Effective installed capacity (MW) of renewable and conventional energy plants1 compared to the theoretical OTEC cycle, average annual net production, plant factor, and net production hours.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Mexico has public policies that allow the implementation of renewable energy (RE) projects. One of them is the energy reform that indicates the market incentives of clean energy certificates which will be defined by 2019.
Therefore, it will be obligatory for all the companies that generate energy to have obtained or bought these clean energy certificates and the settled goals in the Energy Transition Law (LTE, from its name in Spanish) [1]. This standard establishes a minimum share of clean energy in electricity generation of 25% by 2018, 30% by 2021, and 35% by 2024 [1].
The necessity of developing the RE sector in Mexico has led to government institutions, as the Ministry of Energy (SENER, from its name in Spanish) and the National Council for Science and Technology (CONACyT, from its name in Spanish), to create Mexican Centers Energy Innovation (CeMIEs, from its name in Spanish). CeMIEs are groups of public or private research, higher education institutions, companies, and government entities that have the objective of working together on projects dedicated to developing technologies, products, and services, which allow Mexico to take advantage of its enormous potential in the main RE. For development of technologies for ocean energies, the CeMIE-Océano (CeMIE-O) was recently set up which focuses on the assessment of wave, current, tides, saline gradient, and thermal gradient energy resources in Mexico [2].
The Mexican Pacific Ocean (MPO) and the Caribbean Sea (CS) are areas which are an excellent thermal potential for OTEC, according to several studies [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8], which can reduce fossil fuel dependency and provide energy to isolated coastal populations and islands.
The main criteria to determinate optimal site or zones are their location to be less than 10–15 km offshore from the Mexican coastline and the thermal difference (TD) to be equal to or greater than 20°C. Furthermore, other criteria are the distance to the cold water pump area that should not exceed 10 km (for onshore plants) as well as the social and economic factors that exist in these communities.
Finally, the importance of this technology is to provide electricity in the isolated coastal areas as well as other subproducts generated, such as fresh water, seawater air-conditioning (SWAC), cold agriculture (ColdAg), and aquaculture, among others. That is why it is also imperative to calculate the net electric generation given by a particular area and the contribution to social development, the interest of the Mexican and foreign energy sectors in this type of power generators, and the scientific, social, economic, oceanographic, and climatic contribution that can be generated [9].
The MPO is the study area, as the geographic and oceanic conditions are suitable for the installation of OTEC plant. In this area, the TD between 0 and 1000 m depths and the seasonal variations of the sea surface temperature (SST) were analyzed by [9, 10]. The authors found 43 sites, which meet the afore mentioned main criteria. Sites are located in the Gulf of California (GC), Baja California Sur (BCS); Eastern Pacific Warm Pool in the Pacific Ocean (ETP), Nayarit (NYT), Jalisco (JAL), Michoacán (MCN), Guerrero (GRO), and Colima (COL); and Gulf of Tehuantepec (GT), Oaxaca (OCX).
Strong change of temperature in shallow waters called thermocline characterized Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) [11, 12, 13] (see Figure 1). ETP is influenced by “El Niño” (ENSO), which is important in climate variability, in fish production, and in the global carbon cycle [14]. The annual variation in the SST fluctuates between 26 and 30°C [3, 14] with variations of flow by some cold currents as the California Current from the north and the Peru Current from the south. The intrusion of the Costa Rica Coastal Current (CRCC) causes annual variations of 5°C or more in the area near JAL, while, in the GT, the temperature varies between 3 and 4°C (see Figure 1).
Eastern tropical Pacific (ETP) and ocean circulation patterns. Shading represents mean sea surface temperature (darker = warmer). Nomenclature: TB (Tehuantepec bowl), WMC (Western Mexican current), and CRCC (Costa Rica coastal current).
Databases used for this work to obtain the data include of the Mexican Navy (SEMAR, from its name in Spanish), the National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC) of the United States of America, and the World Ocean Database (WOD) 2013, of the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), through the Ocean Data View (ODV). Historical and seasonal data of temperatures in the MPO was compiled in order to determine the changes of oceanic TD occurring over time. From the corresponding vertical profiles of temperature, the thermal gradient was computed and plotted.
GIS tools allowed obtaining datasets like TD, which is the result of subtracting SST from the temperature reported for other depths. The exclusion process allows for representing those areas with TD above 20°C. The MPO was divided into three regions: the GT, the ETP, and the GC. Subsequently, the sites with suitable thermal gradients for the operation of an OTEC plant were determined, which will then be plotted on different maps.
Nihous [15] proposes a method to estimate the efficiency conversion of thermal energy to power generation for a device (100 MW theoretical plant). In this method, he and his coworkers assumed that the TD is distributed in main parts of this power plant in a structure called “temperature ladder.” The formula proposed is based on a single thermal energy generation device and is expressed as:
where Qcw: Volume flow rate of the deep seawater intake per unit (latitude-longitude) for a 100 MW plant (309.7174 m3 s−1); ρ: Average seawater density as 1025 kg m−3; Cp: seawater-specific enthalpy equivalent to 0.004 MJ kg−1 K−1; εtg: turbo-generator efficiency as 0.75; γ: flow rate ratio of the surface seawater intake over the deep seawater intake (1.5 for floating systems); T: absolute temperature of the OTEC surface seawater intake (K = °C + 273.15); ΔT: temperature difference between surface and deep seawater intakes (°C).
The pumping power density defined in Eq. (2) corresponds to 30% of the first term in the right-hand side of Eq. (1) (gross power density) taken at standard conditions ΔT = 20°C and T = 300 K. Despite their simplicity, the proposed power formulas capture the basic behavior of OTEC systems based on pure-fluid, low-temperature Rankine cycles, with thermodynamic efficiencies approximately half the Carnot limit of ΔT over T [15].
With the calculations obtained, net power maps were prepared for the MPO area, both annual and seasonal. With this, sites of interest were determined for the application of this technology and compared with other power values for other types of energy (thermoelectric, photovoltaic, wind, etc.), in order to know the scope of the OTEC cycle and what percentage of the national market could it have at a given time if it can be applied.
To describe the importance and impact of social, economic, and environmental factors of sites with potential for OTEC, you must know the variables that allow us to know what the marine environment is like for life, historical information from the PO. DAAC [16] was used to have a general notion that was subsequently compared with information from Marine Copernicus [17] and CONABIO [18] and adjust subsequent effort and investment to characterize and have direct measurements at the sites of greatest interest to OTEC. The marine variables related to water chemistry that may be related to their interaction with living beings.
The availability of water is of the utmost importance for life and the economic development of any region of the world. Information was considered in a superficial principle, but later it was suggested that knowing what depths of which it is intended to extract cold water could give greater knowledge of the oceanic conditions existing in the Mexican seas for these variables or parameters. Salinity, chlorophyll (mg m−3), nitrates (μmol L−1), phosphates (μmol L−1), dissolved oxygen (mL L−1), and silicates (μmol L−1) were used, and the variables were possible at 0, 500, 700, 750, and 1000 m depth.
Finally, social research was done in three regions of Mexico: Baja California Sur (La Paz), Nayarit (Punta Mita), and Oaxaca (Puerto Ángel) where surface temperature measurements have also been made considering the sites of interest for implementation of this technology. The importance of this field study is to know the ideology of the people about the problems existing in their communities and their knowledge about marine renewable energy.
Throughout the year at 1000 m depths, it is observed that the TD increases considerably from Nayarit to Oaxaca where optimal TD is around from 22 to 24.5°C in the ETP and GT. The TD at GC, which includes sites as Baja California Sur, varies from 19 to 22°C although seasonal data showed the most representative TD value was below 20°C. From the previous information, the MPO is a favorable area for the installation of OTEC (see Figure 2).
Mean annual historical (1955–2012) thermal difference between 0 and 1000 m depth.
Based on the analysis performed, the net electric power maps (annual average and seasonal) were obtained. The average annual electrical power map shows that the southern and southeastern parts of the Mexican Pacific tend to have a greater amount of energy for most of the year regardless of the type of OTEC cycle used. Guerrero and Oaxaca would produce almost 200 MW of electricity in a year, which translates into about 1500 GWh year−1 (see Figure 3).
Mean annual historical (1955–2012) net electric power in the Mexican Pacific Ocean.
The southern part of the peninsula of Baja California, the Gulf of California, and part of the central Mexican Pacific Ocean would generate powers of between 100 and 140 MW per year. As the OTEC cycle does not require the burning of any fuel for evaporation of the working fluid, the electricity cost is considerably reduced, and, with the secondary products that can be obtained from the cycle (drinking water, air conditioning, aquaculture water, and production through cold water agriculture, among others), populations could enjoy benefits of labor and environmental and social development, which would result in a decrease in rates such as violence and poverty in the country. Additionally, these sites could have their energy needs covered so that federal investments in this sector would fall considerably and thus the money could be used in other important social sectors.
However, the OTEC cycle is very sensitive to changes that may exist in the sea, so variations in temperature differentials will generate distinct electric power production. As can be seen in Figure 3, there are substantial changes in net power according to seasonality, reaching values ranging between 60 and 200 MW, the best sites for the operation of the plant being the states of Guerrero, Oaxaca, and Chiapas, where plants onshore and offshore can be built and operated (these last plants will operate when there is greater technological development and improvement of structures and parts such heat exchangers, pipes, and submarine cable for the transport of electricity to the port area, among others).
In Table 1, the comparison of the OTEC production numbers with other energy sources, both renewable and nonrenewable, is observed.
Effective installed capacity (MW) of renewable and conventional energy plants1 compared to the theoretical OTEC cycle, average annual net production, plant factor, and net production hours.
1Source: SENER (prepared with data from the CFE, CRE, CENACE, SEMARNAT, and the Secretariat of Planning and Energy Transition, 2016). In blue, renewable energy. In red, conventional energies.
2Theoretical.
It is observed that an OTEC plant operating 365 days a year could have a higher average net energy generation than most renewable energies, except for hydroelectric plants that have twice the net production and wind and geothermal plants.
If the environmental conditions that are present in the sites that can be considered optimal for establishing an OTEC are well known, it will help in the choice of materials, construction and maintenance of the equipment, and infrastructure and thus have a better planning and idea of costs. Considering installing pipes and pumping deep water to the surface of the sea and then reinjecting at an intermediate depth will modify the marine and coastal environment to some extent. Until the moment the plant is operating it will be possible to evaluate and have a clear estimation of costs considering the impact that could have and knowing the ocean dynamics that occurs can help mitigate or minimize consequences.
This parameter is the most important for the operation of an OTEC plant because the duty cycle works from the Carnot cycle, which implies that there should be a preferential thermal differential of 20°C or greater, although in some countries such as South Korea, it works with a differential of 18°C in the summer months.
In the case of temperature, by analysis that we have performed at the level of numerical modeling and by results generated in some of the OTEC experimental plants, it is known that this parameter would not generate a thermal pollution process because the discharge water would stabilize once it is placed in the depth whose density is adequate.
Thus, as there is no risk of a possible thermal effect, there is no strong impact on the organisms in the water column. However, it is considered that there should be frequent monitoring of this and other parameters to be completely sure.
An example of this is the analysis performed at one of the sites of interest in Mexico for the implementation of OTEC (Puerto Angel, Oaxaca) by Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología (ICMyL) of Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) [4], where, according to the data obtained and after analysis (taking as a reference the summer and winter months), it is considered that the operation of the OTEC plant may not generate thermal contamination because the vertical temperature profiles, both without operation and with the operation of the OTEC plant, are similar; the above implies that the discharge water (whose output temperature is 15.5 ± 1.7°C when mixed) will tend to be located in the water column, according to its density.
Salinity is an environmental factor of great importance because it is a factor that defines the organisms that can adapt to living in a body of water and resist between certain ranges of salinity. The concentrations of K+ and Cl− are relatively conservative, that is, they undergo small variations induced by environmental changes or by their use by living beings. In contrast, the concentrations of HCO32−, SO42−, and Ca2+ depend on precipitation-dissolution processes, microbial metabolism, and climatic changes, including the sea surface temperature. Some minor elements, such as silicon, nitrogen, phosphorus (P), and iron, are of great importance from a biological point of view, although they do not significantly influence the salinity of a body of water.
In the previous example (Puerto Ángel, Oaxaca), this parameter does not have much relevance during the operation of an OTEC plant, but it is considered since it has implication in the density of water bodies. What is observed in both cases (both without operation and with the operation and operation of the OTEC plant) is that the variation in salinity is minimal (between 0.1 and 0.2 UPS) and its tendency is almost linear from 200 m deep.
This implies that the discharge water of the plant would generate small changes in salinity, its density being similar to the waters surrounding the discharge zone, so its effect would be limited.
Chlorophyll is an indicator of primary productivity that occurs in the seas. Chlorophyll a is the compound with the greatest presence in photosynthetic organisms; therefore, the chlorophyll is directly related to plant biomass, to determine the deterioration or balance of an ecosystem.
As a result of the analyses carried out through the CORMIX program by García-Huante [4] at the Institute of Marine Sciences and Limnology regarding the behavior of nutrients in the discharge water of a 100 MW OTEC plant in Puerto Ángel, Oaxaca, it was obtained that all the nutrients would have a high concentration at 113 m depth, which is where the water would end up being located due to its density. Next are the results per nutriment.
Nitrites and nitrates are part of the nitrogen cycle. Nitrate is used as a nutrient by photosynthetic organisms, and its presence in water can accelerate the phytoplankton overgrowth, producing water eutrophication. Nitrite levels higher than 0.75 ppm in water can cause stress in fish, and greater than 5 ppm can be toxic. Nitrate levels between 0 and 40 ppm are generally safe, and any value greater than 80 ppm can be toxic.
In this case, during CORMIX simulation of the operation of an OTEC plant in Puerto Ángel, two possible increases in this nutrient are observed both in summer and in winter. By summer, nitrates would increase to 43.42 μmol L−1 to 113 m deep; in winter it would increase to 40.3 μmol L−1 to 113 m deep, which could imply an important effect.
In the sea, phosphorus is found as a phosphate (PO4)2− ion that is an indispensable element in the synthesis of organic matter in the sea and is widely used by phytoplankton; its shortage in photosynthetic activity zones limits primary productivity and all marine life. Its concentration in the sea is very variable seasonally because it depends on fluctuations in the phytoplankton population.
In this case, during CORMIX simulation of the operation of an OTEC plant in Puerto Ángel, there would also be a possible increase in the concentrations in a depth of 113 m from 0.3 to 3.7 μmol L−1 during the summer; meanwhile in winter there would also be an increase from 0.3 to 3.8 μmol L−1 to 113 m deep, so the effect could be high.
In seawater, the silicates are used by diatoms in the form of opal silica to form their frustules, which are like cases that keep them protected from the outside. Diatoms as organisms provide 20% of photosynthesis. Sponges, silicoflagellates, and radiolaries use it as a structural component. In animals, it is part of blood and bones, and in plants, and it protects against biotic stress and abiotic stress.
During CORMIX simulation of operation of the OTEC plant in Puerto Ángel, there are also two possible sites where the concentration of silicates would increase in both summer and winter. For the first case, the increase would be 91.24 μmol L−1 113 m deep; in winter it would be 101.7 μmol L−1 at 113 m deep. The effect, from this increase, would be significant.
However, the dilution rate of these nutriments and the surface currents that exist in the area would end by elimination in a matter of 2–3 weeks, according to the simulation performed. Therefore, there would be no high risk in addition to the fact that the discharge water would be located below the photic layer (which in the area usually reaches 100 m depth) depending on the seasonality and the oceanographic processes that occur in the area as the upwelling or ENSO.
Hence, according to the analysis carried out by García-Huante [4], the impact of oceanographic dynamics on the nutrients of the discharge water of the OTEC plant is decisive; it is unlikely that there will be more activity at the trophic chain level. Thus, some type of involvement, both positive and negative, could be ruled out at the biological level in the study area.
In the sea, oxygen is a necessary element for all life forms. Natural stream purification processes require adequate oxygen levels to facilitate aerobic life forms. The dissolution of oxygen occurs between the surface of the water and the atmosphere, and many factors interfere. It is also produced as a residue of photosynthesis, but it is quickly consumed and depleted in the degradation of organic compounds.
During CORMIX simulation of the operation of OTEC plant in Puerto Ángel, the oxygen would not have negative changes because the poor waters of the bottom, at the time of being pumped, would be oxygenated by the turbulent mixing action both in the extraction and by the passage in the pipes of plant. Based on previous studies (Guenther and Green, 1990, and Vega, 1995), this parameter would not have a negative effect on the environment.
The term OTEC is an unknown technology in the national scene and the experience that, as a working group, have had with the coastal communities in explaining how it works and what it implies. The response observed in the population is generally optimistic, especially in the communities with the greatest lag and the desire that its implementation can bring social benefits that they seek.
The social and economic perspectives of Mexico are different in any region suggested to build an OTEC plant. However, it will be wrong to think that the social benefit will be to provide electricity at no cost, jobs, or money as income for the communities.
In Puerto Ángel, Oaxaca, a community dedicated to artisanal fishing, the aforementioned thought is the prevailing one, followed by the idea that new people will arrive to mobilize their tourism and commerce. They are discouraged that the plant would sell its electricity produced to the CFE or that a private sector will manage it. The community of Puerto Ángel have the fear that strangers who arrive will break their structure and stability by bringing new problems or aggravating those the community have, and they feel that what comes from the government is often negative or against them, but on the other hand, they look at OTEC plant as a window of opportunity to reduce social and economic lag for people who are more optimistic. We talk to the community about the technological applications that can result from implementing an OTEC plant, such as obtaining cold water for cooling, drinking water if desalinated, and salts for chemical industry or agriculture.
In Bahía de Banderas, which the states of Jalisco and Nayarit share, the diversification of economic activities and services that exist in the community causes very different perspectives, ranging from indifference to enthusiasm, about what OTEC represents.
On the other hand, in Baja California Sur, fisherman community and people who live on the coast have a different perspective, while their economy depends on the sea without necessarily being fishermen, such as a merchant, shipyard, and mechanic, supplies for fishing, or maintenance of boats or cars. When that community listen to about the description of OTEC, they ask technical things, for example, what type of pumps will be used, their resistance to corrosion or inclement weather, the profit of generating potable water and electricity using this technology, and application of cold water in refrigeration, agriculture, and aquaculture production.
We are concerned to solve the environmental impacts of reinjection of seawater and how the OTEC plant could modify the energy matrix of the community before deciding on a particular site.
In order to know optimal sites of OTEC installation in MPO, it is necessary to evaluate each one with physical, environmental, socioeconomic, and legal aspects with a biggest vision that allows us to know the advantages and disadvantages of future OTEC practices.
The regions that seem to be promising and optimal for OTEC are ETP and GT. Both areas present the TD favorable throughout the year. There are various sites of great depth close to the coast, having possible access to the electrical grid, and there are important centers of consumption. Among the unfavorable aspects, there is the possible threat of intense hurricanes and the fact that there are protected areas.
Concerning hurricanes, on this side of the Pacific Ocean, they evolve from south to north in such a way that, while in the south the hurricane category is normally 1 or 2, category 5 hurricanes strike the north and even travel as far as the Baja California peninsula.
Two sites are currently under intensive study: Bahía de Banderas, Nayarit, and Puerto Angel, Oaxaca. In the case of the Mexican Pacific Islands (MPI), the areas with the maximum TD are observed near the Marias and Marieta Islands, which are protected areas. In addition, the Islas Marias contains a prison, so that any ocean engineering projects would require special permission from the Mexican government.
The best places to operate an OTEC plant should be those where the temperature is quite stable. However, the plant can adapt to existing oceanographic conditions so that regions of the central Pacific and southern Mexico can use OTEC without major risk, unlike the southern part of Baja California where values fall considerably and would have an operating time between 4 and 6 months.
This analysis indicates that, under an annual average production of 200 MW of electricity (3125 GWh year−1) and with a plant factor of 0.8 (80% operation, 365 days a year and 24 h a day), an OTEC plant could have a higher average net energy generation than most renewable energies and very close to hydroelectric production. As for conventional energy, OTEC is competitive in some cases in terms of production, but not enough because there are some other energy sources that present a much higher production as the hydroelectric, nuclear, and fuel plants (see Table 1).
However, the secondary products obtained from OTEC plants give it a higher rating when making a possible decision.
First, regarding the possible environmental factors, it is important to consider water pollution, due to chemicals emitted by machine parts, and to evaluate the geological characteristics of the sites in case of erosion or earthquake. Then, the electromagnetic effects of power lines and the possibility of marine life attaching onto the devices are worth examining. Finally, it is crucial to verify the effects on protected zones and to perform predictions regarding the occurrence of hazards that are common in Mexico, such as storms and hurricanes.
Last, in the case of social factors, it is important to promote the approval of the community for the activities to be carried out, preserving the culture and traditions of the region. It is also very important to consider areas, which are potential zones of recreation, transportation, aquaculture, or military activities. Moreover, it is crucial to count on academic, government, and industrial participation in the projects. Finally, security factors should be considered where the sites are affected by human migration, criminal activities, and so on.
MPO has an excellent thermal potential for OTEC deployment. The most promising regions into MPO are the ETP and the GT, which includes sites from Nayarit to Oaxaca and the MPI. Sites located in the Gulf of California have inadequate gradient for part of the year; nevertheless, other applications such as the utilization of cold water can be of great interest. The communities in these areas would have a high social development expectation, considering the amount of secondary by-products derived from the cycle, the decrease in the cost of electricity production (and therefore in the payment for the service), as well as achieving greater stability to eliminate gradually violence and poverty in these places.
The social perception that broadly reflects the surveys made to the inhabitants of the area of interest for the CEMIE-O denotes some discomfort; infrastructure development linked to strengthening sectors of the tourism industry has been characterized, according to fishermen’s point of view, for only taking into account economic and technical criteria. The repercussions that have had decisions such as the relocation of an entire locality, waste management, and some environmental protection interventions are issues that the social groups in question try to solve without many tools at their disposal.
Although there are cases in which the omissions to the social dimension have not escalated into major conflicts, an issue can completely stop large-scale projects. The comprehensive account of the social dimension is that one must have careful planning and a genuine interest in the structure and ways of life of the community in question. This is not only a requirement to be met in the administrative order of project management but the basis of sustainable development as a concept and as a practice.
The authors would like to thank the National Council for Science and Technology (CONACyT), the Mexican Center of Innovation in Ocean Energy (CEMIE-O), and the Institute of Marine Sciences and Limnology (IMCyL) of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) for supporting this research.
The authors declare no conflict of interest. The founding sponsors had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; and in the decision to publish the results.
Ministry of Energy National Science and Technology Council Mexican Energy Innovation Center of Ocean renewable energy Energy Transition Law Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Mexican Pacific Ocean Caribbean Sea Geographic Information System Mexican Exclusive Economic Zone thermal difference sea surface temperature Gulf of California Baja California Sur Easter Pacific Warm Pool in the Pacific Ocean Nayarit Jalisco Michoacán Guerrero Colima Gulf of Tehuantepec Oaxaca ENSO Costa Rica Coastal Current Mexican Navy National Oceanographic Data Center World Ocean Database National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration Ocean Data View Mexican Pacific Islands Electricity Federal Commission Institute of Marine Sciences and Limnology National Autonomous University of Mexico Energy regulatory commission National Energy Control Center Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources
If we look at history and especially last century, there were some remarkable incidence happened which leave every lasting impact on our daily life. Moreover, these incidence changes our overall behaviors, as well. Among these incidents was an era of the First and Second World War, then the cold war and 9/11. However, the invention of recent technologies such as mobile phone communication, artificial intelligence, and the internet of things profound effect on our daily life. Besides all wars and inventions, the ongoing pandemic crises of Covid-19 will have permanent and everlasting impacts on our lives, even if we can control it immediately. In terms of economy, due to pandemic crises of Covid-19, IMF predicts that the world economy would contract with 3%; however, the revised estimated figure for the contraction of the global economy is 4.9 to 5.5% in 2020. One of the critical factors, which decline rapidly due to Covid-19, is the tourism sector.
\nAccording to the estimate, the international labor organization tourism sector created approximately 330 million jobs worldwide, and it is 10.3% of the total global employment. The tourism sector creates jobs; promote local economic development and culture. In terms of career, it contributes to direct and indirect jobs for young people and women. Globally, tourism is an essential source of employment. There are some distinctive characteristics of the labor market. In general tourism industry is labor-intensive. Furthermore, approximately 54% of posts are taken by the tourism sector by the woman and young people, which makes the industry inclusive.
\nThe expected loss for 2020 in the tourism sector can be estimated by analyzing the figure of the previous year, as in 2018, approximately 1407 million international tourist arrivals were recorded, which generate total tourist receipts amount 1480 billion dollars. Similarly, the tourism sector also provides a significant amount of indirect employment, such as in construction and infrastructure development, and even a long chain of the supply chain of food and drinks is also associated with this sector. Many staff in the tourism offices, airlines, aircraft, hotels, restaurants, shopping centers, and various tourist attractions often has direct interaction with visitors. Below giveFigure 1 indicate, inbound tourist expenditure recorded in 2018 by top tourist destination in the world.
\nInbound tourism expenditure of 2018 by top tourist destinations. Source: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
It is not the first time where the world is experiencing a pandemic outbreak. In the past 20 years, the earth had also experienced two regional pandemic crises, SARS 2004 and Ebola 2014. Both pandemic disasters did not affect the airline and especially the tourism industry. However, due to the Tsunami 2004, the tourism sector of Far East Asian countries. The 9/11 incident did not account for the massive decline in the airline industry. Give below Figure 2 present, these incidences and overall flight operations.
\nImpact of major crises on the global tourism. Source: Gössling et al. [1].
In the European Union, it is expected that 13 billion people might lose their job due to Covid-19, and in terms of revenue, it is approximately 12 billion per year. The key drivers of the tourism industry in Europe are the local festivals, trade fairs, sports events, and concerts. Therefore due to Covid-19 in many tourist places, hotels, restaurants, bars, and theme parks already closed. Similarly, sports events like the Euro 2020 football championship already postpone until 2021. Likewise, on the other hand, at the beginning of the Covid-19 outbreak, many tourists faced difficulty with returning home due to the border controls in massive countries of Europe.
\nThe primarily purpose of this chapter is to explore the nexus between the impact of Covid-19 and tourism. Furthermore, this chapter explains the overall impact of tourism and lockdown on pollution as well.
\nTourism also has an indirect economic effect, in addition to incoming tourism expenditures. Tourism employs workers, ports, and airports as well as a wide variety of intermediate inputs, including financial services, education, food and alcohol, and domestic transport. According to IATA estimation, as compared to April 2019, 80% fewer flights were recorded in 2020 due to the Covid-19 outbreak. In terms of numeric values, the estimated monetary loss recorded in the airline industry is 84.3 billion and 2020. Furthermore, according to IATA estimation, regular international flight schedules will start working until 2023–2024, whereas domestic flights will soon be restored.
\nIn terms of survivor crises of the Covid-19 outbreak, three kinds of potential threats have been indicated by 2020, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. These scenarios are listed below in Figure 3.
\nThree kinds of potential threats. Source: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
According to the above table, each scenario indicates the annual tourism expenditure is reduced as productivity shock. Similarly, on the other hand, the social effect on the output of the other products and sectors also hit massively in each of the scenarios explained in the table, such as food, drink, logistics, and construction. However, in the case of a moderate scenario, for four-month, the global economy reduced by 1.2 trillion US dollars. Intermediate for eight-month it reduces 2.2 trillion US dollars. In the last, in case of a dramatic scenario, the world would experience a loss of 3.3 trillion US dollars in terms of GDP (2020, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development).
\nSimilarly, Ali and Cobanoglu [2], mention in work once, as initially due to Covid-19 world experience lockdown situation, they predicted that under the current circumstances of international travelers can be shrinking from 1.4 to 1 billion. Furthermore, they also reveal that approximately 50 million jobs could be lost. However, the current statistics are indicating the worse situation. The world has already experienced massive outbreaks, crises, and other natural disasters that directly or indirectly impact the overall tourism sector. In the past, one of the significant crises hit the tourism sector, especially, was the Tsunami of 2004, which ran almost 15 countries of the Indian Ocean, and more than 200,000 people lost their lives. It was a natural disaster, as [3] disasters are unpredictable catastrophic change; usually, it happens all of a sudden and can be responded after the event, furthermore response is possible either by contingency plans or by through reactive responses as well. Although Covid-19 is not a regional issue or any specified geographical disaster, it is pandemic crises spread worldwide, and eventually, every human living in this world is disturbed due to it. It is right to argue that the tourism sector hit and disrupted massively due to Covid-19 due to that sector, every other industry of the world experience a downward trend.
\nIn terms of Covid-19 impact of economy, Barro et al. [4] empirically investigate the economic effect of Covid-19 and reveals that due pandemic crises, on average, 2.1% death rate could cause the decline of averagely 6% of world GDP and 8% decline in private consumption. On the other hand, one more study conducted by Coibion et al. [5] using a survey on the household in the US concluded due to pandemic crises, consumption and employment decreased whereas inflation and economic uncertainty increased.
\nSimilarly, a massive number of empirical studies have been conducted that explain the positive impact of the tourism sector on the economy. Some of these studies which demonstrate a positive relationship between economic growth and tourism are [6] for Turkey, [7] for six Balkan countries, Chen and Chiou-wei [8] for Thailand and Korea [9] for India, and more recently Khan et al. (2019) empirically investigate that relationship between multiple variables for Thailand using ARDL estimation and conclude that the logistics and transportation sector positively impact inbounds tourism. Therefore it is correct to argue that, due to current pandemic crises, the overall economic industry hit massively due to the downfall of the commercial sector. The figure below indicates the global destruction of GDP in terms of the percentage and value of the top 15 tourist destinations in the world (Figure 4).
\nOverall GDP change in top 15 countries due to Covid-19. Source: World Tourism Organization.
The above table indicates that from Asia, Thailand, and Malaysia’s GDP falls with 9 and 3%. In terms of the monetary value of GDP, Indian GDP decreased by 28,120 million US dollars, China bear loss of 104,690 million US dollars, and Korea experienced the loss of 22,092 million US dollars. Jamaican and Dominican republic GDP indicate a downward trend of 11 and 5%. However, European countries’ tourism sector hit massive due to the Covid-19 outbreak. Croatian GDP fall by 8%, Portugal 6%, Greece 4%, Ireland and Spain 3%. In terms of monetary value, France bears losses of 47,289 million US dollars, Germany 46,260 million US dollars, and then Italy lost 34,104 million US dollars. All these losses are due to the lockdown of other sectors, directly or indirectly, with the tourism sector of Europe.
\nSimilarly, the net of loss experience by European countries is due to massively unemployed labor and capital. One of the main reasons for the substantial loss in Europe is the high percentage of Tourism to GDP ratio. According to the estimate, the overall tourism sector is responsible for 30% of the EU’s GDP [10]. Due to this, many people are unemployed or displaced in Europe. However, due to the lockdown situation, all these unemployed people also face difficulty searching for new work.
\nGössling et al. [1] indicate in their research work that various airlines such as Scandinavian Airlines (March 17, 2020), Singapore Airlines (March 27, 2020) and Virgin (March 30, 2020), and German TUI (March 27, 2020) have already requested for state aid due to pandemic crises. According to the Federal Aviation Administration estimate in the USA, approximately 64 million take-offs and landed recorded. However, the Covid-19 pandemic crises became a significant cause of downfall in the airline industry. The below figure indicates the trend of airlines from January to April 2020, and due to lockdown situations, a massive number of airlines top working (Figure 5).
\nFlight operations during for first four mother of 2020. Source: International Energy Agency (2020).
At the beginning of 2020, it was not expected that Covid-19 caused economic down and air restriction. In the middle of February the causalities and death rate due to Covid-19 start increasing especially in the UK, Italy and Spain, most of the European countries lockdown their border, and also put travel bans. Besides that, all the schools, universities, bar-restaurants, and other tourist spots were also closed by authorities in Europe. Given the below figure, indicate travel restriction imposed by countries due to the Covid-19 (Figure 6).
\nTravel restriction on 31 March. Source: Gössling et al. [1].
However, as the number of confirmed cases started increasing, most of the world’s countries put travel restrictions. In the case of tourism, many people also faced issues related to their visa, which was on a visit to other countries as international tourists. However, it is notable that almost every country of the world increased visa validity for an unknown period. Similarly, embassies of the different countries also played an active role during the crises. Many countries arranged chartered flights for their nationals, which were stuck in different countries of the world.
\nBesides the airline industry, exploring and travel by cruise ship is also very much popular in European, American, and Asian countries. However, due to Covid-19 cruise industry also faced a downward trend. The significant number of cruise ships also experienced heavy losses. The cruise industry stops its operation until 2020 September, and also it is expected that it will be until the first quarter of 2021. The top three cruise ship lines which experienced heavy losses are cruise lines Carnival, Norwegian Cruise Line, and Royal Caribbean Cruises. However one of the most significant reasons for imposing bans on cruise ships is indicated by Travel.State.Gov [11], they mention in their work, due to the close environment of the cruise it is a high possibility that the Covid-19 spread among the traveler very quickly and therefore it will also be hard to provide help and assistance immediately.
\nOn the other hand, some of the positive attributes have also been observed due to the Covid-19 impact of the tourism sector—one of the crucial factors found in the rapid downfall of air pollution. Due to the massive lockdown number of airlines grounded their air craft’s, which ultimately reduces the air-pollution. As the airline industry accounts for about 2.5% of global CO2 emission, and it is also predicted that until 2050 the airline industry will averagely increase 1.5 degrees Celsius worldwide [12]. After the lockdown, the clean environment has been observed worldwide, not only in highly industrialized countries, more specifically in European countries due to the lockdown situation, and the concentration of NO2 emission in the air rapidly decreased. It has alone been observed after a long time, in Italy due to lockdown and tourist restriction marine line start running in the canals of Vince. The change in terms of environmental change, which we are experiencing at the moment due to the lockdown situation in terms of clean air and clean water channels will not be long-lasting. It is expected that once in the world normal life cycle starts, we will again experience massive air and other pollutions [13].
\nDue to the deep concentration of tourism in the economy of numerous countries, many tourism business are associated with the global food market due to low cost, which generates employment for the local state. Similarly, on the other hand, there is a high volume of food waste involved in the tourism industry. Due to the Covid-19 outbreak, food waste and supply are declining, but on the other hand, it also becomes the cause of job losses for the people who work in the food industry [14].
\nIt is right to argue that, due to the lockdown situation and downward trend of tourism, the natural beauty around the world is restored. One of the critical factors which are noticed is the reduction of waste and trashes. Covid-19 provides us with a chance to restore our natural beauty. Besides tourism, another significant factor contributing to the decrease in pollutions (water and air) is less transporting activities. Thus due to lockdown, most people working from home, on the other hand, a massive number of industrial units not operational at the moment, which also decreased air pollution.
\nDue to the lockdown activities and the non-operational tourism sector, environmental quality is improved worldwide. Various gases such are CO2, NO2, and SO2 concentration decreased within the air. Furthermore, the critical factor which increases air quality around the world is also due to less operational activities of the airline industry. The figure given below presents the air quality which is observed in some of the cities in Europe (Figure 7).
\nChange in NO2 emission due to lockdown in Europe. Source: Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air.
On the other hand, in the country, China’s economy is considered one of the world’s top growing economies due to its industrialization. However, due to the Covid-19 outbreak and lockdown in china, its air quality increased as well. Similarly, as we have stated earlier, China also bears massive losses due to the downfall of the tourism sector. One of the critical factor which can be noticed that due to the lockdown situation and decline in tourism sector indicatively impact on overall energy consumption. More especially in China, energy consumption also declined due to the Covid-19 lockdown, which eventually affected its production. Less production of energy increases air quality as less coal consumption is used in the production of energy—figure, present coal consumption in Jingjinji city by five energy-generating plants (Figure 8).
\nCoal consumption by five generating plants in China. Source: Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air.
However, lockdown and the downward trend of the tourism sector provide an opportunity for the world to move toward renewable sources. It the responsibility of the government at the movement to spread awareness of green economy within their countries and further set upset those on tourist spots, which can efficiently operate with renewable energy sources, ultimately it will also reduce air pollution in the future. Similarly, after once pandemic crises will over, it is also highly recommended that, for local and international tourists, the authorities should arrange those vehicles for traveling purposes which consume renewable energy sources.
\nThis chapter aims to discuss the association between Covid-19’s outbreak and the tourism sector. The debate indicates that Covid-19 indicates an adverse effect on tourism activities. Due to the lockdown, thousands of people lost their jobs. Many airlines, restaurants, bars, and hotels are nearly to become bankrupt. On the other hand, our discussion reveals that global lockdown creates a positive impact on environmental sustainability. Also, air and water pollution have been reduced significantly, which creates a positive impact on fauna and flora.
\nFurther, we predict that in upcoming years, due to the restoration of environmental beauty, the global tourism industry will boom. However, the age of booming may not be very long. Because, once the world engine starts after Covid-19, air and water pollution will occupy the space of greeneries. It is the right time to formulate sustainable strategies and policies to maintain the beauty of the world. The following are the recommendations that will help policymakers and regulatory bodies to develop a master plan and integrate sustainable practices in the tourism industry.
The airlines, and especially tourist operators, should adopt green and eco-friendly practices in their businesses to improve environmental sustainability.
Governmental bodies should formulate strict eco-friendly policies for the tourism sector. Also, regulatory bodies encourage firms to adopt ISO certification
Regulatory bodies may encourage renewable energy and green projects by providing subsidies and tax-exemptions to corporations that adopt eco-friendly practices.
Governmental bodies embossed heavy penalties on the polluting firms, which will not only create pressure on firms to adopt sustainable practices but also motivate the eco-friendly firms.
The regulatory bodies should evaluate enterprises’ environmental performance and publicize the evaluation results, which will create competition between enterprises to be more sustainable.
This work supported by the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (No. 2019 M660700), the Beijing Key Laboratory of Megaregions Sustainable Development Modeling, Capital University of Economics and Business (No. MCR2019QN09).
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\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\\n\\nAuthors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
\n\nMetadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
\n\nIn other words, publishing with IntechOpen guarantees compliance.
\n\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\n\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\n\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\n\nAuthors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
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