Comparison of UV acrylate, cationic epoxy and hybrid thermal cure epoxy.
\r\n\tAnimal food additives are products used in animal nutrition for purposes of improving the quality of feed or to improve the animal’s performance and health. Other additives can be used to enhance digestibility or even flavour of feed materials. In addition, feed additives are known which improve the quality of compound feed production; consequently e.g. they improve the quality of the granulated mixed diet.
\r\n\r\n\tGenerally feed additives could be divided into five groups:
\r\n\t1.Technological additives which influence the technological aspects of the diet to improve its handling or hygiene characteristics.
\r\n\t2. Sensory additives which improve the palatability of a diet by stimulating appetite, usually through the effect these products have on the flavour or colour.
\r\n\t3. Nutritional additives, such additives are specific nutrient(s) required by the animal for optimal production.
\r\n\t4.Zootechnical additives which improve the nutrient status of the animal, not by providing specific nutrients, but by enabling more efficient use of the nutrients present in the diet, in other words, it increases the efficiency of production.
\r\n\t5. In poultry nutrition: Coccidiostats and Histomonostats which widely used to control intestinal health of poultry through direct effects on the parasitic organism concerned.
\r\n\tThe aim of the book is to present the impact of the most important feed additives on the animal production, to demonstrate their mode of action, to show their effect on intermediate metabolism and heath status of livestock and to suggest how to use the different feed additives in animal nutrition to produce high quality and safety animal origin foodstuffs for human consumer.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-404-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-403-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-405-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",bookSignature:"Prof. László Babinszky",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",keywords:"Technological Feed Additives, Feed Industry, Quality of Compound Feed, Non-Antibiotic Growth Promoter, Product Quality, Additive Enzymes, Digestibility of Nutrients, NSP Enzymes, Farm Animals, Livestock, Immunity, Microbiome",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 24th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 20th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 10th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"25 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor Emeritus from the University of Debrecen, Hungary who authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited 3 books. Member of various committees and chairman of the World Conference of Innovative Animal Nutrition and Feeding (WIANF).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.jpg",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus of animal nutrition at the University of Debrecen, Hungary. From 1984 to 1985 he worked at the Agricultural University in Wageningen and in the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition in Lelystad (the Netherlands). He also worked at the Agricultural University of Vienna in the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition (Austria) and in the Oscar Kellner Research Institute in Rostock (Germany). From 1988 to 1992, he worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition (Agricultural University in Wageningen). In 1992 he obtained a PhD degree in animal nutrition from the University of Wageningen.He has authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters). He edited 3 books and 14 international conference proceedings. His total number of citation is 407. \r\nHe is member of various committees e.g.: American Society of Animal Science (ASAS, USA); the editorial board of the Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section A- Animal Science (Norway); KRMIVA, Journal of Animal Nutrition (Croatia), Austin Food Sciences (NJ, USA), E-Cronicon Nutrition (UK), SciTz Nutrition and Food Science (DE, USA), Journal of Medical Chemistry and Toxicology (NJ, USA), Current Research in Food Technology and Nutritional Sciences (USA). From 2015 he has been appointed chairman of World Conference of Innovative Animal Nutrition and Feeding (WIANF).\r\nHis main research areas are related to pig and poultry nutrition: elimination of harmful effects of heat stress by nutrition tools, energy- amino acid metabolism in livestock, relationship between animal nutrition and quality of animal food products (meat).",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"25",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",slug:"veterinary-medicine-and-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7144",title:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"75cdacb570e0e6d15a5f6e69640d87c9",slug:"veterinary-anatomy-and-physiology",bookSignature:"Catrin Sian Rutland and Valentina Kubale",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7144.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"65680",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress during Mammalian Follicular Atresia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82687",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-during-mammalian-follicular-atresia",body:'The endoplasmic reticulum plays several important roles in normal cellular physiology. Some functions include protein synthesis, folding, and distribution to the Golgi apparatus. Alterations in protein synthesis inside the endoplasmic reticulum have been related to the trigger of different programmed cell death routes such as necroptosis, apoptosis, autophagy, and paraptosis, with apoptosis being the most studied process.
The mammalian ovary is an excellent model to study the mechanisms of programmed cell death because 99% of the follicles, the functional units of the ovary, undergo degeneration through follicular atresia, which maintains intraovarian homeostasis. Follicular atresia involves the physiological elimination of most germinal cells (oocytes) before they are ovulated, both in fetal and reproductive lives.
The presence of different programmed cell death pathways in follicular atresia have recently been shown, and these can be directly related to endoplasmic reticulum signaling. In this chapter we describe evidences of the linkage between endoplasmic reticulum alterations and programmed cell death, with special emphasis on follicular atresia.
The mammalian ovary is a paired organ that is responsible for generating competent oocytes for successful fertilization and early embryonic development. To do this, these germinal cells need to mature within transient functional complexes called follicles. Follicles form for an oocyte surrounded by somatic cells. During reproductive life, follicles are continuously recruited into the pool of growing follicles and change their size, morphology, and physiology, leading to different stage classifications including primordial, primary, secondary, and antral (Figure 1).
Ovary of mouse. Follicles are in different stages of growth. Primordial (P), primary (head arrow), secondary (asterisk), and antral (A) follicles.
At birth, the ovaries contain a fixed number of nongrowing primordial follicles, characterized by an oocyte enclosed by flattened pre-granulosa cells. In primary follicles, the oocyte is surrounded by a monolayer of cubical granulosa cells. Secondary follicles are formed by two or more layers of granulosa cells. Antral follicles accumulate fluid and develop an antral cavity. The accumulation of fluid is useful for transporting nutrients and waste products.
Follicular growth is a continuous process that is under strict control by hormones, growth factors, cytokines, and environmental factors. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I, and estradiol are the principal regulators of follicular growth. FSH, a gonadotropin secreted by the pituitary gland, together with estradiol and IGF-I, is responsible for stimulating follicular growth and maturation. Moreover, FSH, LH, and estradiol enhance IGF-I secretion [1]. Additionally, FSH stimulates granulosa cells to develop LH receptor sites. The main function of LH is stimulating ovulation.
Several follicles grow and undergo ovulation, releasing an oocyte that is available for fertilization, but the principal destiny of ovarian follicles is follicular atresia, which is a physiological process that eliminates more than 99% of the follicles. Follicular atresia can occur in all stages of follicular development and ensures that only healthy follicles that contain optimal quality oocytes will be ovulated. Follicular degeneration occurs by programmed cell death (PCD). Apoptosis is the main route of follicular atresia, but may not be the only process involved (Figure 2). Other forms of PCD such as autophagy and paraptosis may also participate in this process [2, 3, 4].
Transmission electron microscope images of granulosa cells in different programmed cell death pathways. (a) healthy granulosa cell, (b) apoptotic body with highly condensed chromatin (cc), (c) autophagic cell with autophagic vesicles (head arrow), and (d) paraptotic granulosa cell with endoplasmic reticulum swelling (asterisk). Bars (a–c) 500 nm, and (d) 2 μm.
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the organelle that is responsible for the folding and maturation of both transmembrane proteins and proteins that follow the route of secretion. Protein folding is facilitated by chaperones and oxidoreductases including binding immunoglobulin protein/glucose-regulated protein 78-kDa (BiP/GRP78), calnexin, calreticulin, and protein disulfide isomerase (PDI). An increase of cellular translational activity is possible under both normal and altered conditions, causing an overload of accumulating misfolding or unfolded proteins inside the ER. During ER stress, damaged proteins need to be degraded, but there is a limited number of proteases in the ER, and thus misfolded proteins are ejected from the ER and returned to the cytoplasm to be ubiquitinated and degraded by the 26S proteasome. These events are collectively referred to as ER-associated degradation (ERAD) [5]. Also, ER stress triggers the unfolded protein response (UPR), which is orchestrated by three ER-resident UPR sensors, inositol-requiring kinase 1 (IRE1), protein kinase R-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK), and activating transcription factor 6 (ATF6) [6, 7].
The UPR establishes an adaptive program aimed at re-establishing ER homeostasis by increasing the folding capacity of the cell, reducing protein synthesis, and enhancing the clearance of abnormally folded proteins and damaged organelles.
The proteins PERK and IRE1α and β are important players during UPR because they undergo oligomerization and autophosphorylation due to their interactions with peptides and unfolded proteins [8, 9]. Additionally, IRE1 promotes the unconventional splicing of X-box binding protein 1 (XBP-1) mRNA and an unspecific decrease of mRNAs better known as regulated IRE1-dependent decay (RIDD) [10, 11]. Afterward, the protein XBP-1 is translocated to the nucleus to activate the transcription of chaperones and ERAD factors [12]. RIDD suppresses protein inflow by degrading the mRNA of proteins with signal peptides or proteins with transmembrane domains, and in this manner RIDD permits proteins that are incorrectly folded inside the ER to be folded correctly [10]. PERK phosphorylates eukaryotic translation initiation factor (eIF2a), which then accumulates on the cytosolic side and leads to the downregulation of translation and enhances the translation of Grp78 and the transcription factor ATF4 [13, 14]. It has been shown that during early mouse embryonic development, Grp78 suppresses ER stress and pro-apoptotic pathways via ER signaling [15]. ATF6 is regulated by proteolysis in the Golgi apparatus, allowing the N-terminal fragments to be translocated into the nucleus where they function as a transcription factor [16, 17]. The processing of both ATF6- and IRE1α-mediated splicing of XBP1 mRNA is required for the full activation of the UPR [18].
UPR works like a protection mechanism. For example, in pancreatic beta cell line INS-1E, glucosamine and high glucose induce UPR activation and generate a feedback loop at the level of insulin transcription [19]. However, chronic or irreversible UPR can trigger cell death pathways, mainly apoptosis, but ER stress can induce other programmed cell death mechanisms including autophagy, necroptosis, and paraptosis.
Morphological ER disturbances during follicular atresia have been observed for a long time. Henderson et al. [20] observed a higher surface area of endoplasmic reticulum in granulosa cells cultured from atretic follicles. Moreover, researchers have used electron microscopy to observe the dilation and disintegration of RER cisterns and the swelling of mitochondria [21].
These morphological disturbances in ovaries are associated with ER stress and UPR activation under both physiological and pathological conditions [22]. UPR is present during follicular growth and maturation and follicular atresia and in the corpus luteum. ER stress during follicular growth and maturation has been evidenced by means of the expression of XPB1 and heat shock 70 kDa protein 5 (HSPA5) accompanied by the activation of IRE1 and PERK [23]. The ER stress level and cellular response depend on the signal and its intensity. It has been shown that a lipid-rich intrafollicular environment induces ER stress and impaired oocyte nuclear maturation [24]. Likewise, in the ovary a moderate activation of ER stress depends upon PERK and p38 signaling [25], evidencing a UPR response in the cells of this organ.
Apoptosis, the term proposed by Kerr et al. [26], describes an intrinsic suicide mechanism that involves cell shrinkage and the loss of cell contacts, chromatin condensation, and cleavage [27]. This process is better known as programmed cell death type 1 (PCD type 1). The biochemical activation of apoptosis can be directed through extrinsic and intrinsic pathways. The extrinsic pathway is initiated by the activation of cell surface death receptors to their ligands, like the Fas Ligand and TNF. After binding, apoptotic signals are transmitted through dead effector domains and caspase recruitment domains. The intrinsic pathway is governed by a variety of cellular stresses including DNA damage, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and nutrient deprivation, which culminates in mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP), resulting in the release of mitochondrial proteins including cytochrome c and Smac/DIABLO. Apoptosis pathways converge on a common machinery of cell destruction that is activated by caspases, a family of cysteine proteases that cleave after an aspartate residue [28, 29]. The caspases implicated in apoptosis are divided into initiators and executioners, where initiator caspases (caspase-8 and caspase-9) activate the executor caspases (caspase-3, caspase-6, and caspase-7).
The Bcl-2 family, which are central regulators of MOMP, are a large class of both pro- and anti-apoptotic proteins. The Bcl-2 family is divided into three subfamilies: multidomain anti-apoptotic such as BCL-2, BCL-XL (BCL2L1), MCL-1, BCL-W (BCL2L2), and A1 (BCL2A1), multidomain pro-apoptotic such as BAX and BAK, and pro-apoptotic BH3-only molecules that include BID, BIM, PUMA (p53 upregulated modulator of apoptosis), and NOXA [30]. BH3-only proteins antagonize anti-apoptotic BCL-2 proteins to release and activate Bak/Bax [31]. Bax and Bak induce external membrane mitochondrial permeabilization and cytochrome c release [32]. Nevertheless, some death stimuli can trigger caspase-independent cell death pathways where other organelles such as the endoplasmic reticulum and the mitochondria have an important function in the release and activation of death factors [33].
In atretic follicles, this PCD was thoroughly described by Tilly et al. [34] and can be conducted through the intrinsic or the extrinsic pathway [35]. In ovaries, apoptosis can be triggered by deprivation of various signal molecules, survival factors, growth factors (IGF and EGF), and gonadotropins (FSH and LH). Apoptosis can occur in both oocytes and somatic cells. Cell elimination has been observed in follicles in different stages of development, from fetal to adult organisms [3, 36, 37, 38]. Although different routes of PCD can occur during follicular atresia, apoptosis plays a major role (Figure 2b).
Apoptosis is triggered by chronic or irreversible ER stress and UPR and occurs through either the extrinsic or intrinsic pathway. Further, apoptosis can be carried out by two pathways, a classical Bax-/Bak-dependent apoptotic response that can be inhibited by ERK1/2 signaling and an alternative ERK1-/2- and Bax-/Bak-independent pathway [39]. No single component is entirely necessary, but the interaction of many different mechanisms results in apoptosis during ER stress [40]. Under ER stress Bax and Bak interact with the cytosolic region of IRE1α, which is required for the modulation of IRE1α signaling [41].
The activity of the BH3-only protein Bim is induced through different pathways. The first one involves protein phosphatase 2A-mediated dephosphorylation, which prevents its ubiquitination and the proteasomal degradation of Bim. A second pathway is direct transcriptional induction that is C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP)-C/EBPalpha-mediated, and a third comprises a repression of miRNAs led by PERK [42, 43]. On the other hand, PUMA, p53, and NOXA contribute to ER stress-induced apoptosis [44].
It has been reported that CHOP (a transcription factor of pro-apoptotic proteins such as Bim) increases during ER stress [45]. ATF4 and CHOP increase a generalized protein synthesis, provoking ATP depletion, oxidative stress, and cell death [46]. Also, IRE1α degrades the miRNA that represses caspase-2 mRNA translation, which causes an increase in the protein levels of this initiator protease of the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway [47].
ER stress and UPR during follicular atresia are not fully understood; however, there are several evidences of these processes in the ovary. For example, cisplatin, a widely used chemotherapeutic agent, can induce ER stress, which promotes apoptosis and autophagy in granulosa cells, causing excessive follicle loss and endocrine disorders [48].
In goat ovaries, ER stress is involved in follicular atresia through ATF6 and PERK/eIF2α/ATF4 signaling. Furthermore CHOP, caspase-12, and Grp78 proteins are upregulated in apoptotic granulosa cells during follicular atresia [49, 50]. ATF6 is a protein that is extensively distributed in the granulosa cells of ovarian follicles and oocytes in adult mice, and the amount of ATF6 increases in the presence of FSH and LH. ATF6 regulates apoptosis, the cell cycle, steroid hormone synthesis, and other modulators of folliculogenesis in granulosa cells, which may impact the development, ovulation, and atresia of ovarian follicles [51].
The presence of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) has been identified in granulosa cells. This protein mediates caspase-independent apoptosis and causes chromatin condensation and DNA fragmentation. AIF expression increases during follicular atresia, and AIF depletion protects ER stress-mediated goat granulosa cell apoptosis [52].
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and oxidative stress can be upstream or downstream UPR targets. That is, UPR is interconnected with different enzymatic mechanisms of ROS generation, and they may depend on Ca2+ levels, ROS themselves, and PDI, which associates with NADPH oxidase and regulates its function [53]. ROS are pro-apoptotic factors in antral follicles. During oxidative stress, JNK activates FoxO1, which increases PUMA and induces apoptosis in granulosa cells [54]. Furthermore, pentosidine, a biomarker for advanced glycation end products, is accumulated in apoptotic human oocytes and increases with age [55].
UPR and ER stresses also have important roles in the regulation of corpus luteum (CL) regression. The overexpression of p-JNK, CHOP, caspase-12, and active caspase-3 during CL regression points to ER stress-dependent apoptosis [56, 57].
Autophagy is a catabolic pathway of cell constituents that contributes to cell survival in response to stress. Autophagy does not cause a loss of cell chemical components because the cell reutilizes them. There are three major types of autophagy, microautophagy, chaperon-mediated autophagy, and macroautophagy.
In microautophagy, vesicles bud into the lysosomal lumen by direct invagination of the boundary membrane, resulting in degradation of both cytoplasmic components and the lysosomal membrane by lysosomal hydrolases. This process involves sequential stages of vacuole invagination and vesicle scission [58].
Chaperon-mediated autophagy is the selective transport of proteins into lysosomes. The first step is protein recognition and lysosomal targeting. Protein recognition takes place in the cytosol through the binding of hsc70 to a KFERQ-like motif present in all chaperon-mediated autophagy substrates [59]. In the second step, proteins bind to receptors at the lysosomal membrane, Lamp2A, or a similar protein receptor for subsequent translocation and lysosomal degradation [60]. Receptors are subcompartmentalized in lipid microdomains to engage the processes of degradation, multimerization, and membrane retrieval [61].
Macroautophagy, also referred to as autophagy, involves the engulfment of cytoplasmic portions in a nonselective manner, as well as the degradation of specific proteins, organelles, and invading bacteria by a selective autophagy. Autophagy begins with the formation of an isolation membrane, the phagophore, which is a disk-like structure where the Atg machinery assembles. An isolation membrane grows to generate a double-membrane autophagosome, followed by elongation to form a mature autophagosome that captures cytosolic cargo. The fusion of mature autophagosomes with endosomes or lysosomes results in a single-membrane autolysosome where cargo is degraded by acid hydrolases [62].
Autophagy (Atg)-related proteins are the core machinery for autophagosome biogenesis and consist of several functional units: the ULK1-Atg13-FIP200-Atg101 protein kinase complex; the PI3K class III complex containing the core proteins VPS34, VPS15, and beclin 1; the PI3P-binding WIPI/Atg18-Atg2 complex; Atg9A; and the ubiquitin-like Atg5/Atg12 and Atg8/LC3 conjugation systems [63].
Autophagosome maturation involves the clearance of PI3P by Ymr1, a PI3P phosphatase, triggering the dissociation of the Atg machinery. Mature autophagosomes are transported to lysosomes through the microtubule cytoskeleton. The FYVE and coiled-coil domain containing 1 (FYCO1) protein binds to LC3, PI3P, and the small GTPase Rab7 and acts as an adaptor between autophagosomes and microtubules [64, 65]. Finally, the autolysosome is generated by autophagosome and lysosome fusion, where sequestered cargos are digested.
Autophagy and ER stress can be physiological processes in organisms. For example, they regulate endometrial function by modulating the mTOR pathway [66]. Also, autophagy contributes to the recovery of cell homeostasis after ER stress. During ER stress, damaged proteins are degraded by ERAD. However, some misfolded proteins are resistant, so autophagy is a final cell protection strategy deployed against ER-accumulated cytotoxic aggregates that cannot be removed by ERAD [67]. Additionally, ubiquitin is a common signal for both the ubiquitin-proteasome system and autophagy. In the mouse neuroblastoma cell line neuro-2a treated with tunicamycin, an ER stress inductor, the proteins involved in proteasomal degradation were downregulated, while proteins involved in ubiquitination were upregulated. Moreover, tunicamycin triggered autophagy, suggesting that it may serve as a compensatory effect to proteasomal degradation [68]. Also, ER-resident chaperones and enzymes that reduce the overload of misfolded proteins need to be removed by autophagy.
The structure or phagophore assembly site (PAS) localizes proximal to the ER. Autophagosome formation and transport to the vacuole are stimulated in an Atg protein-dependent manner. ER stress can induce an autophagic response because it increases Atg1 kinase activity and reflects both the nutritional status and autophagic state of the cell [69]. ER exit sites are essential for autophagy and are proximal to the PAS. Sec62, a constituent of the translocon complex that regulates protein import into the mammalian ER, intervenes during recovery from ER stress to selectively deliver ER components to the autolysosomal system for clearance and therefore is a critical molecular component in the maintenance and recovery of ER homeostasis [70].
The eIF2α/ATF4 pathway directs an autophagy gene transcriptional program in response to amino acid starvation or ER stress. The eIF2α kinase and the transcriptional factors ATF4 and CHOP are required to increase the transcription of a set of genes implicated in the formation, elongation, and function of the autophagosome, including Atgs and beclin 1, increasing the capacity to maintain autophagy in stressed cells. These autophagy genes exhibit different dependencies on ATF4 and CHOP, which means that they have a differential transcriptional response according to the stress intensity [71]. In human heart failure, the overexpression of the ER stress markers Grp78, PERK, CHOP, and ATF3 correlates with the expression of autophagy genes [72].
IRE1, a UPR sensor, has two isoforms, IRE1α and IRE1β, which both have RNase and kinase activities. However, in Arabidopsis thaliana, RNase activity of IRE1β, but not its protein kinase activity, is required for ER stress-mediated autophagy [73]. In Dictyostelium, the response to ER stress involves the combined activation of an IRE1α-dependent gene expression program and the autophagy pathway [74]. In mammalian cells, the spliced form of XBP 1 upregulates Nedd4-2, an E3 ubiquitin ligase involved in targeting proteins for subsequent degradation, in response to ER stress. It is also important for the induction of an appropriate autophagic response [75].
Different cancer cell models have allowed a better understanding of the mechanisms involved in autophagy triggered by ER stress. In cervical tumor cells, ER stress and UPR induced by X-ray exposition led to the activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway, autophagy, and apoptosis [76]. NF-κB is important for the proliferation, invasion, and metastasis of cervical cancer cells. Furthermore, in a model of breast cancer, autophagy and apoptosis were triggered through ER stress, UPR, and a high expression of CHOP and JNK [77].
Moreover, ERK and JNK activation is associated with cross talk between autophagy and another PCD. In L929 fibrosarcoma cells, ERK and JNK can link a signal from caspase-8 inhibition to autophagy, which in turn induce ROS production and PARP activation, leading to ATP depletion and necroptosis [78].
Ca2+ exchange between the ER and mitochondria is mediated through domains called mitochondria-associated membranes (MAMs). The interruption of Ca2+ flux between these organelles generates metabolic stress where AMPK present in MAMs triggers autophagy via beclin-1 phosphorylation [79, 80]. Autophagy activation might prevent proper interorganelle communication that would maintain mitochondrial function and cellular homeostasis [79].
In ER stress, some miRNAs promote the survival of the cells, while others promote cell death. In HeLa cells under RE stress, miR-346 positively regulates the expression of glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3B) which reduces the interaction of beclin-1 and BCL2 to induce autophagy, ROS reduction, and cell death [81].
Autophagy is mainly induced in granulosa cells (Figure 2c) during folliculogenesis and shows a high correlation with apoptosis, and furthermore, both routes of PCD could play active roles in oocyte depletion [82]. According to Meng et al. [83], antral follicular degeneration is initiated by granulosa cell apoptosis, while preantral follicular atresia occurs mainly via enhanced granulosa cell autophagy. Surprisingly, apoptosis and autophagy can be present in the same cell at the same time, just as cells can show caspase-3 active, DNA fragmentation, and immunodetection of LC3 and Lamp 1 [2, 3].
The signals that establish autophagy or apoptosis as the route of cell death are not fully understood. Consistent with Zhang et al. [84], atresia initiation is associated with a cross talk of different PCDs including apoptosis and autophagy, a dramatic shift of steroidogenic enzymes, deficient glutathione metabolism, and vascular degeneration. In a rat model, FSH, a survival factor, decreased autophagy through LC3-II inhibition and Akt-mTOR pathway activation [85]. Shen et al. [86] assessed the mechanism involved in autophagy inhibition by the Akt-mTOR pathway in granulosa cells exposed to FSH and oxidative stress because mTOR, a negative regulator of autophagy, inhibits FOXO1, which promotes the expression of several autophagy genes. They found that FSH induced granulosa cell survival via FOXO1 inhibition by the PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathway [86]. Nevertheless, in mouse granulosa cells, FSH was related to follicle development and atresia because FSH induces autophagy signaling via HIF-1α [87].
Despite the studies on the role of the ER in autophagy, its specific participation in follicular atresia is still unknown.
Necroptosis is a subtype of regulated necrosis and shares the same morphological changes, including organelle swelling and membrane rupture. Necroptosis is a caspase-independent cell death, and its execution involves the active disintegration of mitochondrial, lysosomal, and plasma membranes. This PCD is triggered by various stimuli, such as TNF, Fas ligand, and TRAIL and depends on the serine/threonine kinase activity of RIP1. Additionally, a set of 432 genes regulates necroptosis and cellular sensitivity to this PCD by a signaling network that mediates innate immunity [88]. Moreover, Bmf, a BH3-only protein, is required for death receptor-induced necroptosis [88].
Moreover, environmental toxicants like cadmium can activate necroptosis. Intermediate levels of cadmium are associated with lost plasma membrane integrity, a decrease of ATP levels, and mitochondrial membrane potential and cell swelling, which are features associated with necroptotic cell death [89].
The core pathway of necroptosis relies on the assembly of an amyloid-like structure termed the necrosome. The necrosome is a multiprotein complex formed by receptor-interacting protein kinase 3 (RIPK3), RIPK1, and mixed lineage kinase domain-like (MLKL). Oligomerization and intramolecular autophosphorylation of RIPK3 lead to the recruitment and phosphorylation of MLKL. RIPK3 and MLKL continuously shuttle between the nucleus and the cytoplasm, whereas RIPK1 is constitutively present in both compartments [90]. Nuclear RIPK1 becomes ubiquitinated, and then nuclear MLKL becomes phosphorylated and oligomerized [90]. MLKL mediates plasma membrane rupture. MLKL forms cation channels that are preferentially permeable to Mg2+ in the presence of Na+ and K+ [91]. MLKL-induced membrane depolarization and cell death exhibit a positive correlation to channel activity.
The role of the ER in necroptosis has been evidenced using necrostatin-1, an inhibitor of necroptosis, which has a protective effect on the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria and alleviates ER stress after spinal cord injury [92]. Furthermore, Grp78 promotes an inflammatory response through the upregulation of necroptosis and subsequent activation of NF-κB and AP-1 pathways [93]. The depletion of reticulocalbin 1, an ER-resident Ca2+-binding protein, induces Grp78, activates PERK, and phosphorylates eIF2α. Moreover, the activation of CaMKII and the inactivation of Akt are important for necroptosis in response to reticulocalbin 1 depletion [94].
The function of MLKL and RIPK in necroptosis has been widely studied. The signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) was demonstrated to be downstream of calpain and regulates RIPK3 expression and MLKL phosphorylation and induces ER stress and mitochondrial calcium dysregulation [95]. Moreover, in cardiomyocytes upregulated RIPK1 and RIPK3 evoke ER stress, accompanied by an increase in intracellular Ca2+ levels and xanthine oxidase expression, which raised cellular ROS that mediated the mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening and necroptosis [96, 97]. In addition, the activation of JNK1/2 is regulated by RIPK3 [96].
Moreover, there are proteins that can participate in necroptosis and other types of PCD such as AIF and MLKL. Apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF), a protein normally located within the intermembrane space of mitochondria, is linked to apoptosis and necrosis. However, it has been shown that mitochondrial depolarization induced by ER stress promotes AIF release and nuclear condensation, which is consistent with necroptotic cell death [98, 99, 100]. MLKL, a member of the necrosome, also participates in chelerythrine (CHE)-promoted apoptosis through nuclear MLKL translocation and a special band of MLKL, which is promoted by a mutual regulation between the MLKL and PERK-eIF2α pathways in response to ROS formation [101].
Necroptosis has been widely researched, but there is still much to investigate, including the mechanism that mediates its execution. Nevertheless, necroptosis studies have been carried out under pathological conditions, and thus it is important to use physiological models like follicular atresia.
Necroptosis contributes to follicular atresia and luteolysis [102]. The factors involved in granulosa cell necroptosis can be regulated by acetylcholinesterase (AChE), cytokines, starvation, and oxidative stress via TNFα [103]. Also, an ovarian AChE variant, the read-through isoform AChE-R, has a nonenzymatic function that stimulates RIPK1-/MLKL-dependent necroptosis [103]. Therefore, although the participation of the ER in necroptosis and the contribution of this PCD in follicular atresia have been shown, the interrelation between ER stress-induced necroptosis and follicular atresia is completely unknown.
Sperandio et al. [104] introduced the term paraptosis to describe a route of caspase-independent PCD that has morphological, biochemical, and transcriptional features that are different from apoptosis [104]. Endoplasmic reticulum swelling, mitochondrial swelling, and resistance to apoptosis inhibitors without nuclear shrinkage or pyknosis characterize paraptosis. Although paraptosis is a caspase-independent cell death, participation of caspase-9 has been shown under experimental conditions [104].
Paraptosis can be triggered by different stimuli including insulin-like growth factor I receptor (IGFIR), JAY/TROY, and ROS. IGF-I is a regulator of multiple cell signaling pathways including PI3K-Akt1-RPS6 and ERK1/2 MAPK that are critical for cell proliferation, migration, and survival [105]. IGFIR-induced paraptosis is mediated by caspase-9, and at least two signal transduction pathways participate in the execution of paraptosis, the MAPK and JNK pathways [104, 106].
TAJ/TROY, a member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily, induces morphological features of paraptosis accompanied by phosphatidylserine externalization, the loss of the mitochondrial transmembrane potential, and independent caspase activation [105]. Moreover, programmed cell death 5 (PDCD5), an apoptosis-promoting protein, enhances TAJ-/TROY-induced paraptotic cell death [107].
ROS production can trigger paraptosis through PINK and mitophagy activation [108, 109]. Covalent modifications of free sulfhydryl groups on proteins cause protein misfolding and the accumulation of misfolded proteins, leading to ER stress, CHOP activation, and paraptosis [110, 111]. In malignant hepatoma cells with Bcl-xL-mediated apoptotic defects, the disruption of thiol homeostasis and treatment with doxorubicin and pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate induced paraptotic cell death [112].
The full signal transduction pathway and identification of specific markers for paraptosis are still unclear. Nevertheless, phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein (PEBP-1), a suppressor of the MAPK pathway, has been identified, and prohibitin, a mitochondrial protein, is a mediator of paraptosis [113]. Furthermore, the redistribution of α- and β-tubulin and tropomyosin has been observed in the early stages of paraptosis. Other characteristics of the paraptotic pathway involve alterations mainly in signal transduction proteins, mitochondrial proteins, and some metabolic proteins [113].
Cancer cells are the best model to study paraptosis because there can be apoptosis and/or autophagy resistance. In melanoma cells, the sustained activation of the IRE1α and ATF6 pathways driven by the MEK/ERK pathway avoids ER stress-induced apoptosis [114].
Different compounds for cancer treatment have shown paraptosis induction. For example, HeLa, A549, and PC-3 cells treated with celastrol induced vacuoles derived from the dilation of ER, a feature of apoptotic cell death; moreover, this was accompanied by autophagy and apoptosis. Furthermore, the ER swelling triggered by celastrol induced ER stress markers including Grp78, PERK, IRE, and CHOP and alterations to proteasome function that resulted in the accumulation of ubiquitinated protein [115, 116]. Moreover, paraptosis can be accelerated by pre-treatment with the proteasome inhibitor MG132 [117]. On the other hand, cyclosporine A treatment of cervical cancerous SiHa cells showed ER stress and UPR preceded by massive cytoplasmic vacuole formation that culminated in a paraptosis-like cell death [118]. Moreover, murine hepatoma 1c1c7 cells and the human non-small cell lung cancer A549 cell line exposed to a combination of photodamage and benzoporphyrin derivative result in ER swelling and paraptotic cell death [119].
For the pathways involved in paraptosis, ER vacuoles can be dependent on the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway [120]. Moreover, in BC3H1 myoblast cell lines exposed to yessotoxin, paraptosis was accompanied by cytoskeletal alterations and the activation of JNK/SAPK1 [121]. However, in acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells, everolimus, a mTOR inhibitor, showed that JNK signaling was not required for paraptotic cell death [122]. Paraptosis in epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) cells treated with morusin was characterized by VDAC-mediated Ca2+ influx into mitochondria, and subsequent mitochondrial Ca2+ overload contributes to mitochondrial swelling and dysfunction, leading to the accumulation of ER stress markers, the generation of ROS, and the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) in EOC cells [123].
Knowledge of the role of paraptosis during follicular atresia is still limited. In Bombyx mori, apoptosis, autophagy, and paraptosis occur in the ovarian nurse cell cluster during late vitellogenesis, whereas middle vitellogenesis is exclusively characterized by the presence of paraptosis, preceding both apoptosis and autophagy [124]. In mammals, paraptosis was evidenced by ER swelling (Figure 2d) and CHOP immunodetection in granulosa cells during follicular atresia in adult Wistar rats [4].
The mechanisms involved in paraptosis during follicular atresia are still unknown. The paraptotic inductor IGFR might be related because it is implicated in follicular growth and selection [104, 125]. Moreover, IGF2R and the binding protein genes IGFBP5 and IGFBP6 are overexpressed in atretic follicles [126]. However, more studies on paraptosis during follicular atresia are necessary.
Endoplasmic reticulum stress is a strong signal that triggers different programmed cell death pathways. Interestingly, programmed cell death via endoplasmic reticulum stress is not exclusive to pathological or experimental conditions but is present in physiological processes like follicular atresia. However, the specific mechanisms and signals for choosing a particular cell death pathway are still unknown. In this way, research on the pathways and mechanisms involved in programmed cell death activated by endoplasmic reticulum stress are fundamental, particularly for follicular atresia, as this process ensures the ovulation of competent oocytes for fertilization.
This work was supported by PAPIIT IN225117 and PAPIIT IN227919.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Epoxy adhesives are widely used in structural bonding applications ranging from general industry, semiconductor packaging, electronics assembly and automobile production to aerospace market because of their strong chemical structure and good adhesion to various substrates [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Epoxy adhesives are primarily composed of epoxy resin and curing agent. Figure 1 illustrates chemical structure and key features of various functional groups for bisphenol A diglycidyl ether, the most standard epoxy resin used in epoxy adhesives. Epoxide possesses high reactivity. It can react with amines, thiols, anhydrates or phenols almost equivalently via polyaddition mechanism at suitable certain conditions to become strong cross-linked thermoset resins. As shown in Scheme 1 [10], epoxide reacts almost equivalently with active hydrogen in amine curing agent via polyaddition mechanism. Epoxide can also polymerize via either anionic or cationic polymerization mechanism. As shown in Scheme 2 [11], epoxide can polymerize via anionic polymerization mechanism initiated by anionic ion resulted from reaction of imidazole compound and epoxide. Epoxy adhesives can be cured at different temperature conditions based mainly on the curing agent type used but will normally need relatively long cure time ranging from half hour to a few days. Aliphatic amine-based epoxy adhesives, the most commonly used type, start to cure at room temperature. Thiol-based epoxy adhesives, the fastest cure type, start to cure even at low refrigerator temperature. Anhydrate-, phenol-, aromatic amine- or catalyst-based epoxy adhesives will normally need elevated temperature to achieve full cure. Generally speaking, epoxy adhesives designed to cure at elevated temperature which are commonly called as thermal cure epoxy adhesives have higher degree of cross-linking structure and glass transition temperature and thus show better performance than epoxy adhesives designed for cure at room temperature. Thermal cure epoxy adhesives can be also formulated as one-component type by the use of latent curing agents for easy handling. One-component thermal cure epoxy adhesives have been increasingly used in various applications such as semiconductor packaging, electronics assembly and automobile production where high production efficiency and high adhesion performance are required. Recently, UV and thermal cure epoxy adhesives have been developed and commercialized to meet further higher production efficiency of required applications such as precise optical sensor packaging and display assembly [12, 13, 14, 15].
\nStructure and key features of bispheol A diglycidyl ether.
Polyaddition reaction of epoxy resin with amine curing agent.
Anionic polymerization of epoxy resin via imidazole catalyst.
There are mainly two types of commercial UV and thermal cure epoxy adhesives: UV cure cationic epoxy adhesives and hybrid UV acrylate and thermal cure epoxy adhesives. UV cationic cure epoxy adhesives are primarily composed of cycloaliphatic epoxy resin and cationic photoinitiator. UV cationic epoxy adhesives have no surface cure issue and possess low cure shrinkage and good adhesion performance but need post-thermal cure to achieve full cure. Hybrid UV acrylate and thermal cure epoxy adhesives are primarily composed of acrylate monomer, free radical photoinitiator, epoxy resin and curing agent. The hybrid epoxy adhesives combine fast UV curability of acrylate composition and high adhesion performance of thermal cure epoxy composition.
\nUV cationic epoxy adhesives are primarily composed of epoxy resin and cationic photoinitiator [16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. Cycloaliphatic-type epoxy resins are usually selected for UV cationic epoxy adhesives because of faster cationic polymerization rate than that of normal bisphenol A diglycidyl ether-type epoxy resin. Chemical structure of typical commercially available epoxy resins suitable for cationic epoxy adhesives is shown in Figure 2. Cationic photoinitiator is the key raw material to formulate UV cationic epoxy adhesives. There are mainly two types of cationic photoinitiators: Bronsted acid and Lewis acid generator. Sulfonium and iodonium salts that can generate Bronsted acid are most commonly used as cationic photoinitiator. Figure 3 shows chemical structure of typical commercially available cationic photoinitiators.
\nCommon commercially available epoxy resins for cationic epoxy adhesives.
Chemical structure of common UV cationic photoinitiator.
As illustrated in Scheme 3 [21], photoinitiator in UV epoxy adhesives absorbs UV energy to generate strong acid that will react with epoxy to produce cationic which can initiate homo-polymerization of epoxy resin. UV cationic epoxy adhesives will need some longer cure time compared to UV cure acrylate-based adhesive. In actual use, a post-thermal cure of UV cationic epoxy adhesives after the UV radiation is commonly used for full cure to assure satisfactory adhesion performance. Compared to common acrylate-based UV adhesives, UV cationic epoxy adhesives have much lower cure shrinkage because of the epoxy structure and have no surface cure issue that is resulted from oxygen inhibition to free radical polymerization since they cure via cationic polymerization. By contrast, UV cationic epoxy adhesives are not suitable for alkali-type substrates which stop cationic polymerization.
\nUV cationic polymerization of epoxy adhesives.
UV cationic epoxy adhesives have been commercialized and used in optical parts bonding, sensor packaging and display panel assembly applications [22, 23, 24, 25, 26]. The authors have found that adhesion reliability performance of UV cationic epoxy adhesives can be much improved by the combination use of cationic photoinitiator with thermal cationic initiator [27].
\nMost widely used UV cure adhesives are acrylate-based compositions [28, 29, 30, 31, 32]. Acrylate-based UV cure adhesives are primarily composed of acrylate monomer, acrylate oligomer and photoinitiator. As shown in Scheme 4 [33], the photoinitiator formulated in an acrylate-based adhesive absorbs light energy via UV radiation to generate free radical which can rapidly initiate polymerization of acrylate compositions. Acrylate-based UV cure adhesives can be cured within seconds. Limitations of UV cure acrylate-based adhesives are the surface cure issue, shadow cure problem, high cure shrinkage and poor humidity reliability. Surface cure issue is resulted from oxygen inhibition to free radical polymerization of acrylate. Shadow cure problem always occurs at the area where light cannot approach. Relatively high cure shrinkage and poor humidity reliability are caused from acrylate chemical structure.
\nUV cure mechanism of free radical polymerization of acrylate adhesives.
By the combination of UV acrylate composition with thermal cure epoxy composition, UV and thermal cure hybrid epoxy adhesives have been developed and commercialized for over two decades [34, 35, 36, 37, 38]. Acrylate monomer, epoxy resin, photoinitiator and epoxy curing agent are at least contained in the UV and thermal cure hybrid adhesives. These hybrid adhesives combine advantages from both UV acrylate proportion and thermal cure epoxy part. Adhesion reliability performance could be much improved by the introduction of the epoxy composition compared to the normal acrylate composition. In the meantime, production efficiency could be much improved by shortening the fixture time to seconds via UV cure compared to at least dozens of minutes needed for thermal cure epoxy adhesives. Surface cure issue, shadow cure issue and high cure shrinkage of acrylate-based UV adhesives could also be improved to certain degree because of lower contents of free radical curable acrylate compositions. In some cases, a thermal initiator such as peroxide is also formulated in the hybrid adhesive to assure curing remained acrylate compositions after the UV radiation or those at shadow area. Advantages and limitations of UV cationic epoxy adhesives, hybrid UV acrylate and thermal cure epoxy adhesives are compared with those of UV acrylate adhesives in Table 1.
\nAdhesive type | \nUV acrylate | \nUV cationic epoxy | \nHybrid thermal cure epoxy | \n
Key compositions | \nAcrylate | \nEpoxy resin | \nAcrylate | \n
Photoinitiator | \nCationic photoinitiator | \nPhotoinitiator | \n|
Epoxy resin | \n|||
Curing agent | \n|||
Polymerization | \n|||
UV cure | \nRadical | \nCationic | \nRadical | \n
Thermal cure | \nNA | \nCationic | \nPolyaddition, anionic | \n
Oxygen inhibition | \nYes | \nNo | \nPartially | \n
Alkali inhibition | \nNo | \nYes | \nNo | \n
UV curability | \nHigh | \nMedium | \nHigh | \n
Post-thermal cure | \nNo need | \nPreferred | \nNeed | \n
Shadow cure | \nNo | \nPartially | \nYes | \n
Cure shrinkage | \nHigh | \nLow | \nLow | \n
Adhesion | \nModerate | \nGood | \nGood | \n
Comparison of UV acrylate, cationic epoxy and hybrid thermal cure epoxy.
Photoinitiator is the key material to formulate UV cure compositions. In actual cure process, however, several small molecules are usually generated as byproducts. Additionally, photoinitiator itself will not be consumed completely in actual use at most cure conditions and will remain in the cured materials as just contaminants. As shown in Scheme 5, for the use of benzyl dimethyl ketal (BDMK) as photoinitiator, for example, Sitmann et al. [39] described that there are at least three small molecules generated during its UV light decomposition. These small molecular byproducts, together with the remained photoinitiator, cannot be chemically bonded to the cured adhesive. For sensitive high precise substrate bonding applications such as fine semiconductor packaging or display assembly, there are big concerns on contaminants from low molecule chemicals such as these byproducts, remained photoinitiator during UV curing process on sensitive semiconductor substrate or display materials. In addition, the remained photoinitiator may initiate or accelerate chemical reaction of cured adhesive materials during the actual use and potentially damage its adhesion reliability performance. Initiator free UV cure adhesive will not have these concerns.
\nPhoto-reaction mechanism of BMDK.
Recently, the authors invented and reported a new type high-performance UV and thermal curable hybrid epoxy adhesive that is completely an initiator free composition but still possesses good UV curability and satisfactory thermal curability, suitable for use in high-end display assembly applications [40, 41, 42].
\nMaleimide compounds have been studied for years in photoinitiator-free UV curing systems [43, 44, 45, 46]. As illustrated in Scheme 6, maleimide compound can adsorb light energy and generate small amount of free radical. In the meantime, maleimide itself is a good monomer for free radical polymerization. Compared to normal photoinitiator acrylate cases, however, its UV cure efficiency is much lower.
\nRadical generation of maleimides via UV radiation.
The new type hybrid epoxy resin adhesive is mainly composed of a liquid bismaleimide compound, partially acrylated bisphenol A epoxy resin, acrylic monomer, epoxy resin and latent curing agent. Chemical structure of typical reactive materials used is shown in Figure 4. The new type adhesive does not contain any conventional initiator, either photoinitiator or thermal initiator such as peroxide compound. It is a complete initiator free hybrid epoxy adhesive. Its UV fixture time was 5 s at 100 mW/cm2 with high-pressure mercury lamp used. Good adhesion on glass substrate has been also confirmed.
\nChemical structure of reactive materials used.
FT-IR was performed to measure and analyze quantitatively cure behaviour of the adhesive sample [46, 47, 48]. The spectrum of adhesive samples cured at UV cure and UV + thermal cure conditions as well as non-cure samples was measured by the use of Varian 610-IR Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. Figure 5 IR spectrum of adhesive sample cured at UV only condition was shown compared to non-cure sample. IR spectrum of adhesive samples cured at UV + thermal cure condition was shown compared to non-cure sample in Figure 6. The conversion rate was further calculated from the decrease of the 1405 cm−1 absorption peak area attributed to acrylic double bond, the 690 cm−1 peak area attributed to maleimide double bond and the 915 cm−1 peak area attributed to epoxy group. As summarized in Table 2, a conversion rate of 62% of acrylic and 95% of maleimide double bonds had been achieved at this UV cure condition. This result confirmed that most part of acrylic and almost all maleimide double bonds had been cured during this UV cure condition. As expected, epoxy group cured only at thermal cure condition.
\nFT-IR spectrum of adhesive cured at UV only condition, in blue, compared to non-cure sample.
FT-IR spectrum of adhesive cured at UV + thermal cure condition, in blue, with compared to non-cure sample.
Cure condition | \nC=C conversion rate (%) | \nEpoxy conversion rate (%) | \n|
---|---|---|---|
Acrylate | \nBismaleimide | \n||
UV cure only, 100 mW/cm2 × 30 s | \n62 | \n95 | \n0 | \n
UV + thermal cure, 100 mW/cm2 × 30 s + 120°C × 60 min | \n100 | \n96 | \n85 | \n
Thermal cure only, 120°C × 60 min | \n67 | \n95 | \n69 | \n
Conversion rate of C=C group and epoxy group measured by FT-IR.
Very interestingly, it was found, as shown in Table 2, that remained uncured acrylic double bonds at UV cure process continued to react, and the conversion rate increased eventually to 100% at post-thermal cure condition. In the meantime, conversion rate of acrylic double achieved 67 and 95% at thermal cure only condition, respectively. As described previously, the adhesive sample does not contain any thermal initiator component such as peroxide. Nevertheless, UV cure components of the adhesive sample showed also very good thermal curability. From epoxy resin part, conversion rate of epoxy group of adhesive sample cured at thermal cure only condition was lower than that cured at UV + thermal cure condition.
\nBased on this result, acrylic and maleimide double bonds reacted most probably with the epoxy curing agent, dihydrazine.
\nUV and thermal cure epoxy adhesives have been successfully used in high-end applications such as optical component bonding, sensor packaging and display panel assembly where high production efficiency and high adhesion performance are required. There are mainly two types of commercialized UV and thermal cure epoxy adhesives: UV cure cationic epoxy adhesives and hybrid UV acrylate and thermal cure epoxy adhesives. UV cure cationic epoxy adhesives are primarily composed of cycloaliphatic epoxy resin and cationic photoinitiator. UV cationic epoxy adhesives have no surface cure issue and possess low cure shrinkage and good adhesion performance but need post-thermal cure to achieve full adhesion performance. Hybrid UV acrylate and thermal cure epoxy adhesives are primarily composed of acrylate monomer, free radical photoinitiator, epoxy resin and curing agent. The hybrid epoxy adhesives combine fast UV curability of acrylate composition and high adhesion performance of thermal cure epoxy composition. A new type initiator free hybrid one-component UV and thermal cure adhesive has been also introduced. It is mainly composed of maleimide compound, acrylic monomer, partially acrylated epoxy resin, epoxy resin and latent curing agent. The new hybrid epoxy adhesive possesses good UV curability and satisfactory thermal curability and is suitable for use as high performance required applications.
\nAuthors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
",metaTitle:"IntechOpen authors on the Global Highly Cited Researchers 2018 list",metaDescription:null,metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"New for 2018 (alphabetically by surname).
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nYuekun Lai
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nPrevious years (alphabetically by surname)
\\n\\nAbdul Latif Ahmad 2016-18
\\n\\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\\n\\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\\n\\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\\n\\nGang Chen 2016-18
\\n\\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\\n\\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
\\n\\nMyung-Haing Cho 2016, 2018
\\n\\nMark Connors 2015-18
\\n\\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
\\n\\nLiming Dai 2015-18
\\n\\nWeihua Deng 2017, 2018
\\n\\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
\\n\\nRon de Graaf 2014-18
\\n\\nHarald Haas 2017, 2018
\\n\\nFrancisco Herrera 2017, 2018
\\n\\nJaakko Kangasjärvi 2015-18
\\n\\nHamid Reza Karimi 2016-18
\\n\\nJunji Kido 2014-18
\\n\\nJose Luiszamorano 2015-18
\\n\\nYiqi Luo 2016-18
\\n\\nJoachim Maier 2014-18
\\n\\nAndrea Natale 2017, 2018
\\n\\nAlberto Mantovani 2014-18
\\n\\nMarjan Mernik 2017, 2018
\\n\\nSandra Orchard 2014, 2016-18
\\n\\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\\n\\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\\n\\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
\\n\\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\\n\\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\\n\\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\\n\\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nFei Wei 2016-18
\\n\\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\\n\\nQi Xie 2016-18
\\n\\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'New for 2018 (alphabetically by surname).
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nYuekun Lai
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPrevious years (alphabetically by surname)
\n\nAbdul Latif Ahmad 2016-18
\n\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\n\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\n\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\n\nGang Chen 2016-18
\n\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\n\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
\n\nMyung-Haing Cho 2016, 2018
\n\nMark Connors 2015-18
\n\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
\n\nLiming Dai 2015-18
\n\nWeihua Deng 2017, 2018
\n\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
\n\nRon de Graaf 2014-18
\n\nHarald Haas 2017, 2018
\n\nFrancisco Herrera 2017, 2018
\n\nJaakko Kangasjärvi 2015-18
\n\nHamid Reza Karimi 2016-18
\n\nJunji Kido 2014-18
\n\nJose Luiszamorano 2015-18
\n\nYiqi Luo 2016-18
\n\nJoachim Maier 2014-18
\n\nAndrea Natale 2017, 2018
\n\nAlberto Mantovani 2014-18
\n\nMarjan Mernik 2017, 2018
\n\nSandra Orchard 2014, 2016-18
\n\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\n\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\n\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
\n\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\n\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\n\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\n\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\n\nFei Wei 2016-18
\n\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\n\nQi Xie 2016-18
\n\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\n\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117095},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10231",title:"Proton Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4a9009287953c8d1d89f0fa9b7597b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10231.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10645",title:"TEST Luka EV",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"34c7613d332b05758ea87b460199db54",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/cover.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10646",title:"Rozmari - Test Book - Luka 13102020",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b96ff714b24bc695b8dceba914430b85",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/cover.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10651",title:"Machine Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5806b4efae3bd91c3f56e64e0442df35",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10651.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10652",title:"Visual Object Tracking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"96f3ee634a7ba49fa195e50475412af4",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10653",title:"Optimization Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"753812dbb9a6f6b57645431063114f6c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10653.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10655",title:"Motion Planning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"809b5e290cf2dade9e7e0a5ae0ef3df0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10655.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10657",title:"Service Robots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5f81b9eea6eb3f9af984031b7af35588",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10657.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10660",title:"Heritage",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"14096773aa1e3635ec6ceec6dd5b47a4",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10660.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10662",title:"Pedagogy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c858e1c6fb878d3b895acbacec624576",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10673",title:"The Psychology of Trust",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1f6cac41fd145f718ac0866264499cc8",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10673.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10675",title:"Hydrostatics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c86c2fa9f835d4ad5e7efd8b01921866",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10675.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:60},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:314},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7796",title:"Human 4.0",subtitle:"From Biology to Cybernetic",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ac5c052d3a593d5c4f4df66d005e5af",slug:"human-4-0-from-biology-to-cybernetic",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7796.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9711",title:"Pests, Weeds and Diseases in Agricultural Crop and Animal Husbandry Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12cf675f1e433135dd5bf5df7cec124f",slug:"pests-weeds-and-diseases-in-agricultural-crop-and-animal-husbandry-production",bookSignature:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos, Anna Kourti and Kassio Ferreira Mendes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9711.jpg",editors:[{id:"196691",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kontogiannatos",slug:"dimitrios-kontogiannatos",fullName:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10178",title:"Environmental Emissions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"febf21ec717bfe20ae25a9dab9b5d438",slug:"environmental-emissions",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10178.jpg",editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8511",title:"Cyberspace",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c1cdeb133dbe6cc1151367061c1bba6",slug:"cyberspace",bookSignature:"Evon Abu-Taieh, Abdelkrim El Mouatasim and Issam H. Al Hadid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8511.jpg",editors:[{id:"223522",title:"Dr.",name:"Evon",middleName:"M.O.",surname:"Abu-Taieh",slug:"evon-abu-taieh",fullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9534",title:"Banking and Finance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"af14229738af402c3b595d7e124dce82",slug:"banking-and-finance",bookSignature:"Razali Haron, Maizaitulaidawati Md Husin and Michael Murg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9534.jpg",editors:[{id:"206517",title:"Prof.",name:"Razali",middleName:null,surname:"Haron",slug:"razali-haron",fullName:"Razali Haron"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5126},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7796",title:"Human 4.0",subtitle:"From Biology to Cybernetic",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ac5c052d3a593d5c4f4df66d005e5af",slug:"human-4-0-from-biology-to-cybernetic",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7796.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9711",title:"Pests, Weeds and Diseases in Agricultural Crop and Animal Husbandry Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12cf675f1e433135dd5bf5df7cec124f",slug:"pests-weeds-and-diseases-in-agricultural-crop-and-animal-husbandry-production",bookSignature:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos, Anna Kourti and Kassio Ferreira Mendes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9711.jpg",editors:[{id:"196691",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kontogiannatos",slug:"dimitrios-kontogiannatos",fullName:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10178",title:"Environmental Emissions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"febf21ec717bfe20ae25a9dab9b5d438",slug:"environmental-emissions",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10178.jpg",editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8511",title:"Cyberspace",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c1cdeb133dbe6cc1151367061c1bba6",slug:"cyberspace",bookSignature:"Evon Abu-Taieh, Abdelkrim El Mouatasim and Issam H. Al Hadid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8511.jpg",editors:[{id:"223522",title:"Dr.",name:"Evon",middleName:"M.O.",surname:"Abu-Taieh",slug:"evon-abu-taieh",fullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9523",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5eb6ec2db961a6c8965d11180a58d5c1",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9018",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",slug:"some-rna-viruses",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9585",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef64f11e211621ecfe69c46e60e7ca3d",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg and Imran Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9585.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10150",title:"Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:"When Artificial Intelligence Meets the Internet of Things",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"87004a19de13702d042f8ff96d454698",slug:"smart-manufacturing-when-artificial-intelligence-meets-the-internet-of-things",bookSignature:"Tan Yen Kheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",middleName:null,surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9386",title:"Direct Numerical Simulations",subtitle:"An Introduction and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"158a3a0fdba295d21ff23326f5a072d5",slug:"direct-numerical-simulations-an-introduction-and-applications",bookSignature:"Srinivasa Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9386.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6897",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasa",middleName:"P",surname:"Rao",slug:"srinivasa-rao",fullName:"Srinivasa Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"809",title:"Mobile Computing",slug:"engineering-knowledge-engineering-mobile-computing",parent:{title:"Knowledge Engineering",slug:"engineering-knowledge-engineering"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:2,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"engineering-knowledge-engineering-mobile-computing",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"6449",title:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"130d15f6e439fa4a07b8e8cd9066d5b3",slug:"proceedings-of-the-3rd-czech-china-scientific-conference-2017",bookSignature:"Jaromir Gottvald and Petr Praus",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6449.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"200987",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaromir",middleName:null,surname:"Gottvald",slug:"jaromir-gottvald",fullName:"Jaromir Gottvald"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"57132",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71099",title:"Prepaid Voice Services Based on OpenBTS Platform",slug:"prepaid-voice-services-based-on-openbts-platform",totalDownloads:903,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"proceedings-of-the-3rd-czech-china-scientific-conference-2017",title:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017"},signatures:"Ladislav Behan, Lukas Orcik, Filip Rezac, Ivan Baronak and Jerry\nChun Wei Lin",authors:[{id:"200987",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaromir",middleName:null,surname:"Gottvald",slug:"jaromir-gottvald",fullName:"Jaromir Gottvald"}]},{id:"57112",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71098",title:"Traffic Management by Admission Control in IMS Networks",slug:"traffic-management-by-admission-control-in-ims-networks",totalDownloads:480,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"proceedings-of-the-3rd-czech-china-scientific-conference-2017",title:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017"},signatures:"Ivan Baroňák, Michal Čuba, Chien-Ming Chen and Ladislav Beháň",authors:[{id:"200987",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaromir",middleName:null,surname:"Gottvald",slug:"jaromir-gottvald",fullName:"Jaromir Gottvald"}]},{id:"57256",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71333",title:"Influence of Chroma Subsampling on Objective Video Quality Assessment for High Resolutions",slug:"influence-of-chroma-subsampling-on-objective-video-quality-assessment-for-high-resolutions",totalDownloads:578,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"proceedings-of-the-3rd-czech-china-scientific-conference-2017",title:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017"},signatures:"Miroslav Uhrina, Juraj Bienik and Peter Kortis",authors:[{id:"200987",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaromir",middleName:null,surname:"Gottvald",slug:"jaromir-gottvald",fullName:"Jaromir Gottvald"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57256",title:"Influence of Chroma Subsampling on Objective Video Quality Assessment for High Resolutions",slug:"influence-of-chroma-subsampling-on-objective-video-quality-assessment-for-high-resolutions",totalDownloads:578,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"proceedings-of-the-3rd-czech-china-scientific-conference-2017",title:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017"},signatures:"Miroslav Uhrina, Juraj Bienik and Peter Kortis",authors:[{id:"200987",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaromir",middleName:null,surname:"Gottvald",slug:"jaromir-gottvald",fullName:"Jaromir Gottvald"}]},{id:"57132",title:"Prepaid Voice Services Based on OpenBTS Platform",slug:"prepaid-voice-services-based-on-openbts-platform",totalDownloads:903,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"proceedings-of-the-3rd-czech-china-scientific-conference-2017",title:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017"},signatures:"Ladislav Behan, Lukas Orcik, Filip Rezac, Ivan Baronak and Jerry\nChun Wei Lin",authors:[{id:"200987",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaromir",middleName:null,surname:"Gottvald",slug:"jaromir-gottvald",fullName:"Jaromir Gottvald"}]},{id:"57130",title:"Mobile Probe for Cellular Network Coverage and Quality Measurement",slug:"mobile-probe-for-cellular-network-coverage-and-quality-measurement",totalDownloads:779,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"proceedings-of-the-3rd-czech-china-scientific-conference-2017",title:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017"},signatures:"David Vasicek, Martin Mikulec, Erik Gresak, Filip Rezac and Erik\nChromy",authors:[{id:"200987",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaromir",middleName:null,surname:"Gottvald",slug:"jaromir-gottvald",fullName:"Jaromir Gottvald"}]},{id:"57128",title:"Employing Monitoring System to Analyze Incidents in Computer Network",slug:"employing-monitoring-system-to-analyze-incidents-in-computer-network",totalDownloads:714,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"proceedings-of-the-3rd-czech-china-scientific-conference-2017",title:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017"},signatures:"Lukáš Macura, Jan Rozhon and Jerry Chun-Wei Lin",authors:[{id:"200987",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaromir",middleName:null,surname:"Gottvald",slug:"jaromir-gottvald",fullName:"Jaromir Gottvald"}]},{id:"57113",title:"Study of Admission Control Methods for IPTV Services",slug:"study-of-admission-control-methods-for-iptv-services",totalDownloads:577,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"proceedings-of-the-3rd-czech-china-scientific-conference-2017",title:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017"},signatures:"Erik Chromy, Tsu-Yang Wu, Roman Cipov, Matej Kavacky, Stanislav\nKlucik, Ivan Baronak and Lukas Orcik",authors:[{id:"200987",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaromir",middleName:null,surname:"Gottvald",slug:"jaromir-gottvald",fullName:"Jaromir Gottvald"}]},{id:"57114",title:"New Features of Labor Market and Their Impact in China",slug:"new-features-of-labor-market-and-their-impact-in-china",totalDownloads:608,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"proceedings-of-the-3rd-czech-china-scientific-conference-2017",title:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017"},signatures:"Yajun Meng",authors:[{id:"200987",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaromir",middleName:null,surname:"Gottvald",slug:"jaromir-gottvald",fullName:"Jaromir Gottvald"}]},{id:"57129",title:"Review of Applying European Option Pricing Models",slug:"review-of-applying-european-option-pricing-models",totalDownloads:706,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"proceedings-of-the-3rd-czech-china-scientific-conference-2017",title:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017"},signatures:"Haochen Guo",authors:[{id:"200987",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaromir",middleName:null,surname:"Gottvald",slug:"jaromir-gottvald",fullName:"Jaromir Gottvald"}]},{id:"57257",title:"The Way of Building Human Capital in China",slug:"the-way-of-building-human-capital-in-china",totalDownloads:570,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"proceedings-of-the-3rd-czech-china-scientific-conference-2017",title:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017"},signatures:"Małgorzata Wróblewska and Maria Bernat",authors:[{id:"200987",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaromir",middleName:null,surname:"Gottvald",slug:"jaromir-gottvald",fullName:"Jaromir Gottvald"}]},{id:"57131",title:"Influence of Bit Depth on Objective Video Quality Assessment for High Resolutions",slug:"influence-of-bit-depth-on-objective-video-quality-assessment-for-high-resolutions",totalDownloads:651,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"proceedings-of-the-3rd-czech-china-scientific-conference-2017",title:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017"},signatures:"Juraj Bienik, Miroslav Uhrina and Peter Kortis",authors:[{id:"200987",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaromir",middleName:null,surname:"Gottvald",slug:"jaromir-gottvald",fullName:"Jaromir Gottvald"}]},{id:"57112",title:"Traffic Management by Admission Control in IMS Networks",slug:"traffic-management-by-admission-control-in-ims-networks",totalDownloads:480,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"proceedings-of-the-3rd-czech-china-scientific-conference-2017",title:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017"},signatures:"Ivan Baroňák, Michal Čuba, Chien-Ming Chen and Ladislav Beháň",authors:[{id:"200987",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaromir",middleName:null,surname:"Gottvald",slug:"jaromir-gottvald",fullName:"Jaromir Gottvald"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"engineering-knowledge-engineering-mobile-computing",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/102891/george-mellick",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"102891",slug:"george-mellick"},fullPath:"/profiles/102891/george-mellick",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()