Plant growth-promoting Rhizobacteria used in rice production.
\r\n\r\n
\r\n\r\nThis work has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 634476 for project with acronym TREASURE. The content of this book reflects only the authors\' view and the European Union Agency is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information it contains.\r\n',isbn:"978-1-78985-408-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-407-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-011-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83749",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"european-local-pig-breeds-diversity-and-performance-a-study-of-project-treasure",numberOfPages:318,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"182fe65256f9a0bbc25b0b7576412b0e",bookSignature:"Marjeta Candek-Potokar and Rosa M. 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\r\n\tNeural connectivity is a topic that describes nerve cells in terms of their anatomical and functional connections. The term connectome refers to a comprehensive map of neural connections, like a wiring diagram of an organism’s nervous system. Connectomics, the study of connectomes, can be applied to individual neurons and their synaptic connections, as well as to connections between neuronal populations or to functional and structural connectivity of different brain regions.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will address neural connectivity at these various scales in health and disease. The chapters will review novel findings related to neuroanatomy and cell biology, neurophysiology, neural plasticity, changes of connectivity in neurological disorders, and sensory system connectivity. Technical advances in neuroscience research are a major catalyst for progress in neural connectivity research. Most recently, among these advances are genetic, optical, and optogenetic methods that allow researchers to manipulate single cells or neural circuits with subcellular precision, at microsecond timescales or through longitudinal electrophysiological and optical recordings. Novel experimental and conceptual approaches will pave the way to a more complete understanding of the functional consequences of changes in brain connectivity and their implication for physiology and pathophysiology. Targeted at students and researchers in biological, engineering, medical, and related disciplines, this book will provide an overview of the current work that is being done in this exciting field and will highlight any gaps and areas of neural connectivity that would benefit from further exploration.
",isbn:"978-1-83962-797-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-796-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-798-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79f611488f3217579b5c84978f870863",bookSignature:"Dr. Thomas Heinbockel",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9853.jpg",keywords:"Anatomy, Cell Biology, Neurophysiology, Connectome, Neurotransmission, Synaptic Plasticity, Sensory Systems, Hemispheric Specialization, Functional Neuroimaging, Neuronal Tracing, Neuromodulation, Neurological and Neurodegenerative Disorders",numberOfDownloads:101,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 17th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 8th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 6th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 25th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 24th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Thomas Heinbockel, Ph.D., studied biology at the Philipps-University, Germany. Subsequently, he completed his Ph.D. in Neuroscience at the University of Arizona, USA. Prior to his arrival at Howard University, Dr. Heinbockel held joint research faculty appointments in the Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology and the Department of Physiology at the University of Maryland School of Medicine, USA.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"70569",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Heinbockel",slug:"thomas-heinbockel",fullName:"Thomas Heinbockel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/70569/images/system/70569.jfif",biography:"Thomas Heinbockel, Ph.D., is a Professor and Interim Chair in the Department of Anatomy, Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, DC. Dr. Heinbockel’s laboratory engages in multidisciplinary research to elucidate organizational principles of neural systems in the brain, specifically the limbic and olfactory system. His research has been directed at understanding brain mechanisms of information processing and their relation to neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. His laboratory also works on translational projects, specifically, the development of novel anti-epileptic drugs and pharmacotherapeutic treatment options for drug addiction. His laboratory analyzes drug actions at the epi- and genetic level using next-generation sequencing technology. The goal of his studies is to conduct innovative basic and applied research on fundamental biological mechanisms involved in disease conditions (Covid-19, HIV). Dr. Heinbockel studied biology at the Philipps-University, Marburg, Germany. His studies of the brain started during his M.S. thesis work at the Max-Planck-Institute for Behavioral Physiology, Starnberg/Seewiesen, Germany. Subsequently, he completed a Ph.D. in Neuroscience at the University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA. After graduating, he worked as a Research Associate at the Institute of Physiology, Otto-von-Guericke-University School of Medicine, Magdeburg, Germany. Prior to his arrival at Howard University, Dr. Heinbockel held joint research faculty appointments in the Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology and the Department of Physiology at the University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA. 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Due to the recent miniaturization in nanotechnology, insulating layer thickness needs to be precisely controlled down to a few nanometer ranges. This nanometer scale insulating films not only reduce the devices size, but also provide a platform for novel device fabrication such as resonant tunneling diodes [1] or memory devices for magnetic tunnel junction [2].
\nSince last few decades, SiO2 on silicon (Si) is found to be the most useful insulating material in VLSI device technology because of its high quality and superior homogeneity. However, continuous miniaturization of device size now demands a thickness of this insulating layer down to a few atomic layers. Here, the homogeneity of the insulating film in terms of morphology and chemical purity becomes more pronounced. Very small fluctuations in thickness of the oxide layer may lead to the break-down due to the enhanced electron tunneling as this insulating barriers is extremely thin. Hence, demand for new materials with a higher dielectric constant is of high priority which can replace the SiO2 layer to overcome this issue. In this regard, crystalline silicon nitride (Si3N4) films received considerable attention to replace the existing SiO2 gate dielectric materials, as it is compatible with existing Si processing technologies as well as larger dielectric constant and diffusion resistive materials properties [3, 4]. Plasma assisted amorphous silicon nitride layer has recently been used as high performance gate dielectric [5]. High thermal stability and refractive index of Si3N4 make it capable for high temperature structural ceramics and anti-reflective coating materials, respectively. Finally, crystalline Si3N4 on Si can also serve as a substrate for highly demanding GaN growth to integrate the opto-electronic devices to the well-established silicon based device technology [6, 7]. Therefore, better understanding of the initial Si3N4 films growth on Si, their structural and morphological evolution as well as chemical properties in a very local (atomic) scale are of high technological importance.
\nSilicon nitride is a structural ceramics, which exhibits high mechanical strength at room as well as elevated temperature. It can also be useful because of its high fracture toughness. It shows a very high thermal stability, up to 1600°C in air and also has a much larger dielectric constant (ε = 7.5) as compared to the conventional SiO2 (ε = 3.8). It is a semiconducting material with an energy band gap of about 4.7 eV, which is almost half of SiO2 (9 eV). Usually the bulk Si3N4 has been produced by sintering method and structurally appeared as poly-crystalline ceramic. Crystalline silicon nitride appears with two different phases, such as α-phase and β-phase of Si3N4. Both the phases have space groups of P31c and P63 for α- and β-Si3N4, respectively and the structures appeared with a hexagonal symmetry. Although there were some contradiction about these two phases, finally it has been well accepted that the only stable phase is the β-Si3N4 phase whereas the α-Si3N4 phase is a meta-stable one and has a lattice constant along c-axis (0001) just double of the β-phase.
\nVarious groups have already described the crystal structure of β-Si3N4 and for the bulk crystals. A lattice constant of ‘a’ = 7.595 Å in the hexagonal (X-Y) plane whereas ‘c’ = 2.902 Å in the vertical (Z) direction are obtained [9]. A schematic model of the β-Si3N4 structure (top view), containing 14 atoms in the lateral plane (normal to c-axis) can be seen in Figure 1 where half of the atoms are placed below (at Z = −c/4 plane) and the other half above (at Z = c/4 plane) the X-Y plane. Local geometrical configuration indicates a combination of sp3 and sp2 hybridized orbital for Si and N atoms, respectively. This structure can also be considered as tetrahedrons of Si3N4 complex network, connected through their corners. Further structural information of β-phase of silicon nitride and how it is related to the α-phase has also be reported elsewhere [8, 9].
\nSchematic top (0001) view of the β-Si3N4 structure model in a lateral (x-y) plane with 14 atoms. The bigger and smaller circles represent the Si and N atoms respectively, whereas the parallelogram indicates the unit cell [8].
Formation of crystalline silicon nitride films has been performed using various growth methods. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) growth process has been used to grow silicon nitride where a mixture of silicon-hydrogen (SiH4, Si2H6, Si3H8) and nitro-hydro compounds (NH3, N2H4, HN3) are used. In general, resulting films are usually appeared in an amorphous phase, non-stoichiometric and significantly contaminated [10]. However, without supplying any Si -H2 source compound, it also possible to obtain nitride layers by direct nitridation of a Si substrate at elevated temperature. Si(111) surface exhibits a threefold rotational symmetry. Moreover, its 2 × 2 unit cell is having a lattice mismatch of only about 1.1% with the ‘a’ axis of hexagonal Si3N4. These two properties make it a very compatible substrate for the growth of Si3N4 films in the (0001) lattice direction. It can be done by exposing the atomically clean Si substrate to various N2 compound reactive gases such as NH3 [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17], NO [18, 19, 20, 21] or other gaseous at high nitridation temperatures or by post exposure thermal annealing. In addition, ion bombardment methods [22, 23, 24, 25] or sputter deposition technique have also been employed. However, use the pure nitrogen gas would be the simplest and easiest way for the nitridation of the Si surface. But a very high growth pressure is required due to the inertness of molecular nitrogen. This may lead to a huge out gassing and finally lead to a severe contamination within the nitride film. If we can provide an atomic nitrogen source, this problem can be solved. Therefore, nitrogen plasma sources can be used for the exposure of active nitrogen flux on Si surface. The atomic nitrogen exposure on Si(111) and Si(001) surfaces at relatively lower nitridation temperatures leads to the formation of amorphous nitride layer and appears with a highly disorder interface of nitride/Si. However, a crystalline interface and well-ordered films of hexagonal β-Si3N4 films have only been observed for nitridation temperature only above 700°C [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27]. Epitaxial β-Si3N4 formation on Si(111) by thermal annealing of N-irradiated Si(111) surface has been reported by Yamabe et al. [28]. Silicon nitride growth kinetics and surface thermodynamics at elevated temperature under ammonia exposure is recently been reported [29]. N2-plasma assisted surface nitridation of Si(111) followed by vacuum annealing at high temperature (900°C) results in a better quality Si3N4 film [30].
\nVarious analytical characterization methods have been employed to investigate the growth mechanism and structural properties of thermally grown nitride layers. In general, surface probing instruments collect the information on lateral averaging over the surface. As diffraction method, low energy electron diffraction (LEED), reflected high energy electron diffraction (RHEED) [28, 29] are used for surface whereas low angle X-ray diffraction (XRD) is used for interface studies. Similarly, to investigate the chemical properties as well as bonding configuration, Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), photoelectron spectroscopy with X-ray (XPS) and ultraviolet light (UPS), electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), thermal desorption spectroscopy(TDS) etc. have been used. However, for atomic scale local information such as growth kinetics and surface reconstructions, direct microscopic imaging using low energy electron microscopy (LEEM), atomic force microscopy and scanning tunneling microscopy have been utilized. X-ray reflectivity (XRR) has also been carried out in some cases, to find the information about nitride layer thickness and subsurface interface.
\nHighly oriented p-type Si(111) wafers (boron doped, 0.02° miscut angle) were used as substrates and a clean Si(111) surface with well reconstructed 7 × 7 structure was prepared prior to the nitridation process. This preparation was routinely checked by both LEED and STM, and a clear 7 × 7 reconstruction was reproducibly observed. The sample temperature was measured using an infrared pyrometer with an uncertainty of 20°C. Si substrate nitridation process was performed by exposing the 7 × 7 reconstructed clean Si(111) surface to atomic nitrogen flux at different substrate temperatures. A commercial radio frequency (RF) plasma source from Epi Uni-bulb was used as atomic nitrogen sources. Plasma chamber pressure was maintained at about 10−5 mbar during plasma discharge. The pressure was controlled by a leak valve connected to the inlet line of N2 gas. The plasma source was operated at with a RF power of 450 W. The exposure time of the active nitrogen flux on Si substrate was varied such a way that the coverage of the nitride films starts from sub-monolayer and ends up to the saturation thickness. Crystalline quality and surface reconstructions of the nitride layer were characterized by LEED. The surface morphology, growth kinetics, as well as nucleation process and the real space atomic structure were studied using an in-situ STM. Chemical composition and stoichiometry of the film are studied using ESCA microscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, which finally provides the information about film thickness and its homogeneity.
\nAn average information about the Si3N4 surface reconstruction grown on Si(111) and its crystalline quality after the nitridation process at different substrate temperatures ranging from 600–1100°C, have been investigated using low energy electron diffraction (LEED) method. Prior to any nitride formation, clean Si(111) surface appears with a sharp 7 × 7 LEED patterns. LEED patterns appear with a very faint “8 × 8” reconstruction for nitridation below 600°C. This finding indicates a pour crystallinity of the nitride films and mostly amorphous silicon nitrides later is formed. With increasing nitridation temperature, crystalline quality of the nitride films drastically improves and appears with a sharp “8 × 8” LEED patterns. After nitridation for about 15 min under the RF-plasma source at different temperatures, the evolution of the “8 × 8” structures has been shown in Figure 2. The LEED patterns of clean Si(111)-7 × 7 have been shown in Figure 2(a). The yellow and cyan circles represent the (0,0) and (1,0) diffraction spots of the reconstructed Si(111) surface. After nitridation at 700°C, faint diffraction spots of Si3N4-“8 × 8” structure (1, 0) starts to appear. Increase the nitridation temperature results in a much brighter LEED spots along with an additional faint superstructures of “8/3 × 8/3” [6]. In case of a further increase in nitridation temperature to 920°C (Figure 2(b)), the LEED patterns get significantly sharpen. The “8/3 × 8/3” superstructures (red circles) appear in a much brighter contrast and dominate in lower beam energy. From the positions of the diffraction spots of the Si3N4-“8 × 8” structure and comparing those with the initial Si(111) diffraction spots, a periodicity of about 2.79 Å has been observed for the “8 × 8” structures. However for the “8/3 × 8/3” superstructures, the periodicity appears to be 10.2 Å.
\nLEED patterns show the evolution of the Si3N4-“structure with increasing nitridation temperature”. (a) Clean Si(111)- 7×7 structure: Yellow and cyan circles correspond to the (0,0) and the (1,0) diffraction spots. (b) Si3N4-“8 × 8” structures: Purple circles corresponds to the (1,0) diffraction spots of Si3N4-“8 × 8” structures, whereas the “8/3 × 8/3” superstructures are indicated by red circles (nitridation at 920°C, electron beam energy 43 eV). (c) Si3N4 ‘quadruplet structures’: Intense quadruplet structures are indicated by blue ellipses, whereas the (1,0) diffraction spots of the Si3N4-“8 × 8” structure are represented by the purple circles (nitridation at 1050°C, electron beam energy 52 eV).
For surface nitridation above 950°C, another type of surface reconstruction of Si3N4/Si(111) appears in LEED pattern, which is known as the ‘quadruplet structure’ or 3/4 × 3/4 reconstruction. This pattern appears in coexistence with the existing “8 × 8” structure. With further increasing in nitridation temperature, the quadruplet structure starts to dominate over the “8 × 8” patterns. Clear LEED patterns of quadruplet structure have been observed only above 1000°C (Figure 2(c)). This is appeared in bright spots (blue ellipse) with the crystalline domains angular rotations of ±5° and ± 10°, with respect to the underlying Si lattice. The (1, 0) spots of the Si3N4 “8 × 8” structure has also been observed within the purple circles. By comparing the quadruplet structure LEED spots with the (1, 0) diffraction spot of Si(111), a surface lattice periodicity of about 2.88 Å, has been observed for the quadruplet structures. It has been observed that the quadruplet structures usually appear with a contaminated surface, sometimes even at lower nitridation temperatures [13, 31].
\nExposure of atomic nitrogen on the Si(111) surface at elevated substrate temperatures results in silicon nitride formation. A clear understanding of the silicon nitride growth mechanism and its impact on the structural properties of the as grown film is of high fundamental interest. STM studies of various silicon nitride films after nitridation at various temperatures, as well as Si3N4 film thicknesses starting from sub-monolayer coverage up to the saturation thickness can be seen here. The initial nucleation stage of silicon nitride films, their various growth steps along with the evolution of surface morphology and finally surface atomic structures of are discussed with atomic precision.
\nInitial nucleation: In order to understand how the initial nucleation mechanism takes place and the absorption of N atoms on Si surface to form nitride layer, sub-monolayer coverage of Si3N4-“8 × 8” structures formation on Si(111) surface have been studied here. After a plasma exposure for 5 s, many small nucleation pits starts to appear within the terraces of the Si(111) surface (dark spots) as well as step edges exhibit many discrete nucleation patches within the upper terrace (also appeared in darker contrast) (Figure 3). For simplicity, henceforth, we will be mention those dot-like dark structures within the terrace area as ‘nucleation pits’ and refer those step edge patches as the ‘nucleation patches’ [32]. With increase in nitridation temperature, it has been observed that the density of the nucleation pits/patches both within terraces or at the step edges are significantly decreased, whereas the average size has drastically increased (Figure 3). Usually, the nucleation patches are larger in size as compared to the nucleation pits. Moreover, larger etch pits preferentially appear along the initial Si(111)-7 × 7 domain boundaries. For nitridation above 800°C, shape of the dark nucleation pits becomes regular (equilateral triangle). Triangular nucleation patches at the upper terrace of the step edges are also observed where the apex of the triangles point towards the [-1 -1 2] crystal direction, away from the steps. This direction of the nitride pit/patch growth is determined by comparing the faulted and unfaulted half unit cell of the Si(111)-7 × 7 (Figure 3(d)). A closer view STM image of this nitrified surface is shown in Figure 4 (nitridation at 800°C). Nucleation etch pits of triangular pattern can clearly be seen. Surprisingly, both nucleation pits appear with a clean Si(111)-7 × 7 structure with 1.5 Å lower than the Si terrace. Si and/or N adatoms are preferentially found around the outer periphery of the 7 × 7 nucleation pits and in STM image appear as bright dots (Figure 4). Sometimes, adatoms have also found within the larger nucleation pits. However, nucleation patches located at the step edges generally shows a disordered structure in STM imaging. Figure 4 shows an interesting feature where a transition from Si(111)-7 × 7 nucleation patches to initial nucleation of “8 × 8” structures at the step edge has been observed. Inner side of the step shows an atomically resolved Si(111)-7 × 7 structure, whereas outer side of the step shows a Si3N4-“8 × 8” structure. Comparing the height difference it is confirmed that the patch appears with a similar height scale as the pits within terrace (1.5 Å, lower/higher) than the (upper/lower terrace). Furthermore, the Si(111)-7 × 7 structure exhibits the same rotational symmetry within nucleation pits and nucleation patches, having only translational shifts. Nitridation at 850°C results in atomically resolved honey-comb structures (“8 × 8”) of Si3N4. In this case, Si(111)-7 × 7 structures are not found any more within the nucleation site.
\nSTM images of submonolayer coverage silicon nitride nucleation with nitridation temperatures: [(a) and (b) 720°C, (c) and (d) 760°C, and (e) and (f)] 800°C, respectively, using rf-plasma exposure for 5 s. Scan areas: (a), (c) and (e) 400 × 400 nm2 and (b), (d) and (f) 100 × 100 nm2.
Closer view STM image shows the formation of nucleation pits within Si(111)-7 × 7 surface terrace and at the step edge (nitridation at 800°C for 5 s). Scan areas 65 × 60 nm2.
Effect of annealing: The effect of the post-exposure thermal annealing at different temperatures for sub-monolayer coverage nitride films grown at 800°C is shown here in Figure 5. STM images depict the evolution of Si(111) surface after 800°C nitridation for 30 s, using RF-plasma source followed by subsequent post-annealing for one minute at 850°C and 900°C, respectively. As expected, nucleation pits (Si(111) terrace area) and nucleation patches (upper terrace of step edge) of triangular shapes are formed after 30 s nitridation at 800°C (Figure 5(a) and (b)), with an enhanced density and size as compared to earlier result presented in Figure 4(e) (5 s nitridation). After annealing at 850°C for 1 min, thermal energy increases the surface adatoms mobility, which significantly changes the surface morphology as shown in (Figure 5(c) and (d)). It has been observed that those triangular pits located away from the surface steps are not affected much, however, the patches/pits at the surface steps/close proximity of lower steps, are strongly affected. Some of the patches form free standing islands of silicon nitride getting detached from the upper terrace. Moreover, free standing nitride islands also appear in larger size, due to the coalescence between nucleation patches and pits. Comparing with earlier images (Figure 5(a)), it can be concluded that the surface steps are locally retracted towards the upper terrace, leading towards the formation of free standing nitride islands within the lower terrace area. The shape of the free standing nitride islands also differs from the triangular pits/patches which have been discussed in later. Resulting changes in nitride surface morphology, after annealing at 900°C for another minute can be seen in Figure 5(e) and (f). Further movement of the surface steps towards upper terrace and enlargement of the free standing nitride islands have been observed. Eventually, this effect may lead to a terrace breaking. In addition, nucleation of N adatoms at the initial (7 × 7) domain boundary regions has also been taken place, (appears as bright dots within the terrace), leading to the inter connection between two nitride pits/islands (Figure 5(f)).
\nSTM images of evolution of Si(111) surfaces: (a) and (b) after nitridation at 800°C for 30 s, (c) and (d) post annealing at 850°C for 60 s, and (e) and (f) further post annealing at 900°C for 60 s, respectively. Scan areas: (a), (c) and (e) 1 × 1 μm2 and (b), (d) and (f) 200 × 200 nm2.
The closer view STM images of free standing nitride island and nitridation at the initial domain boundary of Si(111)-7 × 7 surface are shown in Figure 6. The Si3N4 structures are now appeared with an ordered atomic arrangement of a honeycomb-like “8 × 8” (Figure 6). Within islands/pits, Si(111)-7 × 7 structures are not observed any more. A clearer appearance of the “8 × 8” structure also suggests a drastic improvement in nitride films crystalline quality. Apart from the structural improvements, the shape and size of nitride nucleation centers have significantly been altered. The “8 × 8” nucleation pits within the terrace area remain still triangular, however, the free standing islands become in truncated shape and start to become a hexagonal shape as shown in Figure 6(a) [32]. Direct nucleation of nitride layer (without forming pit/patch) has also started after second step of annealing at 900°C, at the domain boundary regions of initial the 7 × 7 terrace, as can be seen as bright dots in Figure 6(b). This way, nitride layer connects between two different nucleation pits/islands and further proceeds to form a continuous layer on Si surface. The structural quality of the “8 × 8”- Si3N4 layer has also been improved with the nitridation/annealing temperature, which is also in agreement with our earlier LEED observations.
\nCloser view STM images of (a) free standing nitride island detached from the step edge and (b) nitride formation within etch pit in the terrace area and in domain boundary.
Thickness dependent surface morphology: STM images show the morphological evolutions of crystalline silicon nitride films grown on Si(111) surface at 850°C have been compared here with an increasing exposure durations of RF nitrogen-plasma. Structure and morphological evolution of Si(111) surface, exposed for nitridation for (a) 2 min, (b) 4 min, (c) 12 min and (d) 45 min, respectively, using RF-plasma are presented in Figure 7. Initial Si surface gets completely covered by “8 × 8” nitride layer after an exposure of RF plasma for 2 min (Figure 7(a)). Large Si3N4 islands with atomically flat top surfaces are observed throughout the surface. Initial terrace structure of Si(111)- 7 × 7 substrate gets completely broken and some of the nitride islands appear significantly higher (few bilayer steps of Si(111)) due to the effect of step bunching. Atomically resolved honeycomb-like structures of Si3N4 with “8 × 8” periodicity are obtained throughout the surface as shown within the inset of Figure 7(a). For even longer exposure of RF-plasma, a thicker nitride layers is formed. The surface morphology of the nitride film grown after 4 min of nitridation is shown in Figure 7(b). The surface appears in rough morphology with many grooves and holes and the initial terrace structures of Si(111) get partially broken. For even longer nitridation of 12 min a very different surface morphology is observed. Si(111) terrace structures are completely broken and large 2D islands with a flat top surfaces formed (Figure 7(c)). Step heights of these nitride islands are found to be an integer multiple of 2.9 Å. This finding suggests the formation of multilayer β-Si3N4. It also indicates the crystalline correlation of the as grown nitride film with the Si(111) substrate, such as: Si3N4 (0001) ׀׀ Si(111). Moreover, the holes and grooves appear even larger and deeper. In addition, the border of the nitride islands appears in a straight line manner. Very similar kind of structure is also observed within the holes and grooves. This observation confirms the formation of nitride layer within the holes/grooves and as a result finally a continuous Si3N4 layer is formed. After 45 min of nitridation, the Si3N4 film reaches to its saturation thickness as the surface morphology changes drastically (Figure 7(d)). Overall surface roughness is someway decreased. Holes/grooves are partially filled as they become smaller in size as well as shallower in depth. Along with, the top nitride surface becomes very granular and appears with many small clusters/blobs. A very similar kind of finding has also been reported in STM studies [29].
\nSTM images of silicon nitride film grown at 850°C with increasing duration of RF-plasma: (a) 2 min, (b) 4 min, (c) 12 min and (d) 45 min, respectively. Scan area: 1 × 1 μm2 . Inset of (a) shows atomically resolved honey comb structure of “8 × 8”- Si3N4.
Surface reconstructions of β-Si3N4: Depending upon the nitridation parameters (temperature and duration), generally two types of silicon nitride surface reconstructions are observed in STM: (a) honeycomb-like “8 × 8” structures with a surface periodicity of 30.7 Å and(b) “8/3 × 8/3” superstructures of 10.2 Å surface periodicity. High temperature nitridation (> 1000°C) usually results in a so called ‘quadruplet structures’ (3/4 × 3/4) in LEED observation, however, atomically resolved structures of 3/4 × 3/4 reconstructions are not found in our STM study.
\nHoneycomb-like “8 × 8” reconstruction: A honeycomb-like “8 × 8” surface reconstruction of silicon nitride films are only observed in STM for a very thin Si3N4 films, having coverages below 2 ML. These honeycomb-like structures usually start to appear at relatively lower nitridation temperature (800°C) with high defect density with a poor order of crystal symmetry. Increase in nitridation temperature or post-nitridation thermal annealing (higher temperatures) significantly improves the ordering and structural symmetry. However, a thicker nitride film does not show any well resolved honeycomb-like surface in STM imaging.
\nEmpty state STM images of Si3N4 surface grown at 850°C are shown in Figure 8(a) and (b). Honeycomb-like “8 × 8” surface reconstruction of Si3N4 surface is formed after 30 s of RF-plasma nitridation. The structure appears as a defective and in quasi-periodic network of local disordering (Figure 8(a)). A closer view of this honeycomb-like structures nicely resolved with atomic resolution is depicted in Figure 8(b). However, the short range lattice disorders can also be observed here along with the loop like structures. These disordered state can be attributed to the interfacial states of Si3N4/Si(111). An autocorrelation of this surface shows a periodicity of about 30.6 Å, indicating a “8 × 8”- Si3N4 structure [32].
\nEmpty state STM images of Si3N4 surface showing atomically resolved surface of: (a) and (b) honey-comb like “8 × 8” surface reconstructions (3 V) and (c) and (d) 8/3 × 8/3 surface reconstructions (4 V).
“8/3 × 8/3” surface reconstruction: Apart from this “8 × 8” surface reconstructions, in case of relatively thicker Si3N4 films grown at a temperature between 900 and 980°C, another type of surface reconstructions known as “8/3 × 8/3” superstructure is also observed. A surface periodicity of 10.2 Å is found here and the empty state STM images of well reconstructed “8/3 × 8/3” structures appears with a long range symmetry, as shown in Figure 8(c) and (d). The nitride film was formed by 20 min of RF-plasma exposure on clean Si(111) surface at 950°C. A long range atomic symmetry of “8/3 × 8/3” structure is nicely resolved here. This result also suggests that a highly crystalline Si3N4 films can also be formed by a systematically choosing the nitride growth parameters. However, few defect areas on this surface such as vacancies/missing atoms (dark areas) as well as adatoms (bright areas) have also been observed. A closer view of this “8/3 × 8/3” surface can be seen in Figure 8(d). Here, a weak modulation with 3-fold surface symmetry can also be observed by a careful inspection. This effect might be a related to the coexistence of the “8 × 8” LEED spots along with the “8/3 × 8/3” superstructure spots of nitride films. An autocorrelation measurement of this superstructure is also performed which shows a structural periodicity of about 10.2 Å, confirming the formation of “8/3 × 8/3” superstructure [6, 30].
\nApart from STM imaging, ESCA microscopy technique is also employed to investigate the of surface chemical properties of the thin silicon nitride films grown on clean Si(111) substrates. Contrast observed in ESCA microscopy image usually occurs from two factors: (a) chemical inhomogeneity, i.e., any kind of compositional fluctuation and (b) film thickness inhomogeneity, i.e., surface roughening leading towards nitride layer thickness fluctuation. To perform a comparative study, two types of nitride samples are used here. In one hand, a flat and smooth nitride film grown at a relatively low nitridation temperature is used. In other hand, nitride film with a rough surface morphology grown by nitridation at higher temperature is tested.
\nIn case of smooth nitride films, a very week modulation in ESCA image contrast has been observed for both scans using Si-2p bulk and nitride binding energies (images not shown here). ESCA microscopy image using N-1 s components also appears in a very similar manner. Both findings indicate towards the surface chemical homogeneity of the nitride film. To further confirm the chemical uniformity of this surface, high resolution XPS study has also been tested using of Si-2p photoemission line. A chemical shift of 2.9 eV has been found within the Si-2p spectra. This information can suggest the nitride film stoichiometry and in good agreement with the reported literature for Si3N4 compound formation [33, 34]. The thickness of the nitride film can also be estimated using this known Si3N4 stoichiometry. Total integral intensities of both nitride and bulk Si-2p components are used to calculate the film thickness. A detailed analysis of the nitride film thickness calculation has already been reported elsewhere [35, 36].
\nHowever, for nitride films of rough surface morphology, grown at higher nitridation temperatures appear with a strong contrast in ESCA microscopy images as shown in Figure 9. Photoelectron signals from: (a) N-1 s line and (b) Si-2p bulk line are used for the spectro-micrographs here. An inverted contrast in ESCA microscopy images is observed here appear with a strong contrast (Figure 9(a) and (b)). This finding can be explained in terms of nitride film thickness fluctuation. The existence of any bare Si(111) surface can be excluded from our earlier STM observations, where a continuous nitride layer with a thickness modulation was observed for this type of nitridation process.
\nESCA micro-spectrograph of silicon nitride film grown at relatively higher nitridation temperature (950°C) (a) with N-1 s line, (b) with Si-2p bulk line, (c) closer view with N-1 s line and (d) Si-2p XPS spectra at the corresponding location mentioned within image (c).
In case of a smooth and uniform nitride films, the contrast in ESCA microscopy image for N-1 s line can be attributed to silicon nitride film stoichiometry, i.e., chemical inhomogeneity. In that case, Si-2p bulk component should be homogeneous and the ESCA microscopy is expected to be without any significant imaging contrast. In contrast, however, a strong contrast is observed also for the Si-2p bulk line. It is a clear indication of thickness fluctuation rather any chemical inhomogeneity within the nitride film. Figure 9(c) and (d) show a further investigation related to the film thickness variation of nitride films. Figure 9(c) shows a closer view of ESCA micrograph using the N-1 s line. Individual XPS spectra of the Si-2p binding energy measured at two different locations (marked bright and the dark areas within the ESCA micrographs) are recorded and the correlation between these two spectra is compared (Figure 9(c)). Both spectra clearly indicate the contrast within the ESCA micrograph is mostly due to the lateral fluctuation in the nitride film thickness rather not due to any chemical inhomogeneity.
\nFrom our STM studies of silicon nitride formation it is quite clearly that the initial Si3N4 nucleation always starts at the surface steps of Si(111) substrate in two ways: (a) in one hand direct formation of nucleation patches at the step edges of initial Si(111) surface or (b) on other hand formation of additional steps by creating triangular nucleation etch pits within the 7 × 7-Si(111) terrace areas. Initial nucleation at the surface steps can be correlated to the defect induced nucleation of N atom. As more dangling bonds are available at the step edges, they act as chemically more active with respect to the terrace area of 7 × 7-Si(111) domains. As a result, it can facilitate the initial nucleation of nitride layer. In addition, surface steps give more degrees of freedom for the nitride layer growth leading towards the relaxation of nitride lattice strain induced from the mismatch between the deposited nitride material and the Si substrate lattice.
\nLarger size of the nitride nucleation centers with a lower number density for higher nitridation temperature are explained in terms of enhanced thermal diffusion of the N and Si adatoms. Thermal diffusion starts to dominate above 750°C, which results in a heterogeneous nucleation of pits/patches at substrate defects, i.e. at Si(111)-7 × 7 domain boundaries and surface steps. Si3N4 nucleation above 850°C occurs exclusively at the surface steps, which can concluded as follows. There are no such domain boundaries of 7 × 7 structure due to surface phase transition at about 830°C from the (7 × 7) → (1 × 1) [37]. Moreover, at higher nitridation temperature the surface diffusion of Si and N adatoms gets larger. The triangular shape of the etch pits/patches may be influenced by the three-fold crystal symmetry of the underlying Si(111)-7 × 7 substrate.
\nMorphological changes during post-annealing as well as improvement in structural quality can also be attributed to the temperature induced enhanced surface diffusion of Si and N adatoms. In one hand, high temperature promotes a better diffusion of surface Si atoms. On other hand, crystalline Si3N4 formation under atomic N exposure demands a proper supply of adatom species. Hence, an improvement in crystalline quality is expected for the higher nitridation temperature. LEED observations can also be explained in a very similar manner. The continuous supply of Si atoms can be linked to groove and hole formation on Si(111) surface by removal of the upper terrace. This will act as a Si source for further nitride formation. The enlargement of nitride nucleation patches or free standing islands can also be explained in terms of coalescence effect or by local nitride re-growth. The transition of free change standing nitride islands from a triangular to truncated /distorted-hexagonal shape can be explained by crystal rotational symmetry i.e., three fold symmetry of Si(111) and the hexagonal symmetry of Si3N4. Nitride nucleation through etch pits formation around the domain boundary of initial Si(111)-7 × 7 is also related to defect induced nucleation, as found for nitridation along surface steps. 2D islands of Si3N4 with multiple steps/ step bunching can be explained as follows. Outer diffusion of Si-atoms can easily occur at the step-edges and it can act as a source for Si atoms for further nitride formation. In this way, steps are getting larger and deeper with nitridation temperature and provide the Si supply. As a result, it turns in to a deep crack formation. This type of surface morphology is generally found for ‘quadruplet structures’ where the growth temperature usually stays above 1000°C. However, for saturation thickness flat terrace area with little roughening is observed, which might be due to the ion induced damage, caused by the long exposure of plasma source.
\nThe atomically resolved honey-comb like “8 × 8” surface reconstruction of the β-Si3N4 (0001) surface can only be observed for very thin nitride films (coverage below 2ML), which appears in a loop like way. In addition, no real long range symmetry has been found in STM imaging. This honeycomb-like appearance with many local disordering in STM images can be correlated in following ways. In one hand, the STM images can easily get influenced by the Si3N4-Si(111) interface states (very thin film). As there is a significant lattice mismatch between the substrate and epilayer, it may lead to a highly distorted bonding configuration. On other hand, STM imaging can also be modulated by the local electronic states of underlying Si(111) substrate (only valid for thin overlayer). In contrast, “8/3 × 8/3” super structures show a clear atomic reconstructions with long range symmetry. As it appears for a relatively thicker layer, background electronic influence such as sub-surface information can be ignored. However, a weak three fold surface modulation has been observed for thicker nitride films which is in good agreement with the proposed structural model of Bauer et al. [13]
\nSTM findings of roughening of the silicon nitride surface at higher nitridation temperature are also complementary with our ESCA microscopy results. Nitride films appear as chemically homogeneous, however, contrast in the ESCA images are mostly due to the thickness fluctuation of the nitride film. The stoichiometry, i.e., chemical composition of the nitride films is found to be Si3N4 for both, smooth and rough surface morphology nitride films grown at lower and higher nitridation temperatures, respectively. The contrast in ESCA microscopy is only observed for higher nitridation temperatures as it results in formation of nitride films of inhomogeneous thickness.
\nIn summary, high quality crystalline silicon nitride thin films have successfully been grown on clean Si(111) substrate by elevated temperature exposure of active nitrogen from a RF-plasma source. Initial nucleation process, nitridation temperature and atomic N exposure duration dependent films structure and morphology, surface atomic reconstructions and chemical properties of the β-Si3N4 /Si(111) have been investigated in details using different surface characterization techniques such as STM, LEED and ESCA microscopy. Initial Si3N4 nucleation strongly determine by the Si(111) surface defects. It always occurs at the step edges (upper terrace) and terraces by nucleation pit formation. Lower nitridation temperature generally results in nitride films of poor crystalline quality but appears with a smooth surface morphology. Whereas, a highly crystalline Si3N4 film can be achieved for nitridation at higher temperatures. Moreover, the surface morphology gets severely roughen by forming holes and grooves on Si(111) terrace. An atomically resolved honeycomb-like reconstruction of “8 × 8” surface periodicity is observed for very thin Si3N4 films. However, for thicker films grown at higher nitridation temperature shows an atomically resolved “8/3 × 8/3” superstructure in STM. Both the findings are complementary and in good agreement with LEED results. ESCA microscopy measurements confirm a Si3N4 stoichiometry of the nitride films. It also suggests a thickness fluctuation for a nitride growth at higher temperature. Finally, this type of crystalline Si3N4 films have a huge potential to successfully replace the existing SiO2 dielectric layer on Si(111) for device technology. Furthermore, it can also provide a platform for crystalline growth of group III nitrides on Si(111), which can further integrate the optoelectronic devices to the existing well established Si based technology [38].
\nThe author is very much grateful to Prof Jens Falta and his coworkers of University of Bremen, Germany, for all kind of experimental supports as well as all short of valuable scientific knowledge and discussions.
\nAs a consequence of the continuous population growth worldwide along with the shortage of food sustainability [1], it is necessary to create an alternative agricultural productivity systems [2, 3]. One of the sustainable alternative strategies is the utilization of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) in agricultural practices [4]. Promoting plant growth (PGP) has numerous correlation capabilities either by endophyte in plant tissue [5], rhizosphere in seed surface as well as plant root [6], symbiosis in root nodules, and phyllosphere in stem and/or leaf surface (Turner). PGPB involve 1-aminocyclopropane-l-carboxylic acid (ACC) deaminase that is applied to seedling which could effectively stimulate plant growth by reducing plant ethylene rates [7] under drought, salinity [8, 9], flooding, and contaminant condition [10] and increasing phosphate solubility and availability in soil, along with the increase in plant biomass, root area, and total N and P contents in rice [11].
Rice production is reduced under saline agriculture system (Figure 1); therefore, it is becoming increasingly important to imply plant growth-promoting traits for mitigation of salt stress [12, 13, 14]. Promoting plant growth was shown to enhance growth effectively, and the growth-stimulating effect was also suggested to be beneficial in crop production under stressful conditions. Mechanisms for inducing plant growth-promoting response (PGPR) toward abiotic stress are usually interpreted as the result of certain phytohormone production, including ABA, GA, or IAA, or lower ethylene levels in roots of the ACC, which generates systemic bacterial resistance and enhances exopolysaccharides.
Schematic description of the different plant promotion processes by PGPR.
A wide spectrum of endophyte bacteria is well adjusted to the rice niche under abiotic stress condition. The emergence of rice seedlings and growth and development parameters were previously reported to be significantly affected by many PGPR strains [15]. Beneduzi et al. [16] evaluated efficient bioinoculant for rice growth improvement by bacillus strain (SVPR30). Bisht and Mishra [17] reported that rice root length and shoot length increased by 9.7 and 13.9%, respectively, when inoculated with B. thuringiensis (VL4C); Nautiyal et al. [18] reported that rice inoculation with B. amyloliquefaciens (SN-13) under saline conditions in hydroponic/saline soils has improved stress sensitivity due to an altered transcription of 14 genes, including SERK1, ethylene-responding factor EREBP, NADP-malic enzyme (NADP-Me2), and SOS1. Additionally, downregulated expression of glucose-insensitive growth (IGG) and serine–threonine (Sapk4) protein kinase in the hydroponic setup and upregulated MAPK5 were observed in the greenhouse experiments [19]. The inoculation of SN13 improved the gene transcription involved in the sensitivity of ionic and salt stresses [20]. Endophytic bacteria can give N to rice without loss compared with other bacteria, because of their strong relationship with the plant [21]. Endophytic bacteria are a better N supplier to rice than other bacteria. Endophytic bacteria are the bacteria derived from the plants’ inner tissues or extracted from plants with a sterilized layer, which have no infection symptoms [22]. The rice yield achieved by N2-fixing Pseudomonas sp. was improved by 23% by Mäder et al. [23]. Several studies showed significantly greater K, N, and P levels with an increased rice output of 9.2% in co-inoculation with N2-fixing microbes relative to the use of prescribed amounts of fertilizers as N, P, and K [24, 25]. There have been detailed documentations that rice is generally infected with a large variety of endophytic bacteria (Azospirillum, Herbaspirillum, Rhizobium, Pantoea, Methylobacterium, and Burkholderia, among others) [22]. Diazotrophs colonized effectively in the roots of rice may have a higher N fixation potential [26]. Endorhizosphere bacteria contribute far more than rhizospheric bacteria to N fixation since there is no competition with other rhizospheric microorganisms in the endorhizosphere and under low oxygen; carbon sources are provided [27, 28].
The bacterial IAA was shown in Etesami and Alikhani [29] to have significant roles in improving efficiency in the use of N and in increasing nitrogen-based substances in rice. Estrada et al. [30] also found that diazotrophic P-solubilizing bacteria improved the absorption of nutrients in rice, while Rangjaroen et al. [31] suggested that Novosphingobium diazotrophic is an important microbial tool of nitrogen providing for further production which renders it as a healthy biomonitor to improve organic rice cultivation.
De Souza et al. [32] demonstrated the decrease of in vitro phosphate solubility and minimization of acetylene (low reduction in acetylene) in rice shoots by bacteria, including Herbaspirillum sp., Burkholderia sp., Pseudacidovorax, and Rhizobium sp. Therefore, non-N2 fixation growth promotion mechanisms include an IAA development and improved nutrient balanced absorption. Glick [7] shows that if a bacterium is used to produce nitrogen-solubilizing for plants, which have PGP traits (IAA, ACC deaminase, siderophore, and phosphate solubility), it should be used, and the genetic characteristics in plants should be transferred. The application of P fertilizers in rice production has continuously increased [33]. Sahrawat et al. [34] show that the use of rice P fertilizers has been continuously increased since it is one of the key restrictive factors in many regions of the world for the production of upland rice. Othman and Panhwar [35] detected that the sum of nutrition provided by aerobic rice is the same as the flooded rice, but the abundance of P is a challenge due to its immediate immobilizing and fixing with calcium (Ca2+), iron (Fe3+), and aluminum (Al3+) elements. P deficiency in aerobic crops is also widely seen as a phenomenon [36]. The secretion of organic acids and the interaction of mycorrhizal fungi are among these methods that are very weak in rice under flooding conditions. Islam and Hossain [37] have stated that P deficiency is quite normal which increases the demand for mycorrhizal fungal interactions under flood conditions. Panhwar et al. [38] detected that the rice plants need an ancillary structure that quickly goes beyond such degraded regions and receives P for exorbitant neighboring soil composition through the development of a vast network of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) which might satisfy some of the nutrient needs.
The growth of many plants including staple rice is hindered by micronutrient-deficient soils [39]. The toxicity of Fe is also important as Fe is one of the major constraints on the production of lowland rice. Furthermore, the scarcity of Mn in upland rice is also commonly seen [40].
A significant increase in the number of tilers provided by plan (15.1%), crop panicles (13.3%), overall grain intake Zn (52.5%), and a modest yield of the dry product by pot (12.9%) has been shown by Vaid et al. [41]. This rise was detected through soil solubilization of insoluble Zn, all of which as a result of the production of bacterial gluconic acid.
Fe, Zn, Cu, and Mn concentrations were increased by 13–16% (Brevundimonas diminuta PR7) and in rice co-inoculation (Providencia sp. PR3) (Ochrobactrum anthropi PR10); Adak et al. [42] detected that Fe absorbance was enhanced by 13–46% using cyanobacterial inoculants and 15–41% in Zn with the use of cyanobacterial inoculums, in rice cultivation for various modes.
Metals as zinc (Zn), molybdenum (Mo), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), selenium (Se), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), magnesium (Mg), and nickel (Ni) have essential nutrients necessary for a diversity of biological and physiological functions [43]. Biological functions that are not identified are identified as nonessentials: bismuth (Bi), antimony (Sb), platinum (Pt), indium (In), arsenic (As), beryllium (Be), mercury (Hg), barium (Ba), gallium (Ge), gallium (G), gold (Au), lead (Pb), barium (Be), nickel (Ni), silver (Ag), aluminum (Al), as well as uranium (U) [44].
Ma and Takahashi [45] demonstrate that the rice PGPB ability can be used to resolve deficits in micronutrients and to biofertilize (Table 1 and Figure 1). Rice is a plant that accumulates Si and considered an Si accumulator as silicon content in dry weight of the shoots may reach up to 10%, and therefore, the plants require high Si content. Rice is associated with Si depletion in its unit area; due to the removal from the earth of 100 kg of Si for brown rice (about 20 kg/hm2 SiO2) and exports to the farm by the extraction of straw residues during harvest and the conniving for exogenous use of Si in rice growing, Si in paddy field is available [66].
Results of bacteria added to plants | References | |
---|---|---|
Mutation | Physicochemical | [3] |
PGPR; Novosphingobium | Optimize rice cultivation | [31] |
Bioindicator | Wastewater irrigation | [43, 44, 46, 47] |
Indicators | Sustainable rice cultivation | [2] |
Plant microbiome and Herbaspirillum seropedicae and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens | Plant growth | [1, 4, 5, 11, 18, 28, 48] |
Seed endosphere; PGPR and ACC Deaminase and Corynebacterium and diazotrophic spp. | Plant growth | [7, 15, 21, 22, 25, 26, 49] |
Soil Rhizobacteria | Heavy metals | [50, 51, 52, 53, 54] |
Azospirillum | N2 fixing | [55] |
Arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis and Pseudomonas putida | Salinity stress; biological control; drought stress | [20, 29, 56, 57] |
PGPR | Cu-contaminated | [43, 58] |
Exogenous application | Cd-contaminated | [10, 59, 60] |
Genomic rice | Cr-contaminated | [61] |
Ochrobactrum sp. and Bacillus spp. and biofortification | Heavy metals | [40, 62] |
Ar-contaminated | [63] | |
Endophytic and PGPR and Bacillus safensis | Salt stress | [8, 9, 12, 64] |
Genetically engineered | Hg | [65] |
Acinetobacter sp. and PGPR | Zinc solubilizing | [19, 39, 41] |
Bacterial species | Si solubilization | [42, 45, 66, 67, 68, 69] |
Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria | Phosphate solubilization | [33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38] |
Plant growth-promoting Rhizobacteria used in rice production.
Bocharnikova et al. [67] and Ning et al. [68] previously reported that Si-deficient paddy soils may be needed to generate an economically sustainable rice crop capable of producing high yield and disease resistance. Si fertilizers are being used for growing rice production in many countries and have positive effects. Vasanthi et al. [69] detected that the Bacillus globisporus, B. crustacea, B. flexus, B. megaterium, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Burkholderia eburnean can activate K and Si in feldspar, muscovite, and biotite silicate mineral resources. Specific pathways are used to generate disproportionate protons, organic ligand, organic acid, anion, hydroxyl, EPS, and enzymes. However, the solubilizing Si, K, and P in soil might be accompanied by an increased supply of Fe and Mn metals in plants by interacting with P-fixing sites.
Gandhi and Muralidharan [19] show that the rice growth, development, yield, and Zn solubility from ZnO and ZnCO3 to Acinetobacter sp. have been greatly increased.
This gene recombination processing was also extended to rice, which produces rice transgenics generated via a partial weapon bombardment containing a 250 lM HgCl2-resistant merA gene [65]. Recently, mercury toxicity has been identified as a triggering factor in aromatic amino acid biosynthesis (tryptophan and phenylalanine), aggregation of calcium, and activation of MAPK in rice [70]. The synthesis and accumulation of the Glybet were stimulated by Pseudomonas alkaline inoculation in rice plants [64]. Chakrabarty et al. [63] detected that the As (III)-treated rice seedlings proposed signal transduction regulation and hormonal and crop defense signaling mechanisms (ABA metabolism). Comparative rice-treated transcriptomic study showed explicitly the shifts in plant reaction to metal pressure in the rates of phytohormones: As and Pb resistant by Bacillus spp. There are various PGPR features that contribute to the bioremediation and rice cultivar growth promotion; Cd-resistant Ochrobactrum sp. was first reported by Pandey et al. [62]. The presence of CDPKs was demonstrated by Cr pressure as their activity increased with increasing Cr (VI) concentration. Huang et al. [61] showed that rice roots have long- and short-term stress transcription profiling. Yeh et al. [59] have demonstrated Cd-induced gene transcription of OsMAPK2 and MBP kinase in rice plant. The activation of heavy metal mediated MAPK by ROS production, build-up, and alteration of the antioxidant system in the rice; ROS is well-rated for its disruption specific pathways such as auxin, ethylene, and jasmonate (JA) phytohormone. However, exposure to JAs has shown that antioxidant reaction has been enhanced due to rice stress sensitivity of Cd [60]. However, an extensive study on heavy metal in plants has shown great interest in the extensive study of the plant microbial-metal relationship due to its direct impact on enhanced production of biomass and improved metal tolerances [50].
Plants have developed a number of defense mechanisms to resist heavy metal stresses and toxicities such as reducing heavy metal consumption, sequestering metal into vacuoles, binding phytochelatins or metallothionein, and antioxidant activation [51]. The toxic substances As, Pb, Cd, and Hg are considered by Disease Registry Agency as the most toxic metals (Figure 1) for their toxicity frequency and above all their flora and fauna exposure potential. Pb toxicity leads to ATP inhibition, lipid peroxidation, and damage to DNA through the production of ROS [43].
In recent decades there has been rapid progress in the area of plant reactions and the tolerance of stress of metal when related bacteria are present with plants. The activation of these genes, which are crucial to heavy metal stress signaling, also suggests dynamic crosspieces of stress and resistance between plant, microbes, and heavy metals [52]. Heavy metal remediation is necessary to protect and preserve the environment. There are only a small number of evidence that heavy metals are remediated by extracellular capsules, heavy metal precipitation, and oxidation reduction [53].
It will be used in the immediate future for remediation of contaminated soils, as shown by the beneficial effects of microbe causes and the planned interconnection between heavy metal resistance and plant growth abilities [58]. Additionally, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) ecological species and ecotypes, metal and edaphic conditions of its availability, and soil and water, including soil fertilizer and requirements of plants for growing under light or root conditions, depend on various factors of exposure to heavy metals in the environment [56].
AMF changes salt stress toxicity. AMF exists due to enhanced mineral nutrition and as a result of various physiological processes such as photosynthesis, water usage efficiency, osmoregulator production, higher K+/Na + ratio, and molecular changes caused by the expression of genes [57].
The synergistic effects on plant growth, particularly in growth restrictions, of the co-inoculation with PGPR and AMF, have shown that the growth responses are significant when rice plants are inoculated with AMF and Azospirillum. All of these findings thus show that rice mycorrhization is important [55].
The methods employed by PGPB to promote plant remediation cycle include enhancing plant metal resistance and increasing plant growth as well as altering plant metal accumulation; however, the recent PGPB studies in metal phytoremediation showed that plant inoculation with plant-building bacteria-induced metal phytotoxicity can be alleviated and the production of plant biomass produced in metal-contaminated soils can be strengthened [48, 49, 54]. The reuse of wastewater as a strategy to adjust to climate change is shown in Vietnam. Chung et al. [46] illustrated that rice wastewater effluents can be irrigated for at least 22,719 ha (16% of the urban rice area) in plants annually. Additionally, Jang et al. [47] found that there is no significant environmental risk to rice paddy agroecosystems that were associated with wastewater irrigation (Table 1 and Figure 1).
The main limiting factors for cultivation worldwide are water stress conditions [71]. Wastewater water has a negative effect on the production and yield of rice. Selected PGPR might be the perfect candidate for heavy metal pollution and related surface constraints for growth and yields of rice plants irrigated with wastewater as PGPR extracted wastewater strains of bioremediation products show positive results in the literature.
Authors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
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\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
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