/interface own two-phase intermolecular force discontinuity, and thus attain very unique high energy point. Chitosan based “smart surface/interface are designed with dynamically controllable properties to be utilized for assorted biomedical applications viz.; adsorption of biomolecules, tissue engineering and bio-separations besides biocompatible materials at the biotic/abiotic interface.
\nChitosan based stimulus-responsive smart nanofibers are obtained for their ‘on–off’ reversible switching actions owing exclusive advantageous of nanodimensions imparting peculiar features like huge surface area, high porosity and enhanced external stimuli sensitivity, besides simplistic bulk manipulations in their resultant skeleton. Such stimulus-responsive smart chitosan derived nanofibers own dynamic and reversibly tunable structures with potential ‘on–off’ actions crucial for efficient delivery of drug/cell/gene in assorted medical applications. Smart bio-conjugates based on chitosan possess superior features and unique properties to original chitosan and added versatile new values due to generation of nanoscale switching. Bio-conjugate smart polymeric matrix are employed for enormous applications viz.; proteins affinity separations, enzyme bioprocesses, drug/cell/gene carrier, diagnostics purpose, biomarkers, biosensors and cell cultured tissue engineering besides DNA motors. Chitosan based shape-memory materials comprise the capability to change from a temporary to memorized permanent shape via peripheral stimulus responses. Such shape-memory polymers (SMPs) can act as a cheap and efficient alternative to well-known metallic shape-memory alloys due to facile manufacturing and easy programming. Thermally induced chitosan based SMPs own self-repairing/rewritable features which owe special weightage in development of environmentally benign technologies [1, 2, 3, 4, 27].
\nChitin/chitosan matrix is favored to derive sophisticated formulations to be used for its promising risk-free functions in assorted fields like clinical, biomedical, and pharmacological, besides designing/fabrication of advanced nano/biotechnological smart materials. Chitosan template infringes many organic as well inorganic cationic and anionic materials in its flexible/amicable framework so as to get hybrids, hydrogels, composites, coatings, films and nanostructures owing ample utilities in modern S&T. Chitosan still seek methodical R&D to dope/blend interactive fillers/dopants or additives which can offer improved formulations with split wide open revolutionary and advanced applications.
\nNanotechnology integrated chitosan derived smart formulations possess wide, multitasking and thematic portfolio in nanotechnology way from “biosensor/biomarker matrixes” to artificial atoms called “quantum dot”. These advanced technologically designed characteristics chitosan materials initiated new modality owing innovative utilities including DNA/RNA/cell/gene nano-carriers, quantum dots for disease diagnosis/therapeutics besides tissue scaffold designing as templates and devices for benefit of man and nature.
\nThe author is thankful to the Head, Department of Chemistry, R.T.M. Nagpur University, Nagpur, for laboratory facilities and to the Vice Chancellor, Nagpur University, Nagpur, for the sanction of a research project under University Research Project Scheme, No. Dev/RTMNURP/AH/1672 (9) dated 24 September 2016.
\nThe considerable growth of research studies in energy-harvesting technologies, such as solar energy harvesting [1], RF power harvesting [2], thermoelectric-generator-based electrolyte [3], thermoelectric-generator-based solid thermoelectric materials [4], associated with the Internet of Things (IoT) leads to more demands in the development of the high performance of a micro-thermoelectric generator (TEG). Micro-TEG keeps a role as a charger to the rechargeable battery of IoT sensing systems or even replaces the battery if micro-TEG with high performance is employed. The TEG utilizes the Seebeck effect that can convert thermal energy into electricity. The TEG has many advantages, including small size, without moving parts, free from noise, greenhouse gases, and long-term operation time [5, 6]. A voltage will be generated once a temperature difference across the micro-TEG is provided.
To enhance the performance of the micro-TEG, high-performance thermoelectric materials and increasing the number of thermoelectric elements are vital factors. Regarding thermoelectric materials, until now, several thermoelectric materials have been studied, including organic materials (metalloporphyrin/single-walled carbon nanotube composite films [7], Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate [8], and compositions of conducting polymers and metal nanoparticles [9]) and inorganic materials (nanoporous silicon [10], cobalt triantimonide [11], bismuth telluride and antimony telluride [12], tin selenide [13], electrodeposited bismuth telluride [14]). Among them, thermoelectric-materials-based BiTe are widely investigated because of their high performance for applications at near room temperature. For synthesis of thermoelectric-materials-based BiTe, several methods have been reported, including thermally evaporated method [15], metal organic chemical vapor deposition method [16], and pulsed laser melting method [17]. Electrochemical deposition is one of the preferred ways to enable the deposited film with high-quality morphology and compactness. Moreover, the electrodeposition method is capable of modifying the morphology, composition, and crystal structure of the synthesized film, which would result in the high performance of the deposited materials. Concerning enhancing the integration density, hundreds of thermoelectric elements could be produced on a small footprint by utilizing micro/nano fabrication technologies; however, some issues still remain. For instance, a complex process is required to create the air bridge between two thermoelectric elements. High contact resistance between thermoelectric elements and substrate results in low-performance micro-TEG. The performance of thermoelectric materials is degraded during their fabrication of the micro-TEG. The height of the thermoelectric element is limited by micro/nano fabrication technology. Thus, it makes micro-TEG low performance and against the practical applications.
In this work, we review the recent progress in the micro-TEG, including material synthesis, device fabrication, and application demonstration. Various high-performance thermoelectric materials synthesized by the electrodeposition method, including thick bulk-like thermoelectric material, Pt nanoparticles embedded in a thermoelectric material, and Ni-doped thermoelectric material, are presented. In addition, the fabrication of micro-TEGs based on micro/nano fabrication technology as well as assembly technology is demonstrated. The performance of the fabricated micro-TEG is compared with other related works. Moreover, the fabricated micro-TEG as a power source for a calculator and a twist watch has been investigated.
The Seebeck coefficient is defined as the harvested voltage from the temperature difference across the thermoelectric materials. Its standard unit is microvolts per kelvin (μV/K). The Seebeck coefficient may exhibit positive or negative signs, which represents p-type or n-type thermoelectric materials, respectively. The p-type thermoelectric material shows an excess of holes, while the n-type thermoelectric material possesses an excess of free electrons. When a temperature difference appears at the ends of the thermoelectric material block, the charge carriers (electrons or holes) move from the hot side to the cold side, causing a thermoelectric voltage. The following equation depicts the Seebeck coefficient
where
One factor affecting the Seebeck coefficient is charge carrier concentration
where
Electrical conductivity is an essential electrical property for thermoelectric material to conduct an electrical current. Electrical conductivity and electrical resistivity are the reciprocals of each other. Macroscopically, electrical conductivity is related to the dimensions and resistance of the measured thermoelectric material, which can be calculated by the following equation:
where
In principle, the electrical resistivity of a material characterizes the ability of the material to interrupt electricity flow. Therefore, it is strongly related to the flow of electrons and holes in a material. Those two factors influence the value of electrical conductivity, as shown in the following equation,
where
The thermal conductivity
where
Equation of lattice thermal conductivity can be referred to the following relationship.
where
Equation of charge-carriers thermal conductivity is estimated by
where
The figure of merit
To obtain high ZT values of thermoelectric materials, high
A TEG is a solid device, which is able to convert thermal energy into electricity or vice versa. It consists of n and p-type thermoelectric elements arranged electrically in series and thermally in parallel. A cross-sectional view and titled view of the TEG structure are shown in Figure 1(a) and (b), respectively. It mainly consists of n- and p-type thermoelectric elements, a metal bar, and a substrate.
TEG structure. (a) Cross-sectional view. (b) Titled view.
As mentioned previously, the p-type element has a positive Seebeck coefficient and an excess of holes
The resistance of the thermoelectric elements is estimated by:
where
In the above Eq. (10), the electrical contact resistance is eliminated. However, this resistance is typically quite difficult to be negligible due to the fabrication process. Therefore, the electrical contact resistance
The generated voltage
where n is the number of thermoelectric elements,
The maximum electrical output power of the TEG can be calculated by using Eq. (13), which is obtained if a load resistance
where
Several factors could affect the performance of the TEGs. Thermoelectric materials with excellent characteristics, including a high Seebeck coefficient, a small electrical resistivity, and a low thermal conductivity, are always desired for enhancing the TEG’s performance. Many novel approaches, including utilizing metal nanoparticles [24], nanoporous materials [25], carbon black particles [26], and metal doping [27, 28], have been investigated to improve thermoelectric material’s properties. Besides the effects of material properties, selecting proper physical dimensions of thermoelectric elements, such as the width and height of thermoelectric elements, could also contribute to better performance of the TEG [28]. Also, increasing the number of thermoelectric elements would be a valuable method for improving the performance of the TEG, as shown in Eq. (13).
The formula of an electrical energy conversion efficiency
where
Thermoelectric materials presented in this work are synthesized by the conventional three-electrode system, which is controlled electrochemically by a potentiostat. The system involves a working electrode, a counter electrode, and a reference electrode. A silicon wafer with Cr-Au layers on the top insulated by SiO2 layer is employed as a working electrode, while a Pt strip and Ag/AgCl with 3 M KCl solution are utilized as counter and reference electrodes. The synthesized material is formed on the working electrode caused by the oxidation–reduction (redox) reaction. The electrochemical deposition mechanism is quite complicated and has been presented in many publications [30, 31]. It can be summarized as follows. In the electrolyte, the absorbed atom is in the form of the hydrated matter, which is stripped at the interface between the solution and the cathode. Then, it combines with other absorbed atoms to form a new nucleus. This process continues and contributes to the further growth of the deposited material.
One of the benefits of the electrodeposition method is the ability to change the morphology, composition, and crystal structure of deposited film by adjusting certain parameters in the electrodeposition system. All the changes might influence the alteration of the electronic or/and thermal properties of the deposited film. The effectively applied potential on the working electrode is one of the important parameters in the electrodeposition system that reflect on the variation of the current density. A change of the over potential on the electrode normally affects the current density and a chance to change the morphology.
As mentioned in the introduction section, thermoelectric materials could be synthesized by several methods. Although high performance of thin-film thermoelectric materials has been achieved, the TEG produced by thin-film thermoelectric materials possesses a low output power. Once the height of thermoelectric elements is low (a few micrometer heights), it is hard to create a large temperature difference across the TEG device. Thus, its output voltage, as well as output power, is in small value. The evidence could be easily seen via Eqs. (12) and (13). Although an output power of the TEG-utilized thin films could be enhanced by a novel design for heat transfer in a lateral direction, TEG’s output power is still not enough for realistic applications. Therefore, a thick film of thermoelectric material with high Seebeck, large electrical conductivity, and low thermal conductivity are always desired to achieve high-performance micro-thermoelectric generators. Typically, thick thermoelectric material films could be formed by a screen printing method, a powder synthesis and sintering method, and a mechanical alloying and spark plasma sintering method; nevertheless, these methods have at least the following disadvantages, such as poor mechanical strength, a high fabrication cost, and low material performance. Herein, we present the thick and stable thermoelectric films synthesized by electrodeposition.
Figure 2 shows the sample preparation process for material synthesis and material evaluation. It starts from a silicon substrate with a thickness of 300 μm (Figure 2(a)). On top of this substrate, a SiO2 layer with a thickness of 200 nm is deposited by a plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) employing TEOS (TetraEthOxySilan Si (OC2H5)4), as shown in Figure 2(b). Next, Cr-Au layers with a thickness of 20 nm and 150 nm are formed on the SiO2 layer by the sputtering method, respectively (Figure 2(c)). The thermoelectric material is subsequently deposited by the electrodeposition method, as discussed in Section 3.1 (Figure 2(d)). Because a material property evaluation needs to be conducted on an insulating substrate to avoid short-circuiting, the synthesized films are peeled off from the substrate by epoxy resin, as shown in Figure 2(e) and (f). Figure 2(g) and (h) show the electrodeposited thermoelectric material (Bi2Te3) on the silicon substrate and transferred thermoelectric material on epoxy, respectively.
Sample preparation process. (a) Silicon. (b) SiO2 deposition. (c) Cr-Au deposition. (d) Thermoelectric material formed by electrodeposition. (d) Epoxy coating. (f) Sample for evaluation.
Figure 3(a) and (b) show the electrodeposited thermoelectric materials by constant and pulsed conditions, respectively. As can be seen that, the constant electrodeposited film (Figure 3(a)) exhibits an initial 4 μm-thick compact layer while the top layer includes pillar structures. Although the thick-film thermoelectric material can be achieved by further deposition, its mechanical strength is very weak due to its porous structure. The thick electrodeposited film by the constant condition is easily peeled off for substrate. To overcome this problem, pulsed electrodeposition has been conducted. Compared with the constant electrochemical deposition, the pulsed electrodeposition with a pulse delay time for the recovery of the ion concentration always leads to a crystalline structure with high orientation and good uniformity [32]. This is proven in Figure 3(b). The deposited surface under pulsed conditions is more uniform and smoother than that under constant conditions. Figure 3(c) shows a representative cross-sectional SEM image of the 600 μm-thick Bi2Te3 electrodeposited film, which is comparable to the bulk Bi2Te3 material. Consequently, by using simple and low-cost electrochemical deposition technique, thick bulk-like thermoelectric material posing a highly compact and uniform appearance could be achieved.
Thermoelectric material. (a) Constant deposition. (b) Pulsed deposition. (c) A 600 μm-thick Bi2Te3 electrodeposited film.
Thermoelectric material properties, including Seebeck coefficient and electrical resistivity, are evaluated, as shown in Table 1. The pulsed deposited film has a higher Seebeck coefficient as well as lower electrical resistivity than those of the constant deposited film. The power factor for pulsed deposited material is 3.2 × 10−4 W/mK2 while it is 0.5 × 10−4 W/mK2 for constant deposited material. Moreover, an annealing process has been performed to enhance the characteristics of the electrodeposited thermoelectric materials. The highest Seebeck coefficient is found at the annealing temperature of 250°C. The details of measurement setup and evaluation results can be found in [33].
Constant electrodeposition | Pulsed electrodeposition | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Nonannealing | Annealing (250°C) | Nonannealing | Annealing (250°C) | |
Seebeck coefficient (±20 μV/K) | −50 | −110 | −80 | −150 |
Electrical resistivity (±5 μΩm) | 50 | 20 | 20 | 15 |
Power factor (W/mK2) | 0.5 × 10−4 | 6 × 10−4 | 3.2 × 10−4 | 15 × 10−4 |
Electrodeposited thermoelectric material properties.
In summary, thick bulk-like thermoelectric material based on the electrochemical deposition technique has been demonstrated. The electrodeposited film possesses a highly compact and uniform surface. The electrodeposited material properties by pulsed deposition are much higher than those by constant deposition. Also, thermoelectric performances of the electrodeposited film enhanced by the annealing process have been investigated.
Metal nanoparticle inclusion in the nanocomposite process is one of the promising methods to enhance the figure of merit
Figure 4(a) shows the surface morphology of the electrodeposited pure Bi2Te3 with its crystal as plate-like structure. The surface morphology has been modified by the inclusion of Pt nanoparticles in the Bi2Te3, as shown in Figure 4(b). The crystal grain size of Pt- Bi2Te3 composite is smaller than that of pure Bi2Te3, as can be seen in Figure 4(a) and (b). Thus, the electrodeposited film with Pt nanoparticles tends to form lower porosity and denser surface structure in comparison to pure Bi2Te3. A high-resolution transmission electron microscopy image of Pt- Bi2Te3 composite is shown in Figure 4(c), where black areas represent the Pt nanoparticles.
(a) Electrodeposited surface of Bi2Te3. (b) Electrodeposited surface of Pt-Bi2Te3. (c) High resolution of TEM image of Pt-Bi2Te3.
Table 2 shows the average grain size calculated by identifying FWHM and Integral Breadth
Electrodeposited films | Deposited Pt (wt%) | Integral Breadth, | Average grain size (nm) |
---|---|---|---|
Bi2Te3 | 0.0 | 0.6 × 10−2 | 32.2 ± 4.3 |
Pt/Bi2Te3 -I | 1.0 | 1.6 × 10−2 | 13.9 ± 3.4 |
Pt/Bi2Te3 -II | 1.5 | 2.2 × 10−2 | 10.9 ± 1.3 |
Pt/Bi2Te3 -III | 1.9 | 3.8 × 10−2 | 7.9 ± 0.1 |
Average grain size on Bi2Te3 and Pt-Bi2Te3 nanocomposite films at 2
The summary of characteristic of the synthesized films is shown in Table 3. Experimental results indicate that once the grain size decreases, the carrier concentration becomes lower. The lowest carrier concentration is observed for 1.9 wt% Pt-Bi2Te3 composite in comparison with others, including Bi2Te3, 1.5 wt% Pt-Bi2Te3, and 1.0 wt% Pt-Bi2Te3. As mentioned in Section 2, the Seebeck coefficient and electrical conductivity are trade-off, and they strongly depend on the carrier concentration. Lower carrier concentration results in a higher Seebeck coefficient but causes the smaller electrical conductivity, which agrees with the observation in this work, as given in Table 3.
Electrodeposited films | Average grain size (nm) | Electrical conductivity(S/cm) | Seebeck coefficient (μV/K) | Carrier concentration, |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bi2Te3 | 36.5 | 618.7 | −115.2 | 6.21 |
Pt (1.0 wt.%)/Bi2Te3 | 17.3 | 704.3 | −152.1 | 2.40 |
Pt (1.5 wt.%)/Bi2Te3 | 12.1 | 643.7 | −166.6 | 2.02 |
Pt (1.9 wt.%)/Bi2Te3 | 7.80 | 527.8 | −184.1 | 1.93 |
Summary characteristics of the synthesized films.
Figure 5 shows the measurement result of the thermal conductivity of the electrodeposited film. The thermal conductivity decreases as the Pt nanoparticle concentration increases. The main reason is due to a reduction of the phonon mean free path caused by phonon grain boundary scattering [37]. The scattering mechanism of mid- to long-wavelength of phonons in the Pt-Bi2Te3 nanocomposite can be imagined via Figure 5(b). Short-wavelength phonons are scattered by imperfections such as atomic defects and stacking defects while the Pt nanoparticles and grain boundaries are effective at scattering the mid-to long-wavelength phonon. A close adjacent between the Pt nanoparticles also contributed to the phonon scattering effect by reducing the phonon mean free path. Based on measurement results, including Seebeck coefficient, electrical conductivity, and thermal conductivity, the maximum ZT for Pt-Bi2Te3 nanocomposite is found at 0.61, which is 300% higher than that of the electrodeposited pure Bi2Te3. The details of evaluation setup, measurement results, and other discussions can be found in [24].
Thermal conductivity and ZT as a function of Pt nanoparticle concentration. (b) Illumination of phonon scattering mechanisms in the Pt-Bi2Te3 nanocomposite.
In summary, Pt-Bi2Te3 nanocomposite has been synthesized successfully by the electrochemical deposition technique. It is found that as higher Pt nanoparticles are deposited in the nanocomposite film, the grain size becomes smaller and the nanostructure experienced significant defects. The change of grain size could be a help to adjust the trade-off between Seebeck coefficient and electrical conductivity, which results in the highest power factor. In addition, the defects caused by Pt nanoparticle benefit the phonon scattering enhancement, thus lowering the thermal conductivity. Consequently, the ZT can be improved.
Although the thick-film thermoelectric materials have been investigated successfully, as described in Section 3.2, further investigations are still required to enhance their thermoelectric characteristics. Moreover, in order to open an opportunity for mass production, highly scalable synthesis electrodeposition on a large wafer size for thermoelectric materials should be conducted. In this section, a novel process technology for the ultra-thick film as well as high-performance characteristics (high Seebeck coefficient, large electrical conductivity, and low thermal conductivity) is investigated. Both electrodeposited films, including pure Bi2Te3 and Ni-doped Bi2Te3, reaching in mm-order thickness, have been synthesized, evaluated, and compared. Moreover, a highly scalable electrodeposition process for large wafer size has been performed and proven.
Figure 6(a) and (b) show the surface crystal structure of the electrodeposited pure Bi2Te3 and Ni-doped Bi2Te3, respectively. As can be seen that the crystal grain size of pure Bi2Te3 is much larger than that of Ni-doped Bi2Te3. The selected area electrode diffraction patterns for pure Bi2Te3 and Ni-doped Bi2Te3 are shown in Figure 6(c) and (d), respectively. Diffraction spots in Figure 6(c) and (d) indicate that both electrodeposited films pose polycrystalline structures. In quantitative comparison, the spots in Figure 6(d) are much more than those in Figure 6(c). One possible cause is the grain size effects. Decreasing the grain size results in an increase of the boundary scattering and lattice defects, as discussed in Section 3.3. Thereby, not only the trade-off between Seebeck coefficient and electrical conductivity could be adjusted (changing the carrier concentration), but also the thermal conductivity gets lower due to photon scattering.
SEM image of pure Bi2Te3. (b) SEM image of Ni doped Bi2Te3. (c) Selected area electron diffraction pattern of pure Bi2Te3. (c) Selected area electron diffraction pattern of pure Ni-doped Bi2Te3.
Figure 7(a) shows the experimental result of the highly scalable synthesis process, which is performed on a 4-inch wafer size. The deposited film reaches 2 mm thickness with a high uniform surface, as shown in Figure 7(b). The success of the highly scalable electrodeposition could open up the opportunity for mass production to reduce the fabrication cost.
(a) Electrodeposition on 4-inch wafer size. (b) SEM image of the cross-sectional view of the electrodeposited film.
Summary characteristics of the electrodeposited thermoelectric materials can be found in Table 4. Experimental results show that 0.7 at% Ni-doped Bi2Te3 has the highest Seebeck coefficient as well as largest electrical conductivity compared with others, including pure Bi2Te3, 0.3 at% Ni-doped Bi2Te3, 1.0 at% Ni-doped Bi2Te3, and 1.5 at% Ni-doped Bi2Te3. Although the thermal conductivity of 0.7 at% Ni-doped Bi2Te3 is not the smallest one, its thermal conductivity is two times smaller than that of the pure Bi2Te3. The ZT of Ni-doped Bi2Te3 is estimated as 0.78, which is five times larger than that of the pure Bi2Te3. The details of evaluation setup, and measurement results, and other discussions can be found in [38, 39].
Seebeck coefficient (μV/K) | Electrical conductivity (S/cm) | Power factor (μV/m.K2) | Thermal conductivity (W/m.K) | Figure of merit | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pure Bi2Te3 | −115 ± 5 | 525 ± 10 | 694 | 1.3 ± 0.1 | 0.15 ± 0.05 |
0.3 at% Ni-Bi2Te3 | −130 ± 5 | 885 ± 30 | 1496 | 0.8 ± 0.05 | 0.61 ± 0.1 |
0.7 at% Ni-Bi2Te3 | −143 ± 4 | 975± 15 | 2050 | 0.76 ± 0.09 | 0.78 ± 0.1 |
1.0 at% Ni-Bi2Te3 | −125 ± 5 | 675± 70 | 1054 | 0.62 ± 0.04 | 0.52 ± 0.12 |
1.5 at% Ni-Bi2Te3 | −130 ± 10 | 575 ± 75 | 972 | 0.56 ± 0.06 | 0.5 ± 0.18 |
Summary characteristics of the electrodeposited thermoelectric materials.
One of the challenges for micro-TEG is the small harvested temperature difference across the module, thus resulting in low output power. In the conventional design of micro-TEG, the heat flows in the vertical direction (thermoelectric elements such as column structure); therefore, ultra-height thermoelectric elements are typically needed. However, to fabricate micro-TEG based on micro/nano technologies, the height of thermoelectric elements is limited to a hundred micrometers due to the limitation of the photoresist thickness and a patterning aspect ratio. To overcome this issue, thermoelectric elements are proposed to be laid in a lateral direction instead of a vertical one. The proposed structure for micro-TEG is shown in Figure 8(a), which consists of n- and p-types thermoelectric elements (Bi2Te3 and Sb2Te3), copper heat guide, and PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane) as a base material. This micro-thermoelectric generator possesses a flexible characteristic that can be utilized in wearable electronic applications. The heat flow direction is shown in Figure 8(b).
(a) Proposed micro-thermoelectric generator structure. (b) Heat flow in lateral direction.
Figure 9 shows the fabrication process for micro-TEG, which begins with a silicon wafer. The SiO2 with 500 nm thickness and Cr-Au layers with 10 nm thickness and 150 nm thickness, respectively, are deposited on the top of the silicon wafer, respectively, by PECVD and sputtering methods (Figure 9(a)). The thermoelectric materials are selectively deposited on the Au surface by electrodeposition technique via the patterned photoresist with a thickness of 100 μm (Figure 9(b)). Next, Ti-TiN-Au-Cu layer as a barrier contact layer is formed by sputter via a stencil mask, as shown in Figure 9(c)–(e). The copper heat guides are subsequently grown on the barrier contact layer by the electroplating method (Figure 9(f)). The front side of micro-TEG is then filled by PDMS (Figure 9(g)). To create the heat guide from backside, a deep reactive ion etching (RIE) is conducted (Figure 9(g)). A thermal glue with high thermal conductivity is refilled into the molds by a screen printing technique (Figure 9(h)). The remaining silicon layer is etched out by plasma etching, and SiO2 and Cr-Au layers are removed by the ion beam milling technique (Figure 9(i)). Finally, PDMS is filled into the backside cavities (Figure 9(k)).
Fabrication process. (a) SiO2-Cr-Au deposition. (b) Thermoelectric material synthesis. (c) Photolithography process. (d, e) Multilayers of barrier metal contacts of Ti-TiN-Au-Cu. (f) Copper heat guides. (g) PDMS refilling and Si-SiO2 removing processes; (h) screen printing process of thermal conductive glue. (i) Backside etching process; (k) PDMS refilling process.
Figure 10(a) shows the fabricated micro-TEG based on micro/nano fabrication technologies. The micro-TEG contains 24 pairs of electrodeposited n- and p-type thermoelectric materials integrated on 1 cm2. The output power density of the fabricated micro-TEG is displayed in Figure 10(b), which reaches 3 μW/cm2 under a temperature difference caused by human body (37°C) and ambient environment (15°C) using natural convection. The details of evaluation setup, measurement results, and other discussions can be found in [40].
(a) Fabricated micro-TEG. (b) Applied temperature and output power.
In summary, a novel design and fabrication process for the micro-TEG have been proposed and investigated. Micro-TEG has been fabricated successfully by micro/nano fabrication technologies. Also, its performance has been evaluated. Although the power density of the fabricated micro-TEG is small, it could be improved by increasing the density of n- and p-types thermoelectric elements. The idea and experimental results in this work may be useful for applications in wearable electronic devices.
To improve the performance of the micro-TEG, enhancing the performance of the thermoelectric materials is a critical point. Another important point is an increase in the number of thermoelectric elements, which can significantly enhance output voltage and output power, as discussed by Eqs. (12) and (13). Thus, the power density can be significantly increased. High-density n- and p-type thermoelectric elements could be formed on a small foot print by utilizing the micro/nano fabrication technologies, as discussed in Section 4.1 and in Refs. [41, 42]. However, some issues need to be addressed, as follows. Complex processes, including photolithography, etching, deposition, and lift-off processes, are needed to construct the air bridge between thermoelectric elements. Therefore, the fabrication time is long, and the cost is high. Moreover, the bonding strength between thermoelectric elements and substrate is weak; thereby, the internal resistance of the fabricated micro-TEG is high, caused by the large contact resistance. Such issues make the performance of the micro-TEG low, which is against it for realistic applications. In this section, a novel method to produce the micro-TEG based on ultra-thick and dense electrodeposited thermoelectric material (presented in Section 3.4) and assembly technique is proposed and investigated.
To fabricate a high-density micro-TEG, small thermoelectric elements are needed, which are prepared as follows. The 4-inch electrodeposited wafer (Figure 11(a)) is diced into many small elements (Figure 11(b)). It is noted that before cutting, Ni-Au layers as barrier contact layers are formed on both sides of the wafer by electroplating method [43, 44] to decrease the ohmic contact resistance between thermoelectric elements and substrate. Figure 11(c) shows the magnified image of the diced thermoelectric elements with dimensions of 0.4 mm × 0.4 mm × 2 mm.
(a) Four-inch electrodeposited thermoelectric material wafer. (b) Thermoelectric elements with dimensions of 0.4 mm × 0.4 mm × 2 mm. (e) Close-up image of thermoelectric elements.
The fabrication process for the micro-TEG based on the assembly technique is shown in Figure 12(a)–(c). The SiO2 layer as an insulator layer is formed on a silicon wafer by PECVD, and Cr-Au layers are deposited on the SiO2 layer by the sputtering method, as given in Figure 12(a). Cr-Au layers are patterned to form the bottom interconnection by a wet etching method [45, 46], as shown in Figure 12(b). Next, thermoelectric elements are aligned and bonded on the substrate by conductive glue. Finally, a top wafer cover is aligned and bonded on top of the thermoelectric elements (Figure 12(c)). Because the thermoelectric elements are pretty small, the process for vertical alignment becomes difficult. To overcome this issue, a stencil silicon wafer with patterned through holes is proposed, and a simple metal holder tool is employed to fix and align the stencil wafer and substrate, as shown in Figure 12(d). Thermoelectric elements are inserted into holes of the stencil wafer. Figure 12(e) shows the experimental image after the thermoelectric elements are bonded on the substrate. The completely fabricated micro-TEG is shown in Figure 12(f). In total, 127 pairs, including n- and p-type thermoelectric elements, are formed successfully on a small footprint of 15 mm2. Thus, although a simple assembly technique is employed, the integration density of thermoelectric elements could be comparable to the micro-fabrication of the micro-TEG.
Fabrication process and fabricated micro-TEG. (a) Silicon substrate with SiO2 and Cr-Au layers on top. (b) Cr-Au patterning. (c) TEG schematic. (d) Device fabrication setup including holders, substrate, and stencil wafer. (e) After the first alignment and bonding. (f) Completely fabricated device.
The fabricated micro-TEG shows a high output power of 33.9 mW and a large power density of 15.1 mW/cm2 under a temperature difference across the micro-TEG of 75 °C, which is much higher performance than those of other published works [42, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51]. More comparisons to other works are shown in Table 5. The details of evaluation setup, measurement results, and other discussions can be found in [52].
Pairs | Height (mm) | Temperature difference ∆T (°C) | Open circuit (V) | Internal resistance (Ω) | Power (mW) | Power density (mW/cm2) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
24 | 0.2 | 24 | 0.05 | 200 | — | 0.004 | [47] |
6 | 0.0015 | 6 | 0.036 | 25 | 0.0023 | — | [48] |
71 | 0.0135 | 39 | 0.2 | 134 | 2.4 | 2.4 | [49] |
127 | 0.01 | 52.5 | 0.3 | 13 | 3 | 9.2 | [50] |
200 | 0.02 | 88 | 0.5 | 45.2 | — | 1.04 | [42] |
220 | 2 | 40 | 2.1 | — | 7 | 1.75 | [51] |
127 | 2 | 75 | 2.2 | 35 | 33.9 | 15.1 | This work [52] |
Comparison of TEG performance.
In summary, the high integration density of the micro-TEG has been demonstrated by utilizing a simple assembly technique. Micro-TEG consisting of 127 pairs is successfully fabricated on 15 mm2. The fabricated micro-TEG possesses a high performance, which may satisfy the demand for being a reliable power source for electronic devices.
Although a high output voltage and output power could be achieved by the fabricated micro-TEG, a high thermal source is needed. In turn to low-thermal sources, its output power is in small value, which cannot be used as a power source for electronic devices. To overcome this issue, a DC-DC converter is required, which amplifies the output voltage of the micro-TEG from an mV range to V range of the output of the DC-DC converter. Thus, this makes micro-TEG possible for powering electronic devices with low-power consumption. In this section, the micro-TEG for powering calculator and twist watch is demonstrated. A DC-DC converter is utilized to boost the output voltage of the micro-TEG up to sufficient levels to store in an energy-storable unit, which is subsequently supplied to electronic devices. The energy storable unit can be a capacitor, a supercapacitor, or a rechargeable battery. We have developed successfully micro-supercapacitors-based graphene nanowalls with PANI in liquid state [53] and solid state [54] and with MnO2 [55]. Although these micro-supercapacitors show a high charge and discharge processes, their storable energy is lower than that of commercial rechargeable battery. In this section, a rechargeable battery from Enercera [56] is employed for the application demonstration. Two applications utilizing the micro-TEG are conducted, as follows.
Figure 13(a) illustrates the experimental setup for the micro-TEG as a power source for the calculator. It consists of Peltier (as a heat source), copper blocks, temperature sensors, the DC-DC converter, a rechargeable battery, and a calculator. The harvester energy is accumulated and stored in the rechargeable battery via the DC-DC converter and then supplied to electronic devices. Figure 13(b) shows the output of DC-DC converter over the temperature difference across the micro-TEG. The experimental results indicated that output of DC-DC converter reaches 2.8 V at ∆ T = 2°C and 4 V at T = 8°C. Figure 13(c) shows the rechargeable battery characteristic, which increases from 0 V to 1.8 V, taking approximately 8 minutes. Figure 13(d) shows the demonstration of using micro-TEG as an electrical power source for the calculator. The calculator can be powered on and used once the rechargeable battery gets over 1.5 V.
(a) Experimental setup for powering portable electronic device. (b) DC-DC output as a function of temperature difference. (c) Battery charged up by the micro-TEG. (d) Micro-TEG as a power source for calculator.
Figure 14(a) illustrates the experimental setup for powering a twist watch. One side of the micro-TEG is in contact with human skin while another side is attached to the backside of the twist watch. α-Gel is pasted on both sides of the micro-TEG to enhance heat transfer between interfaces. The DC-DC converter and rechargeable battery are employed, which are similar to those mentioned in Section 5.1. The DC-DC converter, rechargeable battery, and micro-TEG are arranged on the twist watch, as shown in Figure 14(b). Figure 14(c) shows the output of the micro-TEG and battery charge when twist watch is worn. It takes approximately 5 minutes for the rechargeable battery to reach 1.2 V. With this energy, the twist watch is powered on and runs.
(a) Experimental setup for powering wearable electronic device. (b) The photo of the self-powered twist watch. (c) TEG output and battery charge-up.
Demonstrated results in this section indicate a high potential using the micro-TEG for powering not only portable electronic devices but also wearable electronic devices. Further integrated functions, including sensing (humidity, temperature, gases, etc.), displaying (screen display), and transmitting (radio frequency, Bluetooth, etc.) functions, should be investigated to produce a smart system for using in wireless IoT sensing systems.
In this work, not only basic knowledge about thermoelectric generators but also experiences on material synthesis, device fabrication, and application demonstration are reported. By investigating electrochemical deposition, high-performance thermoelectric materials have been achieved. Three kinds of high-performance thermoelectric materials, including thick bulk-like thermoelectric material, Pt nanoparticles embedded in a thermoelectric material, and Ni-doped thermoelectric material, are reported and discussed. Besides the material synthesis, novel fabrication methods can also help increase the output power and the power density of the micro-TEG significantly. Two fabrication processes, micro/nano fabrication technology and assembly technology, are investigated to produce high-performance micro-TEG. Moreover, the fabricated micro-TEG is successfully demonstrated for powering portable and wearable electronic devices. The contents of this paper are based on our experimental research. It is our hope that this review may be a useful reference for those working in the field of thermal-to-electric energy conversion, especially on the micro-TEG.
Part of this work was performed in the Micro/Nanomachining Research Education Center (MNC) of Tohoku University. This work was supported by Cabinet Office, Government of Japan, Cross-ministerial Strategic Innovation Promotion Program (SIP), (funding agency: The New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization, NEDO) and also supported in part by JSPS KAKENHI for Young Scientists (Grant number: 20K15147).
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\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"39599",doi:"10.5772/50046",title:"Encapsulation Technology to Protect Probiotic Bacteria",slug:"encapsulation-technology-to-protect-probiotic-bacteria",totalDownloads:12448,totalCrossrefCites:45,totalDimensionsCites:87,abstract:null,book:{id:"3145",slug:"probiotics",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics"},signatures:"María Chávarri, Izaskun Marañón and María Carmen Villarán",authors:[{id:"150285",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"Chávarri Hueda",slug:"maria-chavarri-hueda",fullName:"María Chávarri Hueda"},{id:"151613",title:"MSc.",name:"Izaskun",middleName:null,surname:"Marañon",slug:"izaskun-maranon",fullName:"Izaskun Marañon"},{id:"151621",title:"Dr.",name:"Mª Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Villarán",slug:"ma-carmen-villaran",fullName:"Mª Carmen Villarán"}]},{id:"39607",doi:"10.5772/50121",title:"Recent Application of Probiotics in Food and Agricultural Science",slug:"recent-application-of-probiotics-in-food-and-agricultural-science",totalDownloads:10168,totalCrossrefCites:32,totalDimensionsCites:77,abstract:null,book:{id:"3145",slug:"probiotics",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics"},signatures:"Danfeng Song, Salam Ibrahim and Saeed Hayek",authors:[{id:"107905",title:"Prof.",name:"Salam",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"salam-ibrahim",fullName:"Salam Ibrahim"},{id:"150202",title:"Dr.",name:"Danfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Song",slug:"danfeng-song",fullName:"Danfeng Song"},{id:"151025",title:"MSc.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Hayek",slug:"saeed-hayek",fullName:"Saeed Hayek"}]},{id:"49246",doi:"10.5772/61300",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4720,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]},{id:"51065",doi:"10.5772/63499",title:"Role of the Biofilms in Wastewater Treatment",slug:"role-of-the-biofilms-in-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:6849,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:61,abstract:"Biological wastewater treatment systems play an important role in improving water quality and human health. This chapter thus briefly discusses different biological methods, specially biofilm technologies, the development of biofilms on different filter media, factors affecting their development as well as their structure and function. It also tackles various conventional and modern molecular techniques for detailed exploration of the composition, diversity and dynamics of biofilms. These data are crucial to improve the performance, robustness and stability of biofilm-based wastewater treatment technologies.",book:{id:"5197",slug:"microbial-biofilms-importance-and-applications",title:"Microbial Biofilms",fullTitle:"Microbial Biofilms - Importance and Applications"},signatures:"Shama Sehar and Iffat Naz",authors:[{id:"180364",title:"Dr.",name:"Iffat",middleName:null,surname:"Naz",slug:"iffat-naz",fullName:"Iffat Naz"},{id:"183345",title:"Dr.",name:"Shama",middleName:null,surname:"Sehar",slug:"shama-sehar",fullName:"Shama Sehar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65613",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9277,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"62553",title:"Antibiotic Use in Poultry Production and Its Effects on Bacterial Resistance",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-poultry-production-and-its-effects-on-bacterial-resistance",totalDownloads:7327,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:92,abstract:"A surge in the development and spread of antibiotic resistance has become a major cause for concern. Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"65914",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Action Mechanisms of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-action-mechanisms-of-antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance",totalDownloads:4428,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu, Nesrin Gareayaghi and Bekir S. Kocazeybek",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"},{id:"248288",title:"Prof.",name:"Bekir",middleName:null,surname:"Kocazeybek",slug:"bekir-kocazeybek",fullName:"Bekir Kocazeybek"},{id:"406463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Gareayaghi",slug:"nesrin-gareayaghi",fullName:"Nesrin Gareayaghi"}]},{id:"50992",title:"Probiotics: A Comprehensive Review of Their Classification, Mode of Action and Role in Human Nutrition",slug:"probiotics-a-comprehensive-review-of-their-classification-mode-of-action-and-role-in-human-nutrition",totalDownloads:5429,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Probiotics are live microorganisms that live in gastrointestinal (GI) tract and are beneficial for their hosts and prevent certain diseases. In this chapter, after a complete introduction to probiotics, definition, mechanism of action, and their classification, currently used organisms will be discussed in detail. Moreover, different kinds of nutritional synthetic products of probiotics along with their safety and drug interaction will be noticed. This chapter mentions all clinical trial studies that have been done to evaluate probiotic efficacy with a focus on gastrointestinal diseases.",book:{id:"5193",slug:"probiotics-and-prebiotics-in-human-nutrition-and-health",title:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health",fullTitle:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health"},signatures:"Amirreza Khalighi, Reza Behdani and Shabnam Kouhestani",authors:[{id:"179560",title:"Dr.",name:"Amirreza",middleName:null,surname:"Khalighi",slug:"amirreza-khalighi",fullName:"Amirreza Khalighi"},{id:"185238",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Behdani",slug:"reza-behdani",fullName:"Reza Behdani"},{id:"185239",title:"Dr.",name:"Shabnam",middleName:null,surname:"Kouhestani",slug:"shabnam-kouhestani",fullName:"Shabnam Kouhestani"}]},{id:"72109",title:"Antibiotic Resistance in Biofilm",slug:"antibiotic-resistance-in-biofilm",totalDownloads:1479,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Biofilms can be found on several living and nonliving surfaces, which are formed by a group of microorganisms, complex assembly of proteins, polysaccharides, and DNAs in an extracellular polymeric matrix. By forming a biofilm, bacteria protect themselves from host defense, disinfectants, and antibiotics. Bacteria inside biofilm are much more resistant to antimicrobial agents than planktonic forms since bacteria that are unresisting to antimicrobial agents in any way can turn resistant after forming a biofilm. Low penetration of antibiotics into the biofilm, slow reproduction, and the existence of adaptive stress response constitute the multiphased defense of the bacterium. This antibiotic resistance, which is provided by biofilm, makes the treatments, which use effective antibiotic doses on the bacterium in planktonic shape, difficult. Biofilm formation potential of bacteria appears as an important virulence factor in ensuring the colonization on the living tissues or medical devices and makes the treatment difficult. The aim of this chapter is to overview the current knowledge of antimicrobial resistance mechanisms in biofilms.",book:{id:"8967",slug:"bacterial-biofilms",title:"Bacterial Biofilms",fullTitle:"Bacterial Biofilms"},signatures:"Sadık Dincer, Fatima Masume Uslu and Anil Delik",authors:[{id:"188141",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadik",middleName:null,surname:"Dincer",slug:"sadik-dincer",fullName:"Sadik Dincer"},{id:"315992",title:"MSc.",name:"Fatıma Masume",middleName:null,surname:"Uslu",slug:"fatima-masume-uslu",fullName:"Fatıma Masume Uslu"},{id:"315993",title:"MSc.",name:"Anıl",middleName:null,surname:"Delik",slug:"anil-delik",fullName:"Anıl Delik"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"148",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81704",title:"Quorum Sensing Inhibition Based Drugs to Conquer Antimicrobial Resistance",slug:"quorum-sensing-inhibition-based-drugs-to-conquer-antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:22,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104125",abstract:"Quorum sensing is the cell to cell communication mechanism in microorganism through signalling molecules. Regulation of virulence factor, sporulation, proteolytic enzymes production, biofilm formation, auto-inducers, cell population density are key physiological process mediated through quorum-sensing (QS) signalling. Elevation of innate immune system and antibiotic tolerance of pathogens is highly increased with perspective of quorum-sensing (QS) activity. Development of novel drugs is highly attractive scenario against cell-cell communication of microbes. Design of synthetic drugs and natural compounds against QS signal molecules is vital combat system to attenuate microbial pathogenicity. Quorum sensing inhibitors (QSIs), quorum quenchers (QQs), efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs) act against multi-drug resistance strains (MDR) and other pathogenic microbes through regulation of auto-inducers and signal molecule with perceptive to growth arrest both in-vitro and in-vivo. QQs, QSIs and EPIs compounds has been validated with various animal models for high selection pressure on therapeutics arsenal against microbe’s growth inhibition. Promising QSI are phytochemicals and secondary metabolites includes polyacetylenes, alkaloids, polyphenols, terpenoids, quinones.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Kothandapani Sundar, Ramachandira Prabu and Gopal Jayalakshmi"},{id:"82372",title:"Unlocking the Potential of Ghost Probiotics in Combating Antimicrobial Resistance",slug:"unlocking-the-potential-of-ghost-probiotics-in-combating-antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104126",abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance is a global concern that requires immediate attention. Major causes of development of antimicrobial resistance in microbial cells are overuse of antimicrobials along the food chain especially in livestock, in preventing infections as well as misuse of antimicrobials by patients. Probiotics could be a viable alternative to antibiotics in the fight against antimicrobial resistance. Probiotic strains can act as a complement to antimicrobial therapy, improving antimicrobial function and enhancing immunity. However, there are safety concerns regarding the extensive use of live microbial cells especially in immunocompromised individuals; these include microbial translocation, inhibition of other beneficial microorganisms and development of antimicrobial resistance, among other concerns. Inevitably, ghost probiotics have become the favored alternative as they eliminate the safety and shelf-life problems associated with use of probiotics. Ghost probiotics are non-viable microbial cells (intact or broken) or metabolic products from microorganisms, which when administered in adequate amounts have biologic activity in the host and confer health benefits. Ghost probiotics exert biological effects similar to probiotics. However, the major drawback of using ghost probiotics is that the mechanism of action of these is currently unknown, hence more research is required and regulatory instruments are needed to assure the safety of consumers.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Abigarl Ndudzo, Sakhile Ndlovu, Nesisa Nyathi and Angela Sibanda Makuvise"},{id:"82178",title:"Managing Antimicrobial Resistance beyond the Hospital Antimicrobial Stewardship: The Role of One Health",slug:"managing-antimicrobial-resistance-beyond-the-hospital-antimicrobial-stewardship-the-role-of-one-heal",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104170",abstract:"Infections caused by micro-organisms affect the health of people and animals, causing morbidity and mortality, with Asia and Africa as the epicenters. Some of the infectious diseases are emerging and re-emerging in nature. Examples include viral hepatitis, Lassa fever, Ebola, yellow fever, tuberculosis, covid-19, measles, and malaria, among others. Antimicrobials have been playing an important role in the treatment of infections by these microbes. However, there has been a development of resistance to these antimicrobials as a result of many drivers. This write-up used secondary data to explore the management of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) beyond the hospital antimicrobial resistance steward using the one health concept. The findings showed AMR to be a transboundary, multifaceted ecosystem problem affecting both the developed and developing countries. It is also one of the top ten global public health threats facing mankind. Globally, AMR will cost over US$100 trillion in output loss by 2050, about 700,000 deaths a year, and 4,150,000 deaths in Africa by 2050. About 2.4 million people could die in high-income countries between 2015 and 2050 without a sustained effort to contain AMR. The drivers of AMR are beyond the hospital and hospital AMR stewardship. Therefore, the need for one health concept to manage it.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Istifanus Anekoson Joshua, Mathew Bobai and Clement Sokfa Woje"},{id:"81918",title:"Machine Learning for Antimicrobial Resistance Research and Drug Development",slug:"machine-learning-for-antimicrobial-resistance-research-and-drug-development",totalDownloads:52,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104841",abstract:"Machine learning is a subfield of artificial intelligence which combines sophisticated algorithms and data to develop predictive models with minimal human interference. This chapter focuses on research that trains machine learning models to study antimicrobial resistance and to discover antimicrobial drugs. An emphasis is placed on applying machine learning models to detect drug resistance among bacterial and fungal pathogens. The role of machine learning in antibacterial and antifungal drug discovery and design is explored. Finally, the challenges and prospects of applying machine learning to advance basic research on and treatment of antimicrobial resistance are discussed. Overall, machine learning promises to advance antimicrobial resistance research and to facilitate the development of antibacterial and antifungal drugs.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Shamanth A. Shankarnarayan, Joshua D. Guthrie and Daniel A. Charlebois"},{id:"81891",title:"Alternatives to Antibiotics in Semen Extenders Used in Artificial Insemination",slug:"alternatives-to-antibiotics-in-semen-extenders-used-in-artificial-insemination",totalDownloads:27,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104226",abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance is a serious global threat requiring a widespread response. Both veterinarians and medical doctors should restrict antibiotic usage to therapeutic use only, after determining the sensitivity of the causal organism. However, the addition of antibiotics to semen extenders for animal artificial insemination represents a hidden, non-therapeutic use of antimicrobial substances. Artificial insemination for livestock breeding is a huge global enterprise with hundreds of million sperm doses prepared annually. However, reporting of antimicrobial resistance in semen is increasing. This review discusses the consequences of bacteria in semen samples, as well as the effect of antimicrobial substances in semen extenders on bacteria in the environment and even on personnel. Alternatives to antibiotics have been reported in the scientific literature and are reviewed here. The most promising of these, removal of the majority of bacteria by colloid centrifugation, is considered in detail, especially results from an artificial insemination study in pigs. In conclusion, colloid centrifugation is a practical method of physically removing bacteria from semen, which does not induce antibiotic resistance. Sperm quality in stored semen samples may be improved at the same time.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Jane M. Morrell, Pongpreecha Malaluang, Aleksandar Cojkic and Ingrid Hansson"},{id:"81699",title:"Efflux Pumps among Urinary E. coli and K. pneumoniae Local Isolates in Hilla City, Iraq",slug:"efflux-pumps-among-urinary-e-coli-and-k-pneumoniae-local-isolates-in-hilla-city-iraq",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104408",abstract:"Urinary tract infections (UTI) are the most common bacterial infections affecting humans. Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae were common enterobacteria engaged with community-acquired UTIs. Efflux pumps were vital resistance mechanisms for antibiotics, especially among enterobacteria. Overexpression of an efflux system, which results in a decrease in antibiotic accumulation, is an effective mechanism for drug resistance. The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, small multidrug resistance (SMR), and multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE) families, the major facilitator superfamily (MFS), and the resistance-nodulation- cell division (RND) family are the five superfamilies of efflux systems linked to drug resistance. This chapter highlights the results of studying the prevalence of efflux pump genes among local isolates of E. coli and K. pneumoniae in Hilla City, Iraq. class RND AcrAB-TolC, AcrAD-TolC, and AcrFE-TolC genes detected by conventional PCR of E. coli and K. pneumoniae respectively. The result revealed approximately all studied efflux transporter were found in both E. coli and K. pneumoniae in different percentages. Biofilm formation were observed in 50(100%) of K. pneumoniae and 49(98%) of E. coli isolates were biofilm former and follow: 30(60%), 20(40%) were weak, 12(24%), 22(44%) were moderate and 7(14%) and 8(16%) were Strong biofilm former for E. coli and K. pneumoniae, respectively.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Hussein Al-Dahmoshi, Sahar A. 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