Lichen species used in attempts of synthesis.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7566",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Gene Expression and Control",title:"Gene Expression and Control",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'Transcription is the most fundamental nuclear event, by which the information of nucleotide sequences on DNA is transcribed into RNA by multiple proteins, including RNA polymerases. 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\r\n\tHysteresis phenomena manifest themselves with highly intriguing features that have been continuously attracting the interest of scientists and physicists who have attempted to unravel the origins and the underlying mechanisms. Hysteretic behaviour is ubiquitous to different physical systems, and despite displaying diversified characteristic elements depending on the specific context, hysteresis originates from the presence of several metastable energy minima, which relate to path-dependent and rate-dependent responses to various external stimuli. This is translated in a considerable number of experimentally observable events, such as hysteretic loops in ferroic media, Bauschinger effect in elastoplastic materials, characteristic magnetic hysteresis in superconductors, current-voltage hysteresis in various electronic devices, contact angle hysteresis in liquid-solid interfaces and bistability in cell biological processes, among others. Significant progress on understanding the mechanisms underpinning hysteresis in different systems has been made over the years and improved knowledge on how to tailor hysteretic materials behaviour for application purposes has been gained.
\r\n\r\n\tThe present book aims at compiling the main achievements and novel discoveries in the field of hysteretic materials, with particular focus on the control of materials hysteresis characteristics for engineering applications. Experimental and theoretical investigations from macro- to nanoscale on ferromagnetic, ferroelectric, ferroelastic, multiferroic materials and electronic devices, including solar cells, energy storage devices, memristors and tunnelling junctions are particularly attractive for the present compilation.
",isbn:"978-1-83881-972-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-971-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-472-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6482387993b3cebffafe856a916c44ce",bookSignature:"Dr. Giuseppe Viola",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10568.jpg",keywords:"Thermodynamics of Hysteresis, Irreversibility, Modelling, Presaich Approach, Ferroic Materials, Hysteresis Loops, Resistive Switching, Non-Equilibrium Systems, Electronic Devices, Energy Conversion Devices, Energy Storage Devices, Actuators, Sensors",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 25th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 22nd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 23rd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 10th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Viola was awarded an individual Marie Curie Fellowship in 2014. His current research interests are mainly focused on the relationships between microstructure and properties of piezoelectric, ferroelectric/ferroelastic, and antiferroelectric ceramics for sensing and energy storage applications.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"173586",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Viola",slug:"giuseppe-viola",fullName:"Giuseppe Viola",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173586/images/system/173586.jpg",biography:"Giuseppe Viola (GV) graduated in Materials Engineering from Federico II, University of Naples in 2004. In 2009 he obtained his PhD from Queen Mary University of London which was focused on the study of the domain switching mechanisms in ferroelectric/ferroelastic ceramics. Afterwards, GV was employed as a Post-doctoral Reasearch Assistant at Queen Mary University of London (QMUL) and as a Materials Scientist at Nanoforce Technology Limited (a spin out company owned by QMUL). In 2014, GV was awarded an individual Marie Curie Fellowship and moved to Politecnico di Torino. In 2017, GV returned to the UK and joined UCL where he is currently based.\n\nGV's current research interests are mainly focused on the relationships between microstructure and properties of piezoelectric, ferroelectric/ferroelastic and antiferroelectric ceramics for sensing and energy storage applications. Previous research projects included the development of piezo-acoustic biosensors, investigation of domains switching mechanisms in ferroic materials and the exploitation of rapid sintering technologies for ceramics, metals and composites.",institutionString:"Independent Scientist",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University College London",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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The methods of accumulative and axenic microorganism cultures were already widely used in microbiology of that period; in animal and plant sciences, attempts were made to grow whole organisms, individual organs, tissues and/or individual cells under controlled laboratory conditions (Vochting, 1892; Harrison, 1907). By the early 20th century, some results had already been achieved in cultivating animal tissues (Krontovsky, 1917 cited in Butenko, 1999), and, in the 1920s, plant and animal cells and tissues (Czech, 1927; Prat, 1927; Gautheret, 1932; White, 1932). An important step in plant tissue cultivation was the discovery of phytohormones and development of specialized cultivating media that allowed inducing, on the one hand, dedifferentiation and callus formation, or, on the other hand, cell differentiation. These achievements helped to solve a number of problems, both theoretical and applied (Street, 1977; Butenko, 1999). With time, the spectrum of organisms introduced in cultures was widening, the principal methods of growing plant cells
The said period was also marked by the formation and development of the notion of symbiosis. The revolutionary works of A.S. Famintsyn (1865) and S. Schwendener (1867) (as cited in Famintsyn, 1907) discovered the dual nature of lichens. The notion of symbiosis was formulated in 1879 by A. de Bary. In the early 20th century, K.S. Mereschkowski established the theory of symbiogenetic origin for the eukaryotic cell and formulated the notion of two "plasms" (Mereschkowski, 1907, 1909).
\n\t\t\tSymbiosis is currently studied by a special scientific discipline, symbiology, and regarded as a stable super-organism system undergoing balanced growth and characterized by specific interrelations of components, and by unique biochemistry and physiology (Ahmadjian & Paracer, 1986; Paracer & Ahmadjian, 2000).
\n\t\t\tIt is noteworthy that the development of each of the above-mentioned fields of study has not been independent. Constantly intervening with each other, works in all these fields were conductive to the formation of a new branch, already within the new science of symbiology. In the 1990s, this new branch was termed experimental symbiology.
\n\t\tLichens are a classic example of symbiotic associations with multicomponent composition as their principal feature. According to the number of partners forming the thallus, two- and three-component lichens are recognized. The former consist of a fungal component (the mycobiont) and a photosynthetic component (the photobiont). In two-component lichens, the photobiont is represented either with a green alga or a cyanobacterium; in three-component lichens, with both: a green alga in the basal part of the thallus and a cyanobacterium in specialized formations, cephalodia (Rai, 1990, Paracer & Ahmadjian, 2000).
\n\t\t\tAccording to the type of localization in the lichen, internal (intra-thallus) and external (surface) cephalodia are recognized. In nature, lichens with internal cephalodia are probably prevalent. Some investigators, e.g., P.A. Genkel and L.A. Yuzhakova (1936) (the history of the question is described in: A.N. Oksner, 1974) suggested that nitrogen-fixing bacteria (such as
In addition to morphology, lichens as symbiotic systems demonstrate a number of peculiar biochemical and ecological features. Only occasional findings of the so-called lichen compounds in monocultures of lichen symbionts (in most cases, mycobionts) have been reported (Ahmadjian, 1961, 1967). At the same time, large amounts of phenolic compounds (mainly depsides and depsidones), found almost nowhere else, are present in lichens (Culberson, 1969; Vainshtein, 1982a, 1982b, 1982c). The functions of these compounds are not yet fully known. Various compounds probably play different roles in the vital functions of lichens: some participate in the initiation of symbiotic interactions (Ahmadjian, 1989), some provide for the exchange of nutrients between the symbionts (Vainshtein, 1988), and some are used for adaptation to environmental conditions (e.g., in substrate destruction or in competition: Tolpysheva, 1984a, 1984b, 1985; Vainshtein & Tolpysheva 1992; Manojlovic et. al., 2002). Symbiosis helped lichens to become extremely widespread, but they are prevalent in extreme or simply oligotrophic habitats. This probably reflects the fact that lichens are capable of surviving considerable changes of temperature, drying, poor substrates, but at the same time, due to slow growth, it is hard for them to survive competition with higher plants (Paracer & Ahmadjian, 2000).
\n\t\t\tThe multicomponent composition of lichens makes it difficult to use them in biotechnology. Lichens are super-organism multicomponent systems, and we believe that it is necessary to discuss here the terminology used for growing lichens in culture. In English-language literature, the word "culture" is used for laboratory manipulations with lichen thalli and their fragments, but different authors understand this term differently. Taking into account the fact that experimental lichenology developed largely on the basis of approaches borrowed from plant physiology, we believe that it is advisable to define the notion of "culture" more accurately, in the light of the sense this term has in plant physiology, where it means the growing of dedifferentiated parts of an organism on growth media under controlled laboratory conditions (Street, 1977; Butenko, 1999). Lichens have no true tissues, only plectenchymas, and thus the term "tissues" can be used only in quotation marks. We believe that it is possible, by analogy, to use also a number of other terms, such as explants, "callus cultures", etc.
\n\t\tTwo principal groups of experimental approaches can be recognized in lichenology (Fig. 1, 2): first, resynthesis of lichens and producing of model systems (developed by V. Ahmadjian, M. Galun), and second, obtaining lichen "tissue cultures" (developed by Y. Yamamoto). The former groups of approaches is based on the dissociation of the initial thallus into components (Fig. 1) and subsequent attempt to resynthesize the initial sample or model it based on similar systems (Ahmadjian, 1973a, 1973b). In the latter case, dedifferentiated biomasses of the lichen are obtained (Fig. 2), using thallus fragments, soredia, or isidia (Yoshimura & Yamamoto, 1991; Yoshimura et al., 1993; Yamamoto et al., 1993).
\n\t\t\tMain stages of the method of lichen resynthesis.
The former group of approaches reconstructs the general situation emerging in lichens in the course of sexual reproduction, and the latter resembles rather the processes that take place in nature in the course of their vegetative reproduction. For instance, soredia are dedifferentiated parts of the thallus consisting of cells of both symbionts, which makes them very convenient sources for obtaining "tissue cultures". Isidia, morphologically structured thallus fragments, are natural explants of microclonal propagation (Fig. 2). But soredia and isidia are found only in some lichens, which makes obtaining "lichen tissue cultures" from thallus fragments an important approach (Yamamoto et al., 1993; Yoshimura et al., 1993). Interestingly, lichen thalli develop similarly in all cases, independently of the approach used (Ahmadjian, 1973a, 1973b; Yoshimura et al., 1993; Stocker-Worgotter & Turk, 1989).
\n\t\t\tAttempts to synthesize lichens from separate components (fungi and green algae or cyanobacteria) were made simultaneously with the discovery of the dual nature of lichens by S. Schwendener in 1867. In the same year, A.S. Faminsyn and O.V. Baranetsky, cultivating fragments of lichen thalli, succeeded in describing for the first time the growth of the photobiont outside the thallus. However, almost all attempts to resynthesize a lichen from separate components in the late 19th century were unsuccessful (Bornet, 1873; Bonnier, 1889; critique of these works: Ahmadjian & Jacobs, 1983). The cause of these failures was the lack of both theoretical and experimental foundations laid for such experiments. Successful experiments on lichen construction were performed only three decades later, due to the development of theoretical data on the biology of lichens and laying of methodological foundations for cultivating lichen component monocultures on artificial media.
\n\t\t\tMain stages of the method of "lichen tissue cultures".
In 1939, E. Thomas was the first to successfully resynthesize the lichen
Lichenologists became considerably more interested in resynthesizing the thalli of two-component lichens thanks to the classic studies of Ahmadjian (1961, 1967, 1973a, 1973b, 1990). His contribution to this area is hard to overestimate: over 40% of publications on lichen thalli resynthesis were produced by him alone or in collaboration with others. He developed the method for extracting and cultivating the mycobiont from apothecia. Thanks to Ahmadjian\'s work, thallus resynthesis of some lichen species became common practice. The principal advantages and disadvantages of the methods he proposed are now clear, but while the advantages are currently widely used in experimental studies, the disadvantages have not yet been overcome, restricting the area where this approach is applied (Ahmadjian, 1973b, 1990).
\n\t\t\tIntegrating the first group of approaches and methods used for obtaining plant tissue cultures, Y. Yamamoto (1985) founded another branch of experimental lichenology: cultivation of ground lichen thallus fragments on artificial growth media (Fig. 2). One of the most important advantages of this approach was using vegetative parts of the thallus, which made the approach equally applicable to lichens with different modes of reproduction. In addition, Yamamoto\'s method allowed obtaining, under controlled conditions and on a tight timetable, a biological system consisting of both components and displaying a number of properties typical of intact lichens (Yoshimura et al., 1993; Yamamoto et al., 1993). Taking into account the fact that under particular conditions for cultivating such systems, thalli morphologically and anatomically similar to the natural ones are formed (Yoshimura & Yamamoto, 1991; Yoshimura et al., 1993), this approach can be used for reproducing lichens
The interest towards these studies can be illustrated by the fact that the number of lichen species cultivated
The method of lichen resynthesis includes the following stages: (1) dissociation of the natural lichen into components; (2) obtaining monocultures of the mycobiont and photobiont; (3) mixed cultivation of the mycobiont and photobiont; and (4) producing a stable morphogenetic association (Fig. 1).
\n\t\t\tAlthough works on the experimental resynthesis of lichens are in progress since over 70 years ago, the number of species of lichens resynthesized to date remains not too high (Table 1). Experiments were successful with far from all systems, and those lichen species that produced more or less developed thalli in resynthesis experiments, such as
Lichen species used in attempts of resynthesis.
Most attempts to reconstruct thalli were made on lichens with green algal photobiont (Fig. 4). Among lichens with cyanobacterial photobiont, successful resynthesis was achieved only in members of the genus
Proportion of resynthesized lichens with different photobionts: A, proportion of cyanolichens (1) and phycolichens (2); B, different genera of green algae.
Lichen name | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPhotobiont genera | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSource | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Acarospora fuscata | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTrebouxia | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCited by: Оksner, 1974 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Buelia spp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTrebouxia | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCited by: Оksner, 1974 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Bacidia bagliettoana | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChlorella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBornet, 1873 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Caloplaca decipiens | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChlorella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCited by: Оksner, 1974 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cladonia cristatella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTrebouxia or Chlorella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRemmer, Ahmadjian, Livdahl, 1986 — cited by: Ahmadjian & Paracer, 1986 ; Ahmadjian, 1967 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
C. furcata | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTrebouxia or Chlorella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJahns, 1978 — cited by: Ahmadjian & Paracer, 1986 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
C. pyxidata | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTrebouxia or Chlorella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThomas, 1939 — cited by: Оksner, 1974 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Collema limosum | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNostoc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRees, 1871 — cited by: Оksner, 1974 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Dermatocarpon miniatum | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHyalococcus or Protococcus | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStocker-Worgotter & Turk, 1989 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Endocarpon pusillum | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMyrmecia | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBertsch, Butin, 1967; Stahl, 1877 — цит по Stocker-Worgotter & Turk, 1988 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Graphidaceae g. sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTrentepohlia | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHеrriset, 1946 — cited by: Оksner, 1974 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Heppia echinulata | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tScytonema, cyanobacterium | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMarton, Galun, 1976 — cited by: Ahmadjian & Paracer, 1986 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Huilia albocaerolescens | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tgreen alga | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCited by: Ahmadjian & Paracer, 1986 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Lecanora spp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tProtococcus | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAhmadjian, Russell, Hildreth, 1980; Culberson, Ahmadjian, 1980 — cited by: Ahmadjian & Paracer, 1986 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Lecidia spp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTrebouxia, Pseudochlorella, Coccobotrys or Chlorosarcinopsis | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCited by: Ahmadjian & Paracer, 1986 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Lepraria spp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStichococcus or Chlorella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCited by: Ahmadjian & Paracer, 1986 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Leptogium issatschenkovi | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNostoc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDanilov, 1929 — cited by: Оksner, 1974 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Peltigeria canina | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNostoc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAhmadjian, 1989 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Physia stellaris | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTrebouxia | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBonnier, 1888 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rhizoplaca chrysoleuca | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tProtococcus | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCited by: Ahmadjian & Paracer, 1986 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rinodina sophodes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tgreen alga | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBonnier, 1888 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Sarcogyna spp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMyrmecia | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCited by: Ahmadjian & Paracer, 1986 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Stereocaulon vulcani | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTrebouxia + cyanobacterium | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCited by: Ahmadjian & Paracer, 1986 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Staurothele rugulosa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tProtococcus | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStahl, 1877 — cited by: Stocker-Worgotter & Turk, 1988 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Usnea strigosa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tgreen alga | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAhmadjian & Jacobs, 1983, Ahmadjian & Jacobs, 1985 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Verrucaria macrostoma | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCoccobotrys or Protococcus | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStocker-Worgotter & Turk, 1989 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Xanthoria parietina | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTrebouxia | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBornet, 1873; Bonnier, 1889 — cited by: Оksner, 1974 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Lichen species used in attempts of synthesis.
The proportion of such studies performed on photobionts from the genus
Proportion of different modes of reproduction in resynthesized (A) and cultivated (B) lichens. A: 1, sexual reproduction with apothecia; 2, asexual reproduction (with conidia etc.); 3, vegetative reproduction with soredia; 4, vegetative reproduction with isidia; 5, sexual reproduction with perithecia. B: 1, sexual reproduction with apothecia; 2, vegetative reproduction with soredia; 3, asexual reproduction (with conidia etc.); 4, vegetative reproduction with isidia; 5, sterile species (reproduction lacking or not observed).
Vegetative reproduction structures, soredia and isidia, are found only in three of the reconstructed lichen species. Experimental resynthesis requires a culture of the mycobiont, and Ahmajian (1973a) proposed using spores for extracting it from the naturally growing lichen. This is probably why lichens with mainly vegetative mode of reproduction were seldom used in such
It has been found that successful resynthesis of a lichen thallus from mycobiont and photobiont monocultures requires experimental conditions imitating the natural environment: the substrate and medium should be poor, so that the lichen does not dissociate into components, and neither the mycobiont or photobiont get any advantages for growth at any stage of development. To induce thallus differentiation in a mixed culture, alternating drying and moistening periods should be imposed, and the drying of biomass should be gradual (Ahmadjian, 1973b).
\n\t\t\tWork on the resynthesis of lichens and producing model association has laid the foundation for solving a number of basic problems of the current lichenology. One of these problems is the study of selectivity and specificity of symbiont interaction in lichens. For solving this problem in the course of lichen thallus resynthesis, it is possible to cultivate the mycobiont in pairs with free-living algae or photobionts in combinations not found in nature. In 50% of such experiments, the model systems revealed the lichenization of photobiont cells: the initial contact between the partners of the association took place, and pre-thalli were formed (Tables 2, 3). The same mycobiont showed both positive and negative results with algae of different species of the same genus or with photobionts extracted from the same lichen. The cause of this selective interaction of partners in pairs has not yet been revealed; however, several factors affecting the success of this process were determined, the most important of them being the source of the isolated photobiont and its symbiotrophics (Ahmadjian & Jacobs, 1983).
\n\t\t\t\tLichen from which mycobiont was extracted | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNatural photobiont | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPotential photobiont | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSource of photobiont | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tResult | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cladonia cristatella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTrebouxia ereci | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFriedmannia israeliensis | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tfree-living | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Myrmecia sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tnot specified | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Nostoc sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tcycads | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Pleurastrum terrestre | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tfree-living | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Pseudochlorella sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tnot specified | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Pseudotrebouxia sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tXanthoria parietina | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Trebouxia sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPilophoron sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Trebouxia sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStereocaulon sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Trebouxia sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGymnoderma sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Trebouxia sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLecidia sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Trebouxia sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLepraria sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Trebouxia sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tParmelia sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Trebouxia sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tXanthoria aureola | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Trebouxia italiana | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tXanthoria parietina | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Endocarpon pusillum | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMyrmecia biatorellae | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tProtococcus staurothelis | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStaurothele regulosa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Glyphis lepida | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTrentepohlia | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTrentepohlia sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPyrenula nitidula | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Phaeographina fulganata | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTrentepohlia | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTrentepohlia sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPyrenula nitidula | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Staurothele regulosa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tProtococcus staurothelis | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMyrmecia biatorellae | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEndocarpon pusillum | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Model associations based on the mycobiont. Note: +, synthesis continued to prethallus; -, attempts of synthesis were unsuccessful.
For instance, species of the genus
Potential photobiont | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSource of photobiont | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPotential mycobiont | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tResult | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Friedmannia israeliensis | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tfree-living | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCladonia cristatella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Myrmecia sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tnot specified | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCladonia cristatella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Myrmecia biatorellae | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEndocarpon pusillum | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStaurothele regulosa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Nostoc sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tcycads | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCladonia cristatella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Pleurastrum terrestre | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tfree-living | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCladonia cristatella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Protococcus staurothelis | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStaurothele regulosa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEndocarpon pusillum | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Pseudochlorella sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tnot specified | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCladonia cristatella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Pseudotrebouxia sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tXanthoria parietina | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCladonia cristatella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Trebouxia sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPilophoron sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCladonia cristatella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Stereocaulon sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCladonia cristatella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Gymnoderma sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCladonia cristatella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Lecidia sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCladonia cristatella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Lepraria sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCladonia cristatella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Parmelia sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCladonia cristatella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Xanthoria aureola | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCladonia cristatella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Trebouxia italiana | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tXanthoria parietina | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCladonia cristatella | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Trentepohlia sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPyrenula nitidula | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGlyphis lepida | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Trentepohlia sp. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPyrenula nitidula | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPhaeographina fulganata | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Model associations based on the photobiont. Note: +, synthesis continued to prethallus; -, attempts of synthesis were unsuccessful.
On the other hand, photobionts isolated from lichen
Unfortunately, there are no data in the literature on model associations based on lichen photobionts and free-living fungi (Table 3). Meanwhile, we believe that this problem is very interesting, since the photobiont, intensely influenced by the mycobiont in the lichen, has developed a number of protective adaptations. These adaptations may be conductive to success in producing model associations of the photobiont and free-living symbiotic fungi.
\n\t\t\t\tAnother problem is the construction of artificial three-component associations. For solving this problem, a third component, a cyanobiont, can be added to the resynthesized lichen to study the process of cephalodia formation (Ahmadjian, 1989; Ahmadjian & Jacobs, 1983; Ahmadjian & Paracer, 1986). Attempts to model three-component lichens have been made by adding strains of the symbiotrophic and free-living
A large field for work in experimental lichenology is opened by the opportunity to obtain protoplasts of the symbionts. The methodology of this procedure for a lichen mycobiont grown from a spore was developed by V. Ahmadjian (1991). Kinoshito (Yamamoto et al., 1993; Kinoshito et al., 2001) modified this procedure to develop a method independent of the way of mycobiont extraction, making it possible to obtain mycobiont protoplasts from vegetative parts of the thallus (experiments on obtaining mycobiont protoplasts were performed only with members of the genus
The field of experimental lichenology has been developed especially to obtain "callus tissue cultures" of lichens. Currently, lichens cultivated on solid growth media include 52 genera from 22 families, represented mainly by fruticose forms (52%), somewhat fewer foliose forms (36%), and only 12% crustose forms. The vast majority of the species maintained in "callus cultures" are two-component lichens with green algal photobionts. Attempts to introduce three-component lichens to a "callus culture" result in their dissociation into components and formation of "chimeric" forms (see below).
\n\t\t\tThe ratio of different modes of reproduction among cultivated lichens differs from that among reconstructed ones, and there is no pronounced prevalence of forms with sexual or asexual reproduction (necessary for extracting the mycobiont according to the first group of experimental approaches). On the contrary, there is quite a high proportion of lichens with vegetative reproductive structures, soredia and isidia: 36% together, the same as the proportion of lichens with apothecia (37%). Furthermore, the universality of the approach allows cultivating fragments of lichens that form apothecia extremely rarely (Fig. 5B).
\n\t\t\tAmong difficulties of this experimental approach, the high proportion of explants infected with accompanying microorganisms and the low proportion of thallus fragment germination can be named. In the case of
\n\t\t\t\t\tYoshimura et al. (1993) note that attempts to cultivate fragments of the cyanolichen
One drawback of the method for obtaining lichen "tissue cultures" described in the literature is the total lack of any primary sterilization of explants. Although some studies refer to unsuccessful attempts to sterilize thallus fragments with mercuric chloride (Ahmadjian, 1989), our data (Smirnov & Lobakova, 2007) demonstrate the efficiency of consistent complex usage of "mild" sterilizing agents (such as hydrogen peroxide, alcohol, chlorhexidine).
\n\t\t\t\tIn our opinion, works aimed by obtaining "suspension cell cultures" of lichens are especially promising. Experiments in this branch of lichenology are rare and fragmentary, while maintaining symbiont monocultures in liquid media are currently a common practice (Ahmadjian & Jacobs, 1983). In "suspension cultures" of lichens, thalli are not formed; this is why in most studies aimed at obtaining structured lichen thalli, even if thallus fragments were inoculated into liquid growth media, the experiments were never completed, because provisional results did not comply with the initial aims. On the other hand, obtaining "suspension cultures" of lichens is of considerable interest for biotechnology, since methods based on "suspension cultures" are easier to introduce into the industry. Thus, this mode of growth will probably allow obtaining large amounts of dedifferentiated cell biomass and using it in biotechnology as sources of lichen compounds.
\n\t\t\t\tA promising approach for obtaining both "suspension cultures" and "callus cultures" of lichens involves using "nurse cultures" (Smirnov & Lobakova, 2008) and conditioning (processing) the cultivating media with metabolites of associated organisms. Data available in the literature give evidence that the initiation of symbiont growth (especially of the mycobiont) requires compounds secreted by the photobiont or associated bacteria. It has been found that the development of the mycobiont was quicker and more intense if (1) non-sterile tree bark was used as the substrate; (2) the cultivating medium was conditioned by metabolites of the photobiont or bacteria; (3) the spores were infected by bacteria (Ahmadjian, 1989; Yolando et al., 2002; Smirnov, 2006). Our results show that conditioning the media with simple metabolites (after sterilization) is inefficient, compared to using native metabolites (dialysis cultivation).
\n\t\t\tA special place among experimental works in lichenology is occupied by the branch involving the study of lichen thallus morphogenesis and revealing the factors influencing this process. A number of studies have addressed the problem of inducing morphogenesis in "callus cultures" of soredia, both in the laboratory, and in the natural environment (Stocker-Worgotter & Turk, 1988; Stocker-Worgotter & Turk, 1989; Yoshimura & Yamamoto, 1991; Armaleo, 1991; Yoshimura et al., 1993). Comparison of natural lichen thalli with those obtained by inducing morphogenesis in
Lichens with different modes of reproduction (sexual, asexual and vegetative) under laboratory conditions with morphogenesis induction undergo the same stages of development (lag phase, arachnoid phase, prethallus and thallus: Ahmadjian, 1973а, 1973b; Ahmadjian & Jacobs, 1983; Stocker-Worgotter & Turk, 1989; Yoshimura et al., 1993) as in nature (Ott, 1988). The only difference is the duration of particular stages, depending on the type of the explant and conditions of its cultivation. In
The experimental approaches in lichenology described here are currently used for solving a number of basic problems like those persistent in biotechnology. The former approaches include studying the ecological and morphological plasticity of lichens and revealing differentiation factors of thalli and the share of each partner in the formation of the unique super-organism system.
\n\t\t\t\tIn this respect it is especially interesting to study the development of the "tissue cultures" of three-component lichens, such as
The phenomenon described provides an experimental confirmation of the idea that mycobionts can include several morphotypes (as analysis of their DNA has also shown), and/or the formation of chimeric lichens is possible. While the existence of such chimeras was earlier considered unproven, now the reality of this phenomenon has been confirmed both by some field studies (for review, see: Plyusnin, 2002) and by laboratory experiments.
\n\t\t\t\tMorphogenetic "tissue cultures" of lichens are convenient experimental models for the study of this phenomenon. The results of using them allow us to state that the formation of a particular morphotype or chimeric lichen depends on moisture. For instance, these results allow suggesting that the cyanobacterial morphotype is more widespread than has been believed earlier and unidentified species of the genus
It can be assumed that experimental approaches will also play an important role in the molecular biology of cyanolichens: they will allow studying the exchange of genes, inferred by some authors, between the symbionts by means of plasmids in the course of morphogenesis (Ahmadjian, 1991). Reviewing the data available in the literature has shown that for studying the early stages of lichen thallus morphogenesis, it is better to use methods of resynthesis, while for the study of specificity and selectivity of interactions between components of this symbiosis, as well as of different stages of thallus differentiation, the "tissue culture" and morphogenesis induction methods are more suitable.
\n\t\t\t\tDedifferentiated mixed cellular aggregates of a "callus culture" of lichens can be used in the study of the genetic control over symbionts in the course of the formation of a balanced super-organism system (Yamamoto et al., 1993; Yoshimura et al., 1993).
\n\t\t\tUsing experimental approaches is promising also for producing from lichens their unique secondary metabolites, the lichen compounds. The biosynthesis of lichen compounds in "tissue cultures" is usually no different from that in the natural thallus in the composition of depsides, tridepsides, and depsidones; triterpenoid compounds are, however, a more labile class of substances, and in "callus cultures" of lichens they often disappear (Table 4).
\n\t\t\t\tIn most cases, the concentration of lichen compounds in a "culture" is considerably lower than in a natural thallus: the content of the usnic acid in
Class of compounds | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCompounds | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tUsnea strigosa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tUsnea rubescens | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRamalina yasudae | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPeltigera pruinosa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPeltigera aphthosa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||
t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
depsides and depsidones | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tglobin acid | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
connorsticic acid | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t | |
cryptostictic acid | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t | |
methyl lecanorate | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | - | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
norstictic acid | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t | |
protocetraric acid | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | + | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
salazanic acid | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | + | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
usnic acid | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
fumaroprotocetraric acid | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t | |
evernic acid | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | + | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
tridepsides | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tmethyl gyrophorate | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | - | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
tenuiorin | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | - | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
triterpenoids | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tdolichorrhizin | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | - | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
zeorin | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | - | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
phlebeic acid | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | - | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Comparison of lichen compound production by "tissue cultures", resynthesized thalli, and natural thalli, from: Ahmadjian & Jacobs, 1983; Yamamoto et al., 1985; Yoshimura & Yamamoto, 1991. Note: +, compound present; -, compound not found; t, compound extract from natural thallus; c, from resynthesized thallus; c, from "tissue culture".
The expediency of using lichen "tissue cultures" for obtaining biologically active compounds is also supported by the fact that their methanol and acetone extracts demonstrate a levels of superoxide dismutase activity, and have antibacterial (against Gram-positive bacteria: Fig. 6) and antiviral (when EBV test system is used: Fig. 7) effects (Yamamoto et al., 1993; Yamamoto et al., 1995).
\n\t\t\t\tThe degrees of antibacterial and antiviral activities strongly vary between different lichens, even among species of the same genus (Fig. 7). In most cases, the inhibitory action of extracts of natural thalli is higher than that of "tissue culture" extracts; there are, however, some exceptions: laboratory extracts of
Antiviral activity of extracts from thalli and "tissue cultures" of lichens (on the base:
On the other hand, "tissue cultures" of lichens of the genera
Antibacterial effect of extracts from thalli and "tissue cultures" of lichens (on the base:
Interestingly, the concentration of lichen compounds in reconstructed lichen thalli is often higher than in nature; Ahmadjian and Jacobs (1985) explain this by the more favourable conditions for lichen development formed in the course of resynthesis. It is noteworthy that producing artificial associations, with symbiont combinations not found in nature, can be used as a promising source of new antibiotic compounds. The possibility of this application is demonstrated by the two novel compounds, not typical of this species in nature, found in the thallus of
A special place among the problems of current lichenology is occupied by the conservation of rare lichen species and their re-introduction into the natural environment. The above-described experimental approaches can be used, among other purposes, for solving these problems. Methods of rare species gene pool conservation in collections and cryobanks are well-developed for higher plants (Street, 1977; Butenko, 1999). Some authors (Tolpysheva, 1998) believe that it would be useful to apply this experience to lichens as well.
\n\t\t\tAmong experimental approaches in lichenology, two groups of methods can be recognized: lichen resynthesis and cultivation. The former approach helped to find the answers to many questions of lichen biology, but currently it faces a number of insoluble problems (e.g., the failure of attempts to produce mature spores in sporocarps), due to which the number of studies on lichen reconstruction has considerably decreased (Ahmadjian, 1990). The latter approach is promising for introducing lichens into the field of biotechnological developments. However, this is largely hindered by the low yield of lichen biomass in the course of cultivation. Two principal causes of this can be named: the considerable level of infection with fungi and bacteria (Yamamoto et. al, 2004) and the insufficiently quick growth of the culture of the lichen itself. The solution to the problem of "explant" infection with contaminant species may be found in surface sterilization of lichens, similar to that used in plant physiology (Smirnov & Lobakova, 2007). The solution to the problem of culture growth acceleration may be found in conditioning the media with secondary metabolites of various origins. The analysed literature contained no mentions of using "nurse cultures", a method widely used in plant physiology, considerably increasing the rate of growth in cultures (Street, 1977; Butenko, 1999; Butenko et al., 1987). At the same time, a number of authors have shown that secondary metabolites, both of associated fungi and algae, extracted from lichens (Vainshtein, 1988), and of accompanying fungi and algae (Ahmadjian, 1989), can accelerate growth in cultures of isolated symbionts, both mycobionts and phycobionts. Another way of accelerating the growth of cultures, both of the symbionts and of the lichen as a whole, may be found in using suspension cultures. Conditioning of media and suspension cultures can also be useful in the first group of experimental approaches, especially in producing model associations based on lichen photobionts (according to the literature, in most cases it was the mycobiont that served as the basis for novel associations).
\n\t\tThe authors are grateful to Yu.T. Dyakov for the idea to write a paper on this subject, to A.K. Eskova for useful discussions and to P.N. Petrov for his invaluable help in the English text of the manuscript.
\n\t\tThe system integrates and visualizes accident-related information and model by mainly using computer and information technologies to provide decision making support for emergency response [1]. For a large-scale complex, water diversion project like the MRP, the scale, and complexity of the project requires more scientific decision-making methods and tools under emergency conditions including sudden water pollution accidents to ensure its safe and reliable operation and reduce the loss and influence scope as far as possible. In order to achieve consistency of information data of the project and improve model analysis efficiency, as well as the water diversion stability and the recovery performance for coping with emergencies, it is very important to establish an emergency management platform, which integrates project parameters, spatial analysis, mathematical model, decision-making consultation, and other functions.
Three levels of management institutions are set up for the MRP: 1 head company, 5 sub-companies, and 47 management offices. The emergency management system mainly serves these management institutions above. Through operation of the system, the management staff can make scientific and reasonable responses to sudden water pollution accidents in the main canal.
The system focuses on the emergency management of sudden water pollution accidents in the MRP by integrating multisource data (i.e., project information and real-time measured data), professional models (i.e., hydrodynamic and water quality model, sudden water pollution accidents source identification model, and emergency operation model), and developing emergency response and decision-making consultation modules to formulate the emergency management system, in order to provide support for emergency response in case of emergency conditions including sudden water pollution accidents, and provide technical support for security operations of the MRP.
The emergency management system takes GIS as a platform, uses Client/Server architecture and server to arrange data server and store space data, project parameters, model parameters, result data, and the like, and provides data management and sharing, system maintenance, concurrency control, and other services. An application server is arranged at the client to encapsulate user’s application business logic and provides friendly, simple operating interfaces. Through inputting a request or command, the user calls the service related to the application server. The application server interacts with a data server according to customer’s demands. After receiving an application service request, the client implements corresponding data processing according to a received application service request and returns the processing result to the application server, and then, the application server performs the business logic process corresponding thereto and finally returns the processing result to the user.
The emergency management system includes four layers: monitoring, database, decision control, and user interface. The monitoring layer is responsible for water quantity and quality monitoring and the local control and implementation of check gate pump group. The database layer includes real-time water quantity and quality information, real-time operating condition information and parameters, model parameter information, etc. The application layer includes four modules: information management, traceability simulation, emergency control, and decision consultation. The user interface layer is used for completing interactive operations with the user’s diagrams, tables, GIS, and so on. The overall system framework design is shown in Figure 1.
System framework diagram.
The database for the emergency management system is designed and managed by using Microsoft SQL Server 2008 R2. The design is introduced below by taking two types of data—attribute data of inverted siphon and the data real-time monitored at dividing gate—as examples. Refer Tables 1 and 2.
Item | Code | Type of data |
---|---|---|
Inverted siphon node no. | DXHJD_ID | numeric |
Type of node | JCTTYPE | int |
Type of cross-section | PORTTYPE | int |
Name of node | JCTNAME | varchar (100) |
Node inlet pile no. | JCTINCOOR | float |
Node outlet pile no. | JCTOUTCOOR | float |
Number of parallel inverted siphon | PARALLELNUM | int |
Actual pipeline length | LENGTH | float |
Elevation of inlet bottom | IN_TOPELEV | float |
Elevation of outlet bottom | OUT_TOPELEV | float |
Roughness coefficient | ROUGHNESS | float |
Loss coefficient at inlet transition section | KSI_0 | float |
Loss coefficient of inlet sluice chamber | KSI_1 | float |
Loss coefficient of inlet pipe orifice | KSI_2 | float |
Loss coefficient of check gate | KSI_3 | float |
Loss coefficient of outlet pipe orifice | KSI_4 | float |
Loss coefficient of outlet sluice chamber | KSI_5 | float |
Loss coefficient at outlet transition section | KSI_6 | float |
Table of basic data of inverted siphon node.
Item | Code | Type of data |
---|---|---|
Real-time data no. | FSKSSSJ_ID | numeric |
Node no. | JCTID | int |
Monitoring time | JCTIME | date time |
Real-time flow | INSTANTFLOW | float |
Total flow | TOTAL_FLOW | float |
Data real-time monitored at dividing gate.
The model kernel is developed on the basis of the C++ source code of the control simulation model for the middle route. The interface is packaged in the style of standard C++, and the call is made by the C# language.
The program source code for developing C# is not compiled into a local binary code that can be directly executed on an operating system but into an intermediate code. And then, the intermediate code is executed via a virtual machine for .Net framework, which is called common language runtime (CLR). All the .Net programming languages are compiled into an intermediate code, which is called Microsoft intermediate language (MSIL). Therefore, although both final programs and traditional executable files have the suffix “.exe” on the surface, in fact, if the .Net framework is not installed on a computer, these programs will not be able to be executed. When executing the programs, .Net framework translates the intermediate code into a binary machine code so that it can run correctly. The final binary code is stored in a buffer. Once the programs use the same code, the version in the buffer will be invoked.
When data or a file is damaged or lost due to various reasons in the model system, the system can record the related error code by using the running log mode and basic reasons. At this time, the system will enter a self-checking data process and correct data in such a manner that has no effect on the next computing. On the contrary, the model releases resources, stops working, and pops up an outer notification frame.
Model basic engineering parameter files support text read-in, other parameters are inputted by calling an interface, and input data are checked by the model kernel. When finding unqualified data, the model kernel notifies an external call framework via error log and returned value. The returned value is judged each time before entering the next step. After basic engineering at the initial phase of model simulation is established, the user can intervene data preparation by a computing unit by calling an intermediate interface. When each unit completes computing, the user can also make judgment through an interface to obtain computing data at each step. The acquisition of such data is generally done by calling an interface and finally reflected in final text output.
The addition of database elements supports SQL Server database data import and export, and previous preparation data and intermediate computing data of the model can be easily imported into the database.
When data is being outputted, the external framework is able to obtain intermediate data by calling an interface at each step during computing, realizing real-time display demand, and importing all computing data via analysis of a final computed result file for animation play browsing.
In this part, the kernel model is encapsulated; mainly, the model code is encapsulated as a complete functional code. The model is divided into three parts: model preparation, model computing, and model resource release.
Model preparation phase needs basic engineering parameters and computing simulation parameters, which are imported into database by reading all element parameters of channel cross-section of the main canal in a text mode. The user manually inputs computing simulation parameters required for control model in the system interface and then imports them into the database.
First, perform initialization of the parameters of the channel, check gate, release sluice, dividing gate, aqueduct, inverted siphon, then read the parameters needed for control model, entered by user and finally compute with with control algorithm [2]. This computing unit is called by external logic and stores intermediate data computed so as to meet the demand for the next computing. When the computing is finished, the resources of various types of computing units can be released according to user demands.
The memory resource that is occupied by the model is released according to user demands.
XML is used as the standard format for data exchange between systems; Web services are used to publish the service to the Internet; dynamic combination and integration of Web components are performed according to business and processes; data transmission is ensured by using a message queue mechanism, in order to achieve data exchange and sharing purposes. An integrated system with good expansibility, less resources occupation, loose coupling, strong reusability, and convenient maintenance can be built by using the general exchange platform.
The design of the emergency management system will be developed by using an MVC three-layer structure. That is to say, the whole business application will be divided into a presentation layer, business logic layer, data access layer, and so on. Among them, the data access layer (DAL) is used to achieve the interaction with and access to the database and to obtain data from the database or save data to the database. The business logic layer (BLL) connects the preceding and the next and used for logical data processing of upper and lower interactive data to achieve business goals. The presentation layer (UI) mainly used to realize the interaction with the user, receive the user request, or return display of data result of the user request, while concrete data processing is handed over to the service logic layer and the data access layer to process. The business entity model used to encapsulate entity data structures, generally used to map the data tables or views of a database and to describe objects that exist objectively in the business. Model is separated for better decoupling, giving a better play to layering, better reuse and expansion, and enhancing flexibility. Common class library (Common): common utility helpers.
Visual Studio is the development environment launched by Microsoft Corp. At present, it is the most popular Windows platform application development environment. The system will use Visual Studio 2012 version for development and C# language.
The emergency management system includes four core modules: a data management module, a traceability simulation module, an emergency operation module, and an emergency consultation module.
A node data management and maintenance module mainly include the data management and maintenance in the following aspects: channel node data, inverted siphon node data, transition section node data, connecting element node data, lateral bypass flow node data, check gate node data, aqueduct node data, tainter gate data, rectangular cross-section node data, etc [3]. For details, see Table 3 below.
Node data | Description |
---|---|
Channel node data | Mainly includes basic node data, such as node name, node inlet/outlet pile no., channel bottom width, channel side slope, inlet bottom elevation, outlet bottom elevation, etc. |
Inverted siphon node data | Mainly includes basic node data, such as node name, node inlet/outlet pile no., the number of parallel inverted siphons, channel bottom width, channel side slope, inlet bottom elevation, outlet bottom elevation, inlet sluice chamber loss coefficient, outlet sluice chamber loss coefficient, inlet pipe orifice loss coefficient, outlet pipe orifice loss coefficient, etc. |
Transition section node data | Mainly includes basic node data, such as node name, node inlet/outlet pile no., area change loss coefficient, other loss coefficients, etc. |
Connecting element node data | Mainly includes basic node data, such as node name, the number of inlet cross-sections, inlet cross-section bottom elevation, the number of outlet cross-sections, outlet cross-section bottom elevation, etc. |
Lateral bypass flow node data | Mainly includes basic node data, such as element type, element no. node name, province/city where they are, etc. |
Check gate node data | Mainly includes basic node data, such as node name, node inlet/outlet pile no., control water stage, sluice type, sluice parameters, initial opening, etc. |
Aqueduct node data | Mainly includes basic node data, such as node name, node inlet/outlet pile no., the number of parallel aqueducts, inlet bottom elevation, outlet bottom elevation, roughness coefficient, etc. |
Tainter gate data | Mainly includes basic node data, such as node name, the number of gate holes, gate bottom sill elevation, gate hole bottom width, height difference between tainter gate shaft and seating point when the tainter gate is closed, tainter gate radius, etc. |
Rectangular cross-section node data | Mainly includes basic node data, such as the type, name, width, height, and the like of cross-section. |
List of node data.
The module function interface is displayed by taking tainter gate data management interface (Figure 2) for example.
Tainter gate data management interface.
The monitored data of check gate, dividing gate, and release sluice under the project (at present, some release sluices are used as dividing gates) were reported artificially or automatically obtained from a sluice control system. For details, see Table 4.
Type of structure | Monitored item | Monitoring frequency | |
---|---|---|---|
Artificially | Automatically | ||
Check gate | Upstream water stage of check gate, downstream water stage of check gate, gate hole opening, and flow | Every 2 hours | Every 10 minutes |
Dividing gate | Upstream water stage of check gate, gate hole opening, flow and the quantity of divided water | At 8:00 AM every morning | |
Exit sluice |
List of node data.
The module function interface is displayed by taking the flow data query interface for the check gate in Diaohe River (Figure 3) for example.
Flow data query interface for check gate in Diaohe River.
The traceability simulation module calls the pollution source information inversed by the sudden water pollution accidents traceability model depending on abnormal data of some cross-section water quality and then predicts the pollutant diffusion process by using a hydrodynamic water quality model [4]. For details, see Table 5.
Function name | Input item | Output item | Functional description | Effect display |
---|---|---|---|---|
Tracking Traceability | Monitoring start time, monitored pile no., several monitored data at fixed interval | Pollution source intensity and position, release time | The model is called to calculate possible position of a pollution source according to monitoring start time, pollution source intensity and initial start location, and pollutant release time. | The error between simulate value and actual value through a chart. |
Diffusion Simulation | Pollution source position pile no., pollution source intensity, and pollutant release time | The diffusion process and peak motion process of concentrations of pollutants in all channel sections of the whole main canal that change with time | Model simulation of pollutant diffusion range and effect is carried out according to pollution source position and intensity, and pollutant release time. The model is a precise simulation model, which can be used to simulate the diffusion process of pollutants in the channel of the whole main canal, peak arrival time, the change process of concentration of pollutants in channel section, etc. | Two methods are used to dynamically display the change in concentration of pollutants along the route. Because a concentration at a different level corresponds to a different color, one method visually displays such change via dynamic change of channel color; the other method displays the change process of pollutants along the route by using the change curve of concentration along the route at different times. |
Main functions of traceability simulation.
The module function interface is displayed by taking the call interface of traceability model for example (Figure 4).
Traceability interface.
The emergency operation module develops the emergency operation plan for accident channel pool, upstream, and downstream sections of accident channel pool and performs simulation calculation, based on simulation and prediction of sudden water pollution accidents events, in combination of contingency plan and other documents and by using a sluice emergency operation model, and then, it evaluates the effect of such plan [5].
The module function interface is displayed by taking the emergency operation plan setting interface (Figure 5) for example:
Interface of Emergency operation Plan.
The emergency consultation module provides a consultation environment for management units and related decision makers according to the basic information of a sudden event and the simulation results of a professional model group. The module mainly has the following functions: consultation procedure management, consultation information collection and summary, group consultation, file management and information release, program review, and knowledge update.
A decision consultation system should clearly carry out the specific process of consultation in order to make the system user know related information to be prepared and related work to be done at different stage of consultation and to make the system user able to understand progress of current consultation, realizing the management of the consultation process.
Before the beginning of the consultation, the relevant information should be prepared for the topic of the consultation. According to actual situation, the consultation organization specifies requirements related to required information for units to participate in the consultation, which then submit related information to the consultation organization for review. After the review, the information is collected and arranged, and then it is uploaded to the decision consultation system for query and use in the consultation process.
Organize decision making personnel and assistants and other relevant personnel to carry out the consultation. During the consultation process, a template provided by the decision consultation system is used to display prepared information and other collected information related to such consultation; then, the decision making personnel carries out analysis, discussion, and the like according to the above information and current actual situation and develops one set or more sets of programs for selection, thus making decisions and obtaining the conclusion.
After completion of the consultation, the consultation result is arranged and summarized to form related information, and then, such information is arranged and filed by using the decision consultation system; at the same time, the information related to the consultation can be released as required.
After the consultation is finished, the files and information are reviewed and evaluated; useful information is extracted therefrom; and existing plans, rules, and knowledge are perfected, and the blank or missing parts are supplemented.
The module function interface is displayed by taking the event information input interface (Figure 6) for example:
Event information input interface.
The security measures of the system in the network layer mainly include firewall protection and intrusion detection technology. Connection with the Internet is done by using firewall protection; different types of firewall protection systems are used to protect the connection between Web server and back-end database.
Firewall protection functions include packet filtering based on state detection; multistage 3D access control mechanism; management mechanism oriented to objects; supporting multiple connection methods and transparent router; supporting OSPF, IPX, NETBEUI and SNMP and other protocols; having bidirectional address conversion ability; transparent application proxy; one-time password authentication mechanism; bandwidth management; having some built-in functions of intrusion detection or capacity to interact with intrusion detection equipment; remote management capacity; hot standby; load balancing; supporting dynamic IP address; embedded VPN function support; and flexible audit and log functions.
The functions provided by the network intrusion detection system include realizing real-time, distributed, and collaborative intrusion detection in the network environment to fully detect possible intrusion; timely identifying various hacker attacks, and when an attack is found, blocking and weakening attack behaviors, recording detailed records, creating an intrusion detection report, and timely giving a warning to the administrator; performing multilayer scan as required by the administrator, and configuring multiple scans according to specific time, width and fineness demands; supporting parallel detection and being able to perform multiple detection execution of a large network conveniently and simultaneously; detection and scan should not have an effect on normal network connection service and network efficiency; the feature library of detection should be comprehensive and can be updated timely; security detection strategy can be set by the user, the grades of detection intensity and disk degree are managed, and the user can choose detection strategies according to different needs; helping build security strategy, having detailed help database, and helping the administrator to realize network security and developing practical, enforceable network security policies.
The security policy of database users includes the security of general users and end users.
The security of general users is solved by password management and privilege management. If a user confirms its identity through a database, then connect to the database by using password encryption. Because of large number of users, rich data types, and a large amount of data in the system, a “role mechanism” is used to effectively manage authorities.
For security of end users, security policies must be developed for end users. The database has a certain scale. Security managers determine user group classification, create user roles for these user groups, grant required authorities and application roles to each user role, and assign an appropriate user role for each user. When dealing with special application requirements, security managers also must explicitly grant specific permission requirements to the user.
After the database is created, immediately change the password of the user with management authorities to prevent illegal users’ access to the database; protect the connection of the administrator with database; and use roles to manage the authority of the administrator.
Authorities for application developers: Database application developers are the unique database users who need special authorities to complete their work. However, only some special system authorities are granted to developers to limit their operation of the database. Application developers should not compete with end users for database resources and should not harm other applications for database.
Audit function is a very important security measure, which is used to monitor the actions applied by users on the database. There are two ways of audit, namely user audit and system audit. During user audit, an audit system records all attempts to access their own tables or views (including successful and unsuccessful accesses, the user name, time, operation code of each operation, and other information). Such information is generally recorded in a system table, and by using the information, users can carry out audit analysis. System audit is carried out by the system administrator, and it mainly involves the Level 1 commands of the system and the use of the database.
Hardware redundancy at any degree cannot completely guarantee single-point data security, so do RAID technology and mirror technology; and even dual machine backup cannot replace the importance of data backup. Remote backup of data is very effective and important when the client computer application system encounters a single point emergency or natural disaster. Good backup strategies and tools cannot only improve the degree of backup automation but also well recover data after they are destroyed.
The system adopts a backup plan, which combines complete backup and difference backup. Difference backup is performed every 12 hours; complete backup, every 7 days; offsite data backup, once a month.
The application-level security measures provided by a Web application server include SSL support (SSL protocol), authentication strategies (a group of strategies for user identity which provide view access network resource), authority strategy (providing the range of network resource accessed by a user or a user group and the definition of authorities), authorization policy (providing an authorization policy to make user temporarily access specific network resources after authorization), and secure API (providing a unified API for all security features).
According to system features, an enhanced, targeted security guarantee mechanism is provided, which includes program interface security, system login security, user role control security, input data security inspection, application system database access security, and the security strategies to prevent online password from being stolen.
According to role division, the system is divided into two roles: system administrator and system user.
The system administrator manages the users and authorities in the whole system.
All system users can use this system according to their authority assigned by the system administrator.
In addition to the use of security technology to ensure the security of the system, the system also uses system monitoring, log management, and other ways to ensure safe operation of the system. A good security monitoring function can greatly improve the overall security of the system so as to detect and eliminate security risks as soon as possible. By using a WWW server, a database server system, the system provides monitoring log for application access to understand who have visited the system, which services have been used, and whether there is someone trying to attack the system or violate the restrictions of the system.
In order to obtain good operation effect, the hardware for operating this system should be up to the following standard:
Client:
CPU: above Intel Core i3
Internal memory: above 4G
Hard disk: above 320G
Graphics card: above 1G
Server:
CPU: above Intel Core i3
Internal memory: above 4G
Hard disk: above 500G.
Graphics card: above 1G
Note: the available space of the server hard disk is above 500G due to large amount of data in the database. If the amount of file data in the database is too large, the database should be backed up at intervals.
Operating system: Windows7 32-bit OS
Operating platform: .Net framework 4.0, Visual Studio, SQL, ArcGIS
In order to ensure normal operation of the platform, it is necessary to establish an efficient information system operation and maintenance mechanism, implement a responsibility system, and improve the level of operation and maintenance of the information system; improve the capacity and methods of monitoring and emergency response of the information system to ensure safe and stable operation of the information system; establish perfect system operation and maintenance methods and include operation and maintenance outlays of information system into departmental budget.
This chapter designs and develops an emergency management system of sudden water pollution with complete functions for the middle route under MRP depending on engineering characteristics, management department demands, and the emergency response procedures for sudden water pollution and through the integration of simulation model, traceability model, and control model. The system is deployed in each management department of the project, providing technical support for the management to scientifically cope with sudden water pollution events that may occur in the normal water supply process of the middle route.
IntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
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