Forest floor parameters under the Cerrado native forest (Ce), Eucalyptus citriodora (Eu) (*E. saligna) and Pinus elliottii (Pi) stands in four locations in SE Brazil (LZ, MG, PD and IT).
\r\n\tThe aim of this book will be to describe the most common forms of dermatitis putting emphasis on the pathophysiology, clinical appearance and diagnostic of each disease. We also will aim to describe the therapeutic management and new therapeutic approaches of each condition that are currently being studied and are supposed to be used in the near future.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"278931ae110500350d8b64805c70f193",bookSignature:"Dr. Eleni Papakonstantinou",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7934.jpg",keywords:"Atopic eczema, Interleukin, Topical corticosteroids, Hand eczema, Blisters, Pruritus, Irritant contact dermatitis, Allergic contact dermatitis, Discoid eczema, Sebaceous glands, Inflammatory dermatitis, Facial rash",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 5th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 19th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 18th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 6th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 5th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"203520",title:"Dr.",name:"Eleni",middleName:null,surname:"Papakonstantinou",slug:"eleni-papakonstantinou",fullName:"Eleni Papakonstantinou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/203520/images/system/203520.jpg",biography:"Dr. med. Eleni Papakonstantinou is a Doctor of Medicine graduate and board certified Dermatologist-Venereologist. She studied medicine at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, in Greece and she continued with her dermatology specialty in Germany (2012-2017) at the University of Magdeburg and Hannover Medical School, where she completed her dissertation in 2016 with research work on atopic dermatitis in children. During this time she gained wide experience in the whole dermatological field with special focus on the diagnosis and treatment of chronic inflammatory skin diseases and also the prevention and treatment of melanocytic and non-melanocytic skin tumors. Her research interests were beside atopic dermatitis and pruritus also the pathophysiology of blistering dermatoses. In addition to lectures at german and international congresses, she has published several articles in german and international journals and her work has been awarded with various prizes (poster prize of the German Dermatological Society for the project: 'Bullous pemphigoid and comorbidities' (DDG Leipzig 2016), 'Michael Hornstein Memorial Scholarship' (EADV Athens 2016), travel grant (EAACI Vienna 2016). Since 2017, she works as a specialist dermatologist in private practice in Dortmund, in Germany. Parallel she co-administrates an international dermatologic network, Wikiderm International and she writes a dermatology public guide for patients, as she is convinced that evidence-based knowledge has to be shared not only with colleagues but also with patients.",institutionString:"Private Practice, Dermatology and Venereology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"270941",firstName:"Sandra",lastName:"Maljavac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270941/images/7824_n.jpg",email:"sandra.m@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"58511",title:"Effects of Eucalyptus and Pinus Forest Management on Soil Organic Carbon in Brazilian Wooded-Savanna",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72684",slug:"effects-of-eucalyptus-and-pinus-forest-management-on-soil-organic-carbon-in-brazilian-wooded-savanna",body:'Forest management is an available option for climatic change mitigation through carbon cycle management [1, 2, 3]. In that context, soil carbon is decisive in the long term [2] because soils contain two to three times the amount of carbon in vegetation [4] in chemical forms that are much more stable than in biomass, with residence times extending from decades to millions of years [5] (Figure 1). Soil organic carbon (SOC) is defined by climate, soil type, plant cover, decomposer activity, perturbations and management [6]. Vegetation affects SOC because, through root and leaf production, it determines soil organic input quantity and quality, which are major decomposition control factors [7]. Soil type affects SOC decomposition and stabilization through drainage, structure, texture [8], the presence and type of clays, sesquioxides and other stabilizers [9]. Management practices affect disruption and aggregation of organic matter (OM), and thus, their influence on SOC is determinant [10] (Figure 1).
A general model of carbon in terrestrial ecosystems. Stocks are reported in Gt (1015g) and fluxes in Gt year−1. Note that arrows are not proportional to values. Values from [1].
SOC is fundamental to fertility and crop production in tropical soils. In tropical savannas, most soils have a predominance of highly weathered clays; thus, they are acidic, low-fertility soils characterized by a low cation exchange capacity, low base saturation and high Al toxicity. Because the mineral fraction is dominated by low-activity clays, SOC is especially important in these soils, where OM is the main nutrient source for plants, soil fauna and microorganisms [11, 12]. SOC also plays a fundamental role in soil aggregation, and thus, it is essential for water supply and soil structure maintenance [13]. Hence, the conservation of SOC is critical to sustainable land management of neotropical savannas [14].
The Brazilian wooded-savanna’s ecological complex (Cerrado biome) is important to national agricultural production, and it represents the national forestry core. Brazilian forestry generates approximately 4% of the total gross national product (
Despite the importance of SOC to forest sustainable management in neotropical savannas, literature on the subject is scarce, and it mostly remains in thesis and regional papers where it is difficult to be consulted. Furthermore, available research papers conclude either that there is no effect or that contradictory effects are shown [18], as it has been recently appointed in a review of intensive logging effects on SOC [19]. The effects of Eucalyptus and Pinus forest management in SOC are not completely understood because the literature often reports contradictory results and conclusions. Although some authors have found significant SOC loss under Eucalyptus plantations compared to Cerrado [17], others found no significant change [20] or even increases in SOC [21, 22]. The same discrepancy is reported for Pinus stands, with depletion [14, 17, 21, 23], no change [20, 24] and increases [24], all being reported. These contradictory results can be explained by different experimental site conditions, such as soil type, stand age and tillage [17], as well as methodological differences, such as soil sampling depth.
Given the wide occurrence of forest plantations in tropical soils and the importance of SOC conservation to soil fertility, crop production and sustainable land management of neotropical savannas, we aimed to assess alterations in SOC content produced after 30 years of intensive management of Eucalyptus and Pinus on originally Brazilian wooded-savanna–covered areas. For this purpose, we have compared litter and soil C and N levels in planted and natural forests. To clarify previously reported contradictory results, we replicated our experimental work in four distant locations with the same experimental conditions.
We collected samples at four locations in the State of Sao Paulo, SE Brazil. They are approximately 100 km apart, located in the Luiz Antônio (21°61′S;47°75′W) (LZ), Mogi Guaçú (22°24′S;47°15′W) (MG), Pederneiras (22°34′S;48°89′W) (PD) and Itirapina (22°19′S;47°94′W) (IT) districts. At each location, we studied Eucalyptus and Pinus stands of similar ages as well as the nearest natural forest patches, which were considered to be the control areas. Thus, we defined 12 plots based on location and forest type (Figure 2).
Location of the study area and experimental design.
Climate is characterized as tropical type II [25]. Climatic conditions are homogeneous among sites, with temperatures ranging between 19 and 22°C (mean annual T = 20°C) and with an annual mean precipitation of approximately 1200 mm year−1. Rainfall is concentrated from October to March, and thus, there is a dry winter season between June and September when water demand exceeds water availability and soil moisture limits plant growth, biomass production, SOC decomposition and other ecosystem process.
Sites belong to the Cerrado biome, which is characterized by flat to gently undulating topography, with laterization as the main soil formation process. The studied soils were characterized as oxisols (Humic Rhodic Haplustox) at LZ, Inceptisols (Oxic Dystrudepts) at MG and PD and entisols (Ustic Quartzipsamments) at IT [26]. They represent a texture gradient, with average clay contents of 59% in LZ, 25% in MG, 15% in PD and 11% in IT. Altitudes range between 516 and 740 m. All sites are flat or have gentle slopes <7% and no signs of erosion were present.
The original Cerrado landscape consisted of grassland, savanna and wooded-savannas and dry seasonal forest patches. Control areas were located in remnants of Brazilian wooded-savanna (cerradão). They are characterized by closed canopies approximately 20 m tall. Leguminosae, Myrtaceae, Melastomataceae and Rubiaceae are the most represented families. There are no clear species dominance patterns, but some common species well-represented in the four sites are as follows: Anadenanthera peregrina var. falcata (Benth.) Altschul, Qualea grandiflora Mart., Aspidosperma tomentosum Mart., Qualea multiflora Mart. and Roupala montana Aubl.
All study stands are older than 30 years. They were planted in 1962, 1965, 1966, 1969 and 1972. Natural vegetation was first cleared, and after slash and burn of the original forest, a heavy disk plow was used to open seedling lines (~20 cm depth). Trees were planted manually. The used species were Pinus elliottii and Eucalyptus citriodora with the exception of the Itirapina site where E. saligna was the planted Eucalyptus species. No fertilizer or lime had ever been used at the sites, as they were planted for experimental purposes and for wood, not pulp, production. After 7–8 years of growth, 35% of trees are normally clear cut, which permits tree diameter to increase. The studied stands were clear cut about five times before the experimental work was performed. The length of rotation varied between 5 and 8 years according to market oscillations in the wood price, rather than planted species; therefore, there are slight differences on rotation times between sites, but they are not dependent on the planted species. At sampling time, the stands had closed canopies approximately 30 m tall.
One hundred trees per plot were measured for characterization of the vegetation. Mean basal area values ranged from 21 to 44 m2 ha−1 in the planted stands and from 23 to 43 m−2 ha−1 in the native forests. Vegetation densities (299–786 trees ha−1 in plantations and 1200–1600 trees ha−1 in native forests) and diameter distributions (70% of trees were smaller than 10-cm diameter breast height in native forest) showed structural differences between natural and planted areas. Neither planted nor natural sites had been burnt in the last three decades.
Thirty sampling points were randomly selected at each plot (forest type × site) for soil and litter collection. The procedure was repeated four times at different locations in order to guarantee real independence of the observations (Figure 2). Our experimental work was then carried out following a randomized block design with sampling replication within the blocks [27], as we collected 30 samples inside each of the three forest type treatments (Cerrado, Eucalyptus and Pinus), and we replicated this complete design in four study locations (LZ, MG, PD and IT) corresponding to the four blocks. Sampling replication within the blocks permits us to test the block-treatment interaction. It is especially important when differences between blocks may be strong [27], as could be the present case.
Collection was performed in 2004 at the end of the dry season during the maximum litter accumulation period. Forest floor samples were collected using a 25-cm2 metal frame. All materials were collected, including not only litter but also fibric and humic horizons when present. Samples were oven dried to constant weight and ground for chemical analysis. C and N were determined by wet combustion [28] on 360 samples.
Soil samples were collected at three depths: 0–5, 10–25 and 35–50 cm. Pits were open to profile description and undisturbed soil sample collection. Undisturbed soil samples were collected using 5-cm diameter metal cores at four random replicates per plot. Then, soil bulk density was calculated as the oven-dry sample mass divided by the sampled volume for a total of 144 samples. Disturbed samples were collected with an auger at 30 sampling points per plot. After collection, soil samples were air dried and individually sieved through 2-mm mesh. SOC was determined by the Walkley & Black wet combustion method [29] following a tropical soil-adapted protocol [28] for a total of 600 samples. Since the studied soils are free of stones and gravel, corrections for those fractions were unnecessary. Texture was determined by the pipette method [28]. Sand (<2 mm to 64 μm), silt (<64 μm to 2 μm) and clay (<2 μm) fractions were determined for 216 samples.
Soil carbon stocks (Mg ha−1) were calculated using bulk density (g cm−3) and carbon content data (g kg−1). Because we lack continuous sampling data, we used pedotransfer functions to estimate soil carbon stocks into the soil profile. Those functions, which related carbon content with soil depth or texture, can precisely calculate soil carbon stocks [30]. SOC exponentially decays with depth; therefore, most pedotransfer functions are based on the exponential model equation [22, 31, 32]. We used its more general form, which is:
where y is carbon (kg m−2) and x is depth (cm). First, the exponential model parameters (a and b) were calculated using field data. Then, the model was integrated between the desired depths (x1 and x2, in cm), resulting in the function:
which estimates the SOC stock. We estimated the 0–30-cm depth carbon stocks following IPCC protocols [1, 2, 3].
Because the Kjeldahl acid digestion method loses accuracy when analyzing acidic, N-poor soils, we used a CN analyzer (Leco CN-2000) to determine soil C and N by dry combustion and gas chromatographic separation of 36 soil surface samples to obtain the A horizon C:N values. C:N ratios were then calculated for 720 samples; 36 samples from the soil surface (A horizon, 0–5 cm depth) and 360 from the forest floor.
We used general linear models to test the SOC content (g kg−1) and C:N ratio responses to the three forest treatments (Cerrado considered as control, Eucalyptus and Pinus), which were considered as fixed factors, on four blocks (LZ, MG, PD and IT), taken as random factors. We used the AIC criteria to evaluate the interaction term significance [33]. Linear regression analysis was used to test the clay-SOC relationship. Data analysis and graphs were performed with R language [34].
Forest floor layers under the native Cerrado forest consisted of fresh litter (Oi horizon) with discontinuous points of humified material at waterlogged spots. Similar conditions were found in Eucalyptus citriodora stands. We observed a thick organic layer in the Eucalyptus saligna stand, which was formed from fresh litter (Oi), fragmented debris (Oe) and a dark color–layer containing decomposed organic materials (Oa). Despite the sharpness of the transition between the organic and the A mineral horizon, this forest floor type can be considered a moder horizon because of its structure and morphological characteristics [35]. We also found clear forest floor layering under Pinus elliottii. Recognizable horizons were formed by freshly fallen (Oi horizon) and fragmented needles (Oe horizon). Humified material was scarce, and the transition between organic and A mineral horizons sharp; thus, these horizons are considered mor type according to Ponge’s criteria [35]. Forest floor layer morphology differences between planted stands and natural forests could be explained on the basis of litter quality and soil fauna activities. High litter quality and activity of soil fauna incorporating SOC into the mineral soil lead to less organic material accumulation and most likely to faster nutrient cycling in the native forest, whereas in planted stands, lixiviation may be the principal cause of SOC incorporation into the surface A horizon, without almost any soil fauna intervention.
Forest floor organic carbon stocks were one to two times larger under the Pinus and Eucalyptus stands than under the native Cerrado forest (Table 1). Litter collected at the planted stands had higher carbon concentration and C:N ratios, leading to higher organic material accumulation than in the native forest (Table 1). Similar results are common in the literature: several authors reported higher forest floor accumulation [17, 36, 37, 38] and higher litter C stocks [21, 38] in Pinus stands than in the native Cerrado forest, as well as moder horizon formation [21, 37]. Higher forest floor accumulation and litter C stocks have been also reported in Eucalyptus stands compared to native Cerrado forest, although results are not as consistent as for Pinus [21, 22]. Less litter accumulation under Eucalyptus than under the Cerrado forest was reported; however, results were dependent on soil type because the differences were significant on loamy oxisol but not on sandy entisol [17]. We hypothesize than the observed E. saligna thick organic layer is due to the planted species, which is considered to be a strong forest floor accumulator in the Brazilian Cerrado [22] and in other areas with similar conditions in Congo [39] and South Africa [40]. However, we cannot confirm this hypothesis with our data because of the lack of replication of the E. saligna stand.
Treatment | Littera | Soilb | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mass (Mg ha−1) | OC (g kg−1) | OC (Mg ha−1) | C:N | C:N | ||
Ce | LZ | 8.194 (2.405) | 416.1 (28.7) | 3.523 (1.04) | 33 (3.91) | 15 (0.27) |
Eu | LZ | 10.014 (3.129) | 440.2 (11.4) | 4.340 (1.39) | 84 (12.93) | 21 (1.13) |
Pi | LZ | 10.322 (4.023) | 453.0 (14.2) | 4.697 (1.84) | 66 11.96) | 21 (0.63) |
Ce | MG | 8.025 (2.699) | 429.8 (15.6) | 3.366 (1.20) | 43 (6.23) | 15 (0.60) |
Eu | MG | 5.411 (1.664) | 438.5 (13.7) | 2.347 (0.75) | 61 4.40) | 18 (0.70) |
Pi | MG | 8.666 (3.855) | 439.2 (25.2) | 3.948 (1.78) | 65 (9.20) | 23 (1.07) |
Ce | PD | 8.146 (2.143) | 399.8 (26.7) | 3.158 (0.94) | 33 (3.81) | 17 (1.50) |
Eu | PD | 11.583 (3.183) | 428.7 (30.9) | 5.010 (1.48) | 71 (12.08) | 18 (0.35) |
Pi | PD | 11.862 (4.027) | 450.9 (11.1) | 5.318 (1.84) | 94 (12.57) | 21 (3.20) |
Ce | IT | 10.706 (2.981) | 439.2 (15.3) | 4.731 (1.32) | 36 (4.93) | 18 (1.61) |
Eu* | IT | 19.160 (3.334) | 474.9 (2.8) | 9.049 (1.58) | 68 (4.78) | 26 (0.83) |
Pi | IT | 16.328 (4.298) | 420.0 (39.6) | 6.339 (1.86) | 64 (12.64) | 21 (1.18) |
Forest floor parameters under the Cerrado native forest (Ce), Eucalyptus citriodora (Eu) (*E. saligna) and Pinus elliottii (Pi) stands in four locations in SE Brazil (LZ, MG, PD and IT).
Mean values of 30 samples; standard deviations are in brackets.
Mean values of 3 samples; standard deviations are in brackets.
Average litter dry weight mass (Mg ha−1), litter organic carbon (OC) concentration (g kg−1) and stocks (Mg ha−1) and litter and soil A horizon (0–5 cm) C:N.
Forest floor accumulation depends on the input/output balance, which is controlled by litter production and decomposition [41]. It is known that Eucalyptus and Pinus stands had higher litter production than the Cerrado [14, 36, 37] and that this litter has lower nutritional content in our study sites [42]. These two features can explain the organic material accumulation and organic layer formation. We suggest that decomposition is strongly inhibited by Pinus plantations. Other authors’ results support this idea; slow decomposition rates and longer residence times were reported when comparing Pinus with the adjacent native Cerrado near the study areas [36, 37].
Our results show that soil carbon is related to forest type, soil depth and texture.
SOC distribution is heterogeneous in the soil profile. SOC fitted a lognormal distribution, as expected from the literature [43, 44]. SOC heterogeneity decreased from surface to subsurface soil layers. We found variation coefficients from 18 to 58% at the 0–5-cm soil layer and from 5 to 26% in layers below 10-cm soil depth. Standard deviations increased between 10 and 25 cm and 35–50 cm layers in four sites (Eucalyptus and Pinus stands at Luiz Antônio and Cerrado and Eucalyptus stands at Mogi Guaçú) (Table 2). Literature reports SOC variation coefficients from 5 to 59% in semiarid croplands with different land use intensities [45]. Other authors also report higher organic carbon variability in the surface than in deep layers in fast growing species plantations and natural Cerrado soils [22, 30]. High variability at the surface layer was expected and it can be explained by high spatial variation in surface organic carbon determinants such as soil fauna activities and litterfall. We found some samples with an extremely high C concentration that probably corresponds to local characteristics, such as charcoal, pieces of a termite mound or anthill and localized OM accumulation. Such samples were found especially in the Itirapina Eucalyptus saligna stand and the same situation has been reported under similar soil and vegetation conditions near our study site [22]. Therefore, they probably represent the spatial variability of the reality. However, they must be retired to perform the tests of significance because they were three standard deviations larger than mean values and their inclusion on the data set will invalidate the analyses of variance [46].
Treatment | Soil organic carbon (g kg−1) | Total SOC (Mg ha−1) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0–5 cma | 10–25 cmb | 35–50 cmb | 0–30 cmc | R2 | ||
Ce | LZ | 28.41 (06.12) | 14.59 (1.27) | 12.73 (1.04) | 55.8 | 0.64 |
Eu | LZ | 34.61 (06.33) | 13.31 (1.27) | 11.40 (1.56) | 68.3 | 0.83 |
Pi | LZ | 43.14 (17.01) | 11.8 (0.55) | 10.64 (0.78) | 56.3 | 0.50 |
Ce | MG | 24.67 (06.18) | 13.2 (2.66) | 10.93 (2.83) | 56.9 | 0.51 |
Eu | MG | 11.65 (02.79) | 9.65 (2.14) | 9.13 (2.21) | 40.8 | 0.16 |
Pi | MG | 35.45 (14.73) | 8.90 (1.20) | 7.79 (0.56) | 54.3 | 0.66 |
Ce | PD | 30.48 (15.31) | 8.08 (1.01) | 6.34 (0.70) | 59.7 | 0.64 |
Eu | PD | 10.83 (01.91) | 6.92 (0.97) | 6.10 (0.79) | 39.6 | 0.53 |
Pi | PD | 12.26 (03.88) | 5.64 (0.73) | 5.58 (0.56) | 36.0 | 0.47 |
Ce | IT | 36.86 (19.66) | 8.43 (1.20) | 6.63 (0.62) | 54.4 | 0.53 |
Eu* | IT | 65.99 (38.28) | 7.56 (1.81) | 6.40 (1.16) | 85.7 | 0.76 |
Pi | IT | 15.58 (06.18) | 5.41 (1.16) | 5.06 (0.87) | 33.7 | 0.40 |
Soil organic carbon (SOC) concentration (g kg−1) and organic carbon stocks (Mg ha−1) under the Cerrado native forest (Ce), Eucalyptus citriodora (Eu) (*Eucalyptus saligna) and Pinus elliottii (Pi) stands in four study locations in SE Brazil (LZ, MG, PD and IT).
Mean values of 30 samples; standard deviations are in brackets.
Mean values of 10 samples; standard deviations are in brackets.
Estimated through pedotransfer functions based on exponential model.
The uncertainty of the stocks estimations is expressed by the pedotransfer functions adjusted coefficients (R2).
SOC content decreased as the depth increased in the soil profile (Table 2); 81–78% of the SOC contained 50 cm depth was concentrated on the surface soil layer (data not shown). More SOC content on the surface than on deeper layers is due to soil organic inputs being mostly superficial. Furthermore, literature reports that SOC distribution in the soil profile is well explained by indirect exponential functions in temperate [31] and tropical forest soils [32]. In this study, pedotransfer functions based on the exponential model properly fitted the observed data, with coefficients varying between 0.40 and 0.83. Similar pedotransfer function coefficients, from 0.54 to 0.73, were reported in oxisols of the Western Brazilian Amazon [32]. These results reinforce the idea that exponential models are useful for carbon stock estimations [22, 30, 31, 32]. Even continuous sampling with volumetric cores could improve the models’ fit, collection at three depths is considered appropriate to SOC stocks estimation [31] and it demands significantly less field effort. The estimated SOC stocks (Table 2) match the values reported for Cerrado, Eucalyptus and Pinus plantations growing on similar soil and climatic conditions [22, 24].
Our soil bulk density values (Table 3) also fit the ranges reported in other studies conducted at Brazil [17, 22, 24, 47]. We found soil bulk density increments in plantations compared with natural Cerrado forests at every studied depth in Eucalyptus stands. At Pinus stands, we found four exceptions (the 0–5-cm depth soil layer at Luiz Antônio, the 10–25-cm and 35–50-cm depth soil layers at Mogi Guaçú and the 35–50-cm depth soil layer at Pederneiras stands) (Table 3). Increases in bulk density under Eucalyptus plantation in Cerrado soils are also reported in other studies [17, 22] suggesting soil compaction. Soil mass rather than soil volume is conserved [48]; thus, compaction could mislead SOC stock comparisons on a soil volume basis, because greater SOC stocks could be detected as a result of soil mass increments and not necessarily by carbon enrichment or gains into the solid phase of the soil. Significant differences on SOC accumulation between Eucalyptus and Cerrado soils working on a depth but not on a mass basis support this idea [22].
Treatment | Bulk density (g cm−3) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
0–5 cma | 10–25 cmb | 35–50 cmb | ||
Ce | LZ | 0.93 (0.02) | 0.85 (0.03) | 0.94 (0.09) |
Eu | LZ | 1.20 (0.04) | 1.00 (0.06) | 0.96 (0.05) |
Pi | LZ | 0.89 (0.05) | 1.01 (0.06) | 0.95 (0.03) |
Ce | MG | 1.03 (0.09) | 1.23 (0.06) | 1.12 (0.09) |
Eu | MG | 1.27 (0.06) | 1.32 (0.06) | 1.30 (0.05) |
Pi | MG | 1.15 (0.05) | 1.10 (0.13) | 1.03 (0.12) |
Ce | PD | 1.22 (0.02) | 1.40 (0.04) | 1.41 (0.02) |
Eu | PD | 1.28 (0.03) | 1.41 (0.04) | 1.44 (0.03) |
Pi | PD | 1.28 (0.06) | 1.49 (0.02) | 1.40 (0.08) |
Ce | IT | 0.86 (0.07) | 1.30 (0.11) | 1.36 (0.01) |
Eu* | IT | 1.00 (0.16) | 1.46 (0.07) | 1.38 (0.05) |
Pi | IT | 1.15 (0.10) | 1.42 (0.04) | 1.42 (0.06) |
Soil bulk density (g cm−3) under the Cerrado native forest (Ce), Eucalyptus citriodora (Eu) (*Eucalyptus saligna) and Pinus elliottii (Pi) stands in four study locations in SE Brazil (LZ, MG, PD and IT).
Mean values of 30 samples; standard deviations are in brackets.
Mean values of 10 samples; standard deviations are in brackets.
Higher values in plantations suggest compaction.
We found gains as well as losses of carbon stocks into the upper 0–30-cm depth mineral soil layer working on a soil volume basis. Under Eucalyptus plantation, we found carbon decreases at Mogi Guaçú and Pederneiras stands, but increases at Luiz Antônio and Itirapina stands. Under Pinus plantation, we found decreases of carbon on mineral soil, with a unique exception into the Luiz Antônio stand (Table 2). However, rather than providing clarity, traditional corrections for bulk density often obscure soil carbon comparison, because the corrected values reflect differences in both carbon content and soil mass [48]; indeed, proper corrections for bulk density require estimates of C stored in an equivalent soil mass [48], but we lack continuous sampling data to properly do those estimates. Detecting relatively small changes of large compartments may still prove difficult and it has been asserted that differences on carbon stocks under different land uses are usually small when compared with the uncertainties in their measurements [19, 49, 50]. Therefore, we decided to directly use the soil mass field data to a comparative approach between forest types, because the lack of information into the 5–10-cm and 25–35-cm soil layers is an error source that will mask slight changes in SOC.
Our SOC results fit the literature-reported values [17, 24]. As expected, forest type had significant effects on SOC concentration; however, responses to forest type cannot be described straightforwardly because they were dependent on soil depth and site (Table 4). There were strong SOC differences according to forest type at the soil surface layer, but the net effect varied between sites, including losses, gains and even no significant changes compared to the reference native forest (Figure 3). These results suggest that there are site-dependent determinant factors affecting surface layer SOC. At deeper layers, we found the same pattern in all studied stands: SOC concentration decreased under plantations and SOC levels were lower in the Pinus than in the Eucalyptus stands (Figure 3). At the Eucalyptus plantations, mean SOC concentration had decreased about 15% at the 10–25-cm soil layer and 10% at the 35–50-cm layer, while, under the Pinus plantations, it had decreased about 28% at the 35–50-cm layer and 21% at the 35–50-cm layer (Table 5).
Soil layer | Factor | df | F | p |
---|---|---|---|---|
0–5 cm | Site | 3 | 26.286 | *** |
Forest type | 2 | 9.642 | *** | |
Site×forest type | 6 | 30.395 | *** | |
10–25 cm | Site | 3 | 125.318 | *** |
Forest type | 2 | 44.318 | *** | |
Site × forest type | 6 | 1.968 | ns | |
35–50 cm | Site | 3 | 117.654 | *** |
Forest type | 2 | 19.321 | *** | |
Site × forest type | 6 | 1.626 | ns |
General linear model results.
Soil organic carbon (SOC) content (g kg−1) is affected by site and forest type. The significant interaction term at 0–5-cm depth soil layer indicates that the effects of forest type on surface SOC vary between sites.
*** p < 0.001, ns nonsignificant at the 0.05 level.
Soil organic carbon concentration (g kg−1) as function of forest type in three soil layers at four studied locations in SE Brazil (LZ, MG, PD and IT). “Ce” depict data for Cerrado native forest; “eu” for Eucalyptus stands; “pi” for Pinus stands. Average soil clay content is reported for every location. Graph scale differs between surface and lower layers to facilitate interpretation. Effects of fast-growing species plantation on surface SOC depends on the site. Below 10-cm soil depth, plantations lead to SOC depletion. General linear model results are reported in Table 4 and medium SOC changes in Table 5.
Treatment | Soil layer | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0–5 cm | 10–25 cm | 35–50 cm | ||||
LZ (59%) | MG (25%) | PD (15%) | IT (11%) | All sites | All sites | |
Eucalyptus | 21.8% ns | −52.8% | −64.4% | 79.0% | −15.5% | −9.8% |
Pinus | 51.8% | 43.7% | −59.8% | −57.7% | −28.3% | −20.6% |
Average soil organic carbon (SOC) concentration changes according to forest type in different soil layers in four study sites in SE Brazil (LZ, MG, PD and IT).
Nonsignificant at the 0.05 level.
Negative values indicate decreases and positive values increments. Mean site clay contents are reported in brackets.
Meta-analysis results support our findings; soil carbon stocks decline about 13% after natural forests to plantation conversion [51]. Nevertheless, the net effect depends on the type of planted species; broad tree plantation placed onto prior native forests or pastures did not affect the SOC stock, whereas pine plantations reduced SOC stocks about 12–15% [51]. Moreover, most of the soil carbon was lost under softwoods plantations (particularly Pinus radiata), while SOC accumulation was greater under deciduous hardwood or N-fixers plantations, following afforestation [52]. Although a recent review has shown consistent long-term (>300 years) decreases in SOC when primary forests are logged and harvested, it has concluded that previous results indicating lack of depletion of SOC in mineral soils subjected to harvest may have been a function of their short time frames [19]. Indeed, the effects of Eucalyptus afforestation on SOC get stronger with plantation age [18]. Furthermore, Eucalyptus effects could be related to mean annual precipitation, since SOC gains in drier sites and SOC depletions in wetter ones had been reported [18].
Our results suggest that clay content regulates SOC responses to forest management. Surface SOC concentration changes in Eucalyptus stands were more pronounced in sandy than in clay soils. The higher the clay content, the weaker the SOC changes in Eucalyptus stands at the soil surface (Table 5). At deeper layers, SOC could be related to clay content because it accompanies the texture gradient below a 10-cm soil depth (Figure 3). Similar results were reported in the same biome [17]. In tropical sandy soils, there is almost no SOC-clay adsorption; thus, the adsorption of carbon compounds released during decomposition is very weak, and SOC is more susceptible to being lost by lixiviation than in clay soils. Usually, clay soils show higher SOC content than sandy soils, and they are more difficult to modify through forest management. It can be explained by management practices, which have a greater impact on the soil OM associated with the sand fraction than on the fractions bound to clay and silt [53]. Furthermore, vegetal residues usually decompose more rapidly in sandy than in clay soils [52].
Our contrasting surface SOC results could be explained by tillage and/or soil preparation differences between sites at the initial plantation time, as no evident differences exist in climate, main soil formation processes, stand age and management practices, and differences in clay content are not related to SOC in the surface layer (see Section 3.3). Small differences in soil tillage and management practices at soil preparation time can generate significant losses of SOC, and the patterns of loss and accumulation of SOC strongly vary according to location [54]. More than 30% of the forestland and 50% of the grassland surface SOC pool variation were attributed to site variables in Ohio in the Great Lakes region of the USA [55]. Different patterns of surface SOC dynamics at each study site in Eucalyptus and Pinus stands on Cerrado soils were also reported in a previous study [17]. It concluded that the dynamics of soil OM in these stands depends on a set of environmental conditions and management practices that cannot be expected to follow an obvious and simple general tendency, particularly at surface layers where SOC is very dynamic [17]. Initial decreases in SOC after pasture to plantation conversion has been also observed and they are often attributed to site preparation [52]; however, the same study suggested that the lack of inputs into the soil (because lack of vegetation in the first years after conversion) rather than the soil disturbance during site preparation is responsible for the observed decreases.
Site preparation activities could be responsible for SOC losses at our sites. At plantation time, burning harvest residue for site preparation was the common practice and then, the SOC decreases founded in planted stands below 10-cm soil depth may be related to enhance SOC oxidation at plantation time. Activities carried out during site preparation, such as natural vegetation clearing and plowing (up to ~20-cm depth) probably lead to net SOC losses because they increase aggregates disruption and aeration as well as increase the availability of native labile organic carbon for decomposers. The particulate SOC pool, which is very sensitive to management [56], could be easily oxidized at plantation time due to soil preparation activities. The SOC pool associated with clays, which is more resistant to disruption, could be retained in the mineral soil, forming 60–70% of the actual carbon pool in the studied soils (see Section 3.3). Species richness itself could partially explain higher carbon contents in the subsoil of Cerrado forest than in plantations, since the carbon concentration per unit clay or fine silt in the subsoil has been found to be 30–35% higher in mixed than in monospecific stands in natural broad-leaved forests in Germany [57]. Other literature has reported SOC depletion in Eucalyptus and Pinus [14, 17, 21, 23] stands compared with the native Cerrado forest. Conservative practices are important at this point; for example, the adoption of minimum tillage in soil preparation in Brazil has implied significant reductions of SOC losses under plantations in the last decade [47]. Forest management is highly relevant in tropical soils where 20–40% of total SOC is related to particulate OM [8], which is the most sensitive pool to decomposition losses, and it is mainly controlled by management [56]. Not only coarse particulate SOC, but also the fine occluded fraction could have been oxidized, even in the B horizons where SOC may be less stable than is often thought [58]. Despite the fact that tropical forest plantations are often supposed to, and even designed to, sequester SOC, our study shows that significant losses still occur. However, these losses may be reduced through less intensive practices of soil preparation, such as reduced or no tillage [6, 10, 14, 17].
The SOC-clay equations fitted linear regression models; however, the relationship differed with soil depth. Clay content explained 62% of the SOC content at the 10–25 cm depth and 75% at the 35–50 cm depth, but clay and SOC levels were not related at the surface layer (0–5 cm depth) (Table 6). The SOC-clay direct relationship can be explained by SOC stabilization. Carbon is adsorbed on clay surface exchange sites, where it is protected from decomposition, lixiviation and water transport losses. Mineral fractions <20 μm are responsible for SOC physical protection because of its occlusion into microaggregates [56]. Thus, the more abundant the clay, the more protected the SOC.
Soil layer | Linear regression analysis | ||
---|---|---|---|
Adjusted model | R2 | p | |
0–5 cm | ns | ||
10–25 cm | SOC = 5.96 + 0.012 Clay | 0.62 | *** |
35–50 cm | SOC = 4.74 + 0.011 Clay | 0.75 | *** |
Soil organic carbon (SOC) and clay contents (g kg−1) linear regression analysis: adjusted models, regression coefficients (R2) and significance level (p).
The SOC-clay relationship varies with depth, being nonsignificant at the surface layer, while clay content explains 60–75% of SOC content below 10-cm soil depth.
***p < 0.001, ns nonsignificant at the 0.05 level.
In Brazilian oxisols, clay content is considered as a major controlling factor of slow SOC cycling [59] and SOC accumulation is often higher in clay than in sandy soils [17, 60]. Therefore, clay content has a strong influence on soil carbon dynamics and storage in this type of soils. Although experimental results do not always confirm the linear relationship between carbon and fine soil mineral particles [61, 62], several studies support significant relationships either with clay [8, 20] or with clay + silt [9, 30, 43, 57]. The linear relationship is related to the number of adsorption sites on the clay mineral surface per unit soil weight or volume. This linear relationship has been also reported in soils dominated by low activity clays [8]. Other authors found strong texture effects on SOC in shallow and deep soil layers but not at the surface layer [30, 57, 63]. The unclear textural effect at the surface layer found in the Cerrado biome has been related to the high particulate OM content in this layer, which would mask the interaction of humic carbon with the soil mineral matrix [30]. This explanation is plausible for the null relationship found in the surface layer in our study.
The SOC differences between the surface and the lower layers may be due to the surface SOC pool mostly containing labile forms that originated from particulate OM, which is composed of organic fragments up to 20–50 μm [8]. Below a 10-cm soil depth, the SOC pool may contain more stable forms of 20 μm or smaller in size that could be stabilized through clay association. However, the relationship between physical protection and chemical quality is not as simple. SOC recalcitrance decreases with depth have been found in Mediterranean forest soils [58]. The authors found that recognizable plant fragments constituting the free-light SOC fraction were not necessarily the youngest fraction and that the nondecomposed fraction of SOC presented intermediate degrees of recalcitrance [9].
We found higher C:N ratios in Eucalyptus and Pinus stands than in natural forests at the forest floor as well as into the surface A mineral horizon soil (Figure 4). Our data (Table 1) are in the range generally reported for tropical areas and forest [7, 64]. Commercial forest values are higher than those reported in the literature for the region [24, 37]. This discrepancy can be explained by the fertilization differences in stands managed for pulp or for timber production. Eucalyptus and Pinus stands increased mean C:N values about 1.9 times in the litter and 1.3 times in the A mineral soil (Table 1). OM C:N ratio increases are often related to the reduction in SOC quality, and they may have implications for nutrient cycling and fertility [64], especially in tropical soils where biotic factors have strong influences on decomposition dynamics [7].
Organic matter C:N ratio as a function of forest type (circles and solid line depict data for Cerrado native Forest; triangles pointing down and dotted line for Eucalyptus stands; and triangles pointing up and dashed line for Pinus stands). Forest floor (higher C values on the right side of the plot) and upper A mineral horizons (lower C values on the left side of the plot) clearly differ in C and N contents. The increasing adjusted line slope indicates low C:N ratios. Plantations lead to significant C:N increases in the forest floor and mineral A horizons (p < 0.001).
Eucalyptus and Pinus are high nutrient-use efficient species [36, 37]; they produce high biomass growing in oligotrophic soils, but their leaves have low nitrogen concentrations. We know from a previous study that, at our study sites, litter nutrient content is significantly lower in planted stands than in the control native forests [42]. We suggest that this low-quality litter production leads to SOC quality degradation, which occurs gradually with litterfall increase during plantation development. New litter and the organic substances derived from decomposition are gradually incorporated into mineral soil where they will slowly replace the original SOC. The literature reports SOC replacement in Cerrado soils under Eucalyptus and Pinus culture [22, 38] and it reports higher soil C:N ratios in eight-year-old Eucalyptus and Pinus stands than in the native forest in the same study area [20]. However, the reported differences were lower than ours, suggesting continuous longer term SOC replacement over time.
Our results indicate that SOC replacement occurred in 30 years in the A horizon to a depth of 5 cm in Cerrado soils transformed into Eucalyptus and Pinus plantations. Despite the fact that high litter C:N ratios could lead to the inhibition of decomposition [7], part of the decomposed OM is being incorporated into the mineral soil, as is shown by our topsoil C:N results. Changes in SOC C:N ratios may decrease the rates of nutrient cycling and affect the decomposer community, as indicated by diversity losses reported for various groups of soil fauna in SE Brazilian stands [65, 66].
Eucalyptus and Pinus plantations in the Brazilian wooded-savanna (Cerrado) lead to OM accumulation in the forest floor and higher litter carbon stocks, especially in Pinus stands, where mor humus-type was formed. Eucalyptus and Pinus litter showed high C:N ratios inducing OM accumulation compared to the native forest.
Eucalyptus and Pinus plantations significantly affected SOC concentration. In the surface soil layer, the effect on SOC was mediated by site-dependent factors, and a general pattern could not be identified. Gains, losses or no carbon changes with respect to the reference native Cerrado forest were observed at different sites under the same type of forestry. In lower layers (below a 10-cm soil depth), Eucalyptus and Pinus plantations lead to decreases in SOC concentration. In these subsoil soil layers, SOC was strongly related to clay content, suggesting that the particulate SOC pool was specifically oxidized by the soil preparation activities in plantations.
Eucalyptus and Pinus plantations lead to OM alterations in the forest floor and in the A mineral horizon. Plantations produced partial surface SOC replacement (down to a 5-cm soil depth) over 30 years. The new SOC has a higher C:N ratio that may cause SOC quality degradation.
According to our results, forest management practices may have strong implications for SOC pools that may offset the carbon biomass accumulation potential of plantations of fast-growing species, thus limiting their role in C sequestration and climate change mitigation. These implications are particularly critical in the case of the substitution of native forests by artificial plantations considering the possible negative consequences for biodiversity conservation.
We thank the FAPESP Foundation (Research Foundation of the State of São Paulo, Brazil) and the AECI Agency (Spanish International Cooperation Agency) for the financial support. We thank the Florestal Institute and the Botanical Institute of the State of Sao Paulo for the field support and infrastructure and the laboratory CENA (USP) staff for the support with chemical analysis. We thank Dr. Prado and Dr. Oliveira (University of Sao Paulo, Ecology Dep.) for the aid with analyses using R language. Finally, we thank Dr. Vallejo (Barcelona University, Vegetal Biology Dep.) for his useful comments.
Four hundred years back, Paracelsus stated that, “All substances are poisons; there is none which is not a poison.” If the right dose is taken, it could become a remedy, otherwise poisonous [1, 2]. The therapeutic index or ratio, i.e., LD50/ED50, tells whether the chemical is safe or not.
Poisons are generally found in cases of homicides, suicides, or accidents. They have a significant role to play as the silent weapon to destroy life mysteriously and secretively.
Every poison has almost similar action on the victim’s body. In many cases, they either stop the transfer of O2 to the tissues or create an obstacle in the respiratory system by inhibition of enzymes which are associated with the process. In this, the myoneural junction and the ganglions and synapses are the sites of action. In some cases of insecticidal poisoning, hyperexcitement of voluntary and involuntary muscles can cause death. There are four categories of action of poisons—(i) local action, (ii) remote action, (iii) local and remote actions, and (iv) general action.
Local action: Local action means direct action on the affected site of the body. Examples include irritation and inflammation in strong mineral acids and alkalis, congestion and inflammation by irritants, the effect on motor and sensory nerves, etc.
Remote action: Remote action affects the person due to absorption of that poison into the system of that person. For example, alcohol is absorbed in the system and then it affects the person.
Local and remote actions: Some poisons can affect both local and remote organs. Thus, they not only affect the area with contact to the poison but also cause toxic effect after absorption into the system, for example, oxalic acid.
General action: General action means the absorbed poison affects more than one system of the body, for example, mercury, arsenic, etc.
Toxicity of a poison depends upon its inherent properties such as physiochemical as well as pharmacological properties.
The action of poisons mainly depends upon the following factors discussed below:
Forms of poison: There are three forms of poison:
Physical form: Gaseous/volatile/vaporous forms of poisons act faster than liquid poisons as they are quickly absorbed. Similarly, liquid poisons act faster than solid poisons.
Gaseous or volatile > liquid > solid.
For solid poisons, powdered poisons act quickly than the lumps. For example, there are certain seeds that escape the gastrointestinal tract as they are solid, but when crushed, they can be fatal.
For solids: powdered > lumps
Chemical form: Few substances like mercury or arsenic are not poisonous as they are insoluble and cannot be absorbed when they are in combination with other substances like mercuric chloride, arsenic oxide, etc.
In other cases, the action is vice versa. For example, there are some substances that become inert in combination with silver nitrate and hydrochloric acid and are deadly and poisonous when present in pure forms.
Mechanical combination: The effect of poisons is significantly altered when they are combined with inert substances.
Quantity: Large doses of toxin cause much lethal effect. But this statement is not always true. For example, sometimes when a toxin is taken in very large amount, the body produces a mechanism against it such as vomiting, and thus the intensity of the toxin is reduced.
Concentration: The absorption speed of poison is dependent on concentration; thus poison of higher concentration is fatal. However, there are still some exceptions. For example, a dilute oxalic acid is less corrosive, but the absorption rate is high and so it is more dangerous.
Methods of administration: It has a unique role in the process of absorption. It is fastest through inhalation and then through injection as compared to the oral mode.
Condition of the body: Different persons react differently when exposed to a poison. It is because the condition of our body is also responsible for the increase or decrease of the effect of a poison on the body:
Age: Children and older people are more affected than an adult by the same quantity of toxin.
Sleep: The body functions are slower during sleep; thus toxin circulation in the body is also slower.
Health: Healthy persons can tolerate a toxin better than a weak or ill person.
Dosage: The effect of the poison depends upon its dosage. It is said that the dose determines whether a substance is a poison or remedy. A substance is usually considered a poison after a certain fixed quantity. Although this quantity is not fixed for all people, it is considered according to the average effect on the population. There are two considerable effects of poison on the body of a person; these are the subtle long-term chronic toxicity and immediate fatality.
Some poisons are lethal in microquantities, while others can affect in large doses. The significance of a dose can be understood by taking an example of a metal essential in the food, for example, iron, copper, manganese, zinc, etc.; if its dose is higher than the body requires, it can be lethal.
Effective dose (ED): The effective dose is the quantity of a substance at which it shows its effect in the population. In most cases, ED50 is measured as a dose which induces a response in half of the targeted population.
Lethal dose: The lethal dose (LD) 50 is the amount of drug which is expected to cause death of 50% population.
Hypersensitivity: It is basically the type of reaction initiated by the body against any other substances. Sometimes, it could be related to allergy. There is an assumption that hypersensitivity does not depend on wrong doses. Every person who is hypersensitive to a particular substance has a dose related that defines the quantity required to cause hypersensitivity to that person. The allergic response is actually a toxic response and can be sometimes fatal.
Idiosyncrasy: It is defined as a reaction produced by the body to a chemical genetically. It is a type of person that affects only those people who are genetically sensitized to that particular chemical or substance but will show no effect on others. In such cases, the person experiences discomfort for several hours or if the dose is high can be fatal also. For example- peanut allergy in some people.
Tolerance: It is the capability of a person to not produce any effect against a chemical that usually causes reaction to normal persons. It is a state of reduced or no reaction to a chemical. There are basically two types of mechanism that induces tolerance. First is when the toxin reaches the effective site, its quantity is very less. This is called dispositional tolerance. The second is because the tissues show reduced response to the toxin.
Tolerance can also be achieved if a drug is taken in a small quantity on a regular basis. This can be explained by taking the example of alcohol. When any human consume alcohol for the first time, he/she will show an effect even when the quantity is small, but eventually the effect will decrease and the person can tolerate a large amount also.
Individual susceptibility: It is defined as the different kinds of responses produced by different individuals to a particular harmful compound. It can be due to occupational or environmental factors and exposures. It is determined by complex genetic factors. Its effect depends upon the intensity of exposure. There is a gene uniqueness that varies from person to person; thus the same amount of exposure can show no effect in one individual, cause illness to other individual, and also could be fatal to someone as well.
The route of administration is the path through which a drug, toxin, or poison is taken or administered into the body of a person which is distinguished by the location where any drug is applied. It is mostly classified on the basis of its target:
Topical—which has a local effect
Enteral—which has a wide effect, i.e., affect the whole system
Parental—which follows a systemic action
Poisons are given or taken so that death can occur at once by shock due to stoppage of body’s vital systems. Drug addicts take drugs through inhalation or injection.
Route of administration plays a very important role in determination of death by poison as time in which death occurs are fastest in inhaled poisons, relatively slow in injected and lastly when ingested orally.
Some important features that are considered during the administration of poisons and can make a poison fatal are:
Rate of dissolution of the poison that depends upon the physical form of the poison, i.e., gaseous, vapors, liquid, solid, etc.
The surface area affected at the site of administration of the poison
The circulation rate of blood in that route
The solubility of the poison, i.e., lipid soluble or water soluble
The concentration of the poison
The time required by the poison to be absorbed completely from the site of administration
Routes of administration can be classified into two categories:
Enteral routes/gastrointestinal routes.
Parenteral routes.
Enteral routes: When the drug is administered through the gastrointestinal tract, it is defined as an enteral route. It has both oral and rectal routes. It also includes sublingual and sublabial routes. It is comparatively a slower mode of action for absorption of drugs:
Oral route: Generally absorption takes place in the tongue and the gums of the oral passage. The pH of the buccal cavity and mouth ranges from 4 to 5. Sublingual and supralingual routes have a significant role in absorption. The sublingual absorption is faster as the toxin is transformed directly to the heart, but it takes more time.
Rectal route: Administration of drugs can be done through anus which directly absorbed in bloodstream through membrane of mucous. This administration can cause the burning of tissues or bleeding in rectum as the area is very sensitive.
Parental route: It includes all the other routes that does not involve the gastrointestinal tract. It has a systemic effect on the body. It has the following categories of administration:
Intradermal: Here, the administration of drugs takes place from surface of skin. This type of poisoning is mostly found in chronic poisoning cases.
Intravenous: It is one of the fastest modes of drug administration as the injection is directly taken and the drug is transferred directly into the veins and thus is directly circulated into the blood quickly. Immediate death might be caused by this type of drug.
Intraosseous: It involves an administration of a drug directly into the bone marrow. This mode is actually used for administration of drugs for medical purposes.
Intra-arterial: It involves an administration of a drug into the artery directly through injection. It is a fast mode of administration.
Intramuscular: In this mode, the drug or poison is administered into the muscle of the thigh, upper arm, or buttock. The time required in this mode is greater than other parental modes.
Subcutaneous: In this mode, the drug is injected into the layer beneath the skin, i.e., the subcutaneous layer. The drug then goes to the small blood vessels and then to the bloodstream. This mode is used for mostly those protein drugs that would be destroyed if administered through the gastrointestinal tract.
Inhalation: In this mode, the nose is the primary path. Because of the presence of mucous membrane, the nasal aperture is very absorptive. The microparticles of poisons are easily absorbed and transported quickly to the lungs. From the lungs, they are circulated into the blood.
Poisons are classified into two ways:
Based on their action on the body.
Based on their physical and chemical properties [1].
Classification based upon the effect of poison on the body:
Corrosive: The poisons burn the tissues or organs when they come in contact with them, e.g.:
Strong acids such as H2SO4, HNO3, HCL, etc.
Strong alkalis such as hydroxides of Na, K, NH4, etc.
Irritants: The poisons irritate the tissues or organs when they come in contact with them [3]:
Inorganic:
Nonmetallic phosphorous, chlorine, bromine, iodine, etc.
Metallic salts of arsenic, antimony, mercury, copper, lead, zinc, etc.
Organic:
Vegetable—castor oil, madar, croton oil, etc.
Animals—snake venom, cantharides, insect bites, etc.
Mechanical—glass powder, needles, diamond dust, hair, etc.
Neurotics: Poisons affect the nervous system and the brain [3]:
Cerebral:
Narcotic—opium and its alkaloids
Inebriant (depressant)—alcohol, ether, chloroform, and chloral hydrate
Spinal:
Excitant (stimulants)—nux vomica and strychnine
Depressant—gelsemium
Cardiorespiratory:
Cardiac—aconite, digitalis, oleander, and hydrocyanic acid (HCN)
Asphyxiants—carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide
Miscellaneous: A number of chemicals having diverse actions on their body are included in this group [4]:
Animal poisons
Curare (an arrow poison)
Poisonous food articles
Industrial poisons—methyl isocyanate (MIC)
Fuels—petroleum and kerosene
Insecticides—endrin, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), and
naphthalene
Radioactive substances
Classification of poisons based upon their properties:
Inorganic poisons
Metallic poisons:
Arsenic: It has been the most known and exclusively used throughout
the ages to poison men and animals [1].
It is a white tasteless powder and a pinch of the poisons can kill two adult persons.
Arsenic for homicidal purposes is mixed with various food articles, e.g., cooked food, milk, tea, liquors, or medicines.
Arsenic in a metal form is not poisonous; its oxides are highly poisonous. It is extensively used in insecticides, etc. [5].
Mercury: Chloride and nitrites of mercury are highly poisonous. They
are used in chemical industry and as fungicides.
Lead: Most of its compounds are poisonous. This is a slow poison,
e.g., Sindoor adulterated with red lead oxide.
Copper: Its salts are used in electroplating; copper sulfate is a poison.
Thallium: Thallium salt is used as rat poison [6].
Antimony: Its effect is like that of arsenic.
Nonmetallic poisons:
Cyanides: Cyanides of potassium and sodium are extremely
poisonous, even in small quantities. They react with the acid of
gastric juices in the stomach to form hydrocyanic acid, which
paralyzes the respiratory center in the brain resulting in death due to
respiratory failure [4].
Yellow phosphorus: In olden days it was used in match industry and
several times proved highly poisonous.
Iodine: Only elemental iodine in high quantity is poisonous.
Strong acids and alkalis: These are highly poisonous with corrosive
effects, e.g., sulfuric acid, nitric acid, sodium, potassium
hydroxides, etc.
Gases: Phosphine gas kills rats when used on the rat holes and is
poisonous for infants. MIC killed over 2000 persons and invalidated
several others in a gas leak tragedy in Bhopal in 1984. Some other
poisonous gases are HCN, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide,
arsine, etc. [3].
Organic poisons
Volatile poisons:
Ethyl alcohol: It is poisonous if taken in excess.
Other alcohols: Methyl alcohol and isopropyl alcohol are poisonous.
Methanol, used in polish and chemical industries, is used in illicit
liquor, and its intake causes paralysis, blindness, and death [3].
Phenol: Phenol or carbolic acid could be poisonous. It is mostly used
as a disinfectant [6].
Miscellaneous substances: Various industrial chemicals like
chlorinated hydrocarbons, benzene, chloral hydrate, etc. are
poisonous. In several cases of poisoning, chloral hydrate could be
used in illicit liquors.
Nonvolatile substances:
Alkaloids: Several narcotics and vegetable poisons contain alkaloids,
e.g., strychnine, morphine, cocaine, nicotine, etc.
Barbiturates: These drugs are synthetic and induce sleep [1].
Glycosides: These drugs can cause cardiac arrest and could be fatal
such as aconite, oleander digitalis, etc.
Insecticides and pesticides
Poisoning: It is known as the injurious effect caused by the action of a poison or a detrimental chemical substance. It leads to the development of adverse reaction toward the harmful chemicals or drugs. It is basically differentiated in three categories: suicidal, homicidal, and accidental. Cattle poisoning is the poisoning related to animals. Accidental poisoning is caused by negligence and carelessness. Homicidal poisoning includes the killing of a person due to the poison. Suicidal poisoning refers to the use of toxic chemicals in order to kill oneself.
Corrosive poisoning: It is caused by poisons such as acids and alkalis. They produce a corrosive action on the human body by causing ulcers and acute inflammation.
Metallic poisoning: Metals such as arsenic, mercury, lead, etc., when ingested, cause a deleterious effect. This is known as metallic poisoning.
Plant poison: The study of plant poisons is known as phytotoxicology. Plant poisons, or phytotoxins, comprise a vast range of biologically active chemical substances, such as alkaloids, polypeptides, amines, glycosides, oxalates, resins, toxalbumins, etc.
An alcohol is a drink that contains ethanol. Ethanol is made by fermentation of grains, fruits, and some resources of sugar. Chemically, it is a group of compounds whose saturated carbon chain has a “-OH” group. Alcohol is also a depressant, and in low dose, it can reduce tension, cause euphoria, and improve sociability, but in high dose it can cause stupor, drunkenness, and even death. Regular alcohol intake can cause cancer, alcoholism, dependency, etc. 33% of the total people in the world consumes alcohol. Drinks containing alcohol are broadly classified into three classes, i.e., beer, spirit, and wine, whose alcohol content varies between 3% and 50%. When diluted, alcohol has nearly sweet taste, but when concentrated it gives a burning sensation. 90% of the absorbed alcohol is metabolized by the liver and broken down into less toxic metabolites. Alcohol acts on the central nervous system (CNS) as a depressant on the cells of the cerebral cortex. Its adverse effects like a decrease in cognitive and psychomotive skills are well documented. Alcohol percentage (ABV) differs from one brand to another, for example, beers contain 5%, wines contain typically 13.5%, fortified wines contain 15–22%, spirits contain 30–40%, fruit juice contains less than 0.1%, and cider/wine coolers contain 4–8% ABV [1].
The goal of blood alcohol test is to check the concentration of alcohol in the body. This test result is known as blood alcohol concentration (BAC) which indicates alcohol % in the blood. It is directly proportional to the alcohol in the body, and alcohol hinders with people’s decision, control on them and other characteristics [3]. This test can tell the presence of alcohol in blood for 12 hours [4]. Blood quickly absorbs alcohol and is measured within minutes of consuming alcoholic drink. The highest level of BAC result can be reached within an hour of consuming alcohol. Intake of food can vary the result. Liver breaks down almost 90% of alcohol and rest are given out from exhalation and urine [5].
In case of deaths due to alcoholic intoxication, the viscera is collected and preserved in saturated saline. Preservation of sample is very important as if wrongly preserved it can ruin the examination. Generally, urine and blood are taken as samples.
A sterile needle must be cleaned up by the swab of a nonalcoholic disinfectant like aqueous mercuric chloride and aqueous benzalkonium chloride (Zephiran) before the suspect’s skin is punctured with it. The use of an alcoholic disinfectant either may give false-positive results or may contribute to falsely high alcohol contents of blood. About 5–10 ml of the sample (blood) is taken in a test tube; an anticoagulant such as potassium oxide and EDTA and a preservative such as NaF are added and stored in the refrigerator at 40°C. The anticoagulant will prevent blood from clotting, and the preservative will inhibit the presence of microorganisms. The urine sample is also collected in the usual manner and preserved with 30 mg of phenyl mercuric nitrate for every 10 ml of urine [6].
Ethyl alcohol is isolated from biological materials by acid distillation. Viscera, vomit, stomach contents, and other materials should be analyzed separately. About 50–100 g of the viscera is taken and is finally minced by thin gruel and adding water (3–5 times) and sulfuric acid. It is passed to steam distillation which is generally heating it on the water bath. The condenser and the receiving flask should be well cooled with ice especially in the hot season, the outlet of the condenser being dipped in little water or NaOH solution. Some pieces of pumice stone are stored in the flask to avoid bumping. It is better to collect the distillate in 4–5 fractions, out of which the first one should not exceed 20 ml and the remaining fractions should be 50 ml each. The distillate contains alcohol and other volatile acids, etc. [6].
There are some tests which show the presence of ethyl alcohol in the exhibits.
Also known as triiodomethane reaction, it is used in the detection of CH3CH (OH) which is present in alcohol. There are mainly two types of different mixtures used in this reaction which are mainly chemically equivalent. A pale yellow precipitate occurs if the result is positive [6].
In the above structure, “R” can be hydrogen or alkyl group or any other hydrocarbon group. In case when R denotes hydrogen, then the compound we have the possibility to find is primary alcohol ethanol. Ethanol is the only alcohol that gives an iodoform reaction. In case R is any hydrocarbon group, then it gives secondary alcohol groups. Tertiary alcohol is not able to contain R group because of the absence of hydrogen atom [7].
In 1 ml of distillate, a few drops of 10% NaOH are added dropwise till the solution becomes brown and warmed for a few minutes. A few drops of iodoform solution are added to change the color to yellow. The mixture has to be again heated on low flame/water bath; a yellow-colored precipitate is formed on standing. The precipitate has to be observed under a microscope. Characteristic hexagonal crystals of iodoform are seen which usually shows the presence of ethanol, acetaldehyde, isopropanol which on standing for long time breaks into flower like structure. This test initially involves oxidation followed by substitution and hydrolysis [6].
Add 1 gm of molybdic acid in 25 ml of a concentrated sulfuric acid which has the reagent. Mix 2 ml of this reagent when hot and with 2 ml of distillate. At the junction of both liquids, a ring will be formed which is deep blue in color. On shaking, the whole mixture will become deep blue which is due to ethyl alcohol. This test is very sensitive and it gives a negative result with acetone, acetaldehyde, and dilute solution of methyl alcohol. Only the strong solution of methyl alcohol gives a light blue color after several minutes [6].
Mix two drops of benzoyl chloride with 2 ml of the distillate. Add 10% of sodium hydroxide drop by drop till the solution becomes alkaline. By providing heat the irritating smell of benzoyl chloride will be replaced by sweet fruity odor of ethyl benzoate. Methyl alcohol gives this test also but not the iodoform test [6].
In case of drunkenness, alcohol detection in the body is very important. Observing behavioral abnormalities of the suspect is the best method, but analyzing the breath, blood, and urine is the only way of confirming it. The analysis of breath alcohol can be performed on the spot with the help of breath-analyzer instruments like Alco-Sensor, Breathalyzer, etc. However, the alcohol content of the blood could be determined by using the modified version of the Kozelka and Hine/Cavett method [6].
In recent years, several methods in determining the alcohol in body fluids are described. Kent-Jones and Taylor reported the results of an investigation into the merits of two methods—the micro Cavett and that of Kozelka and Hine. The micro Cavett method is more accurate, but it suffered from serious inconsistencies in reproducibility, but the Kozelka and Hine method is less accurate and more time-consuming but gives good reproducibility.
Nickolls modified the micro Cavett method which appears to give a more accurate result in comparison with the unmodified method. The simplicity of this procedure increases its use for routine work in laboratory [8].
The principle behind this method is the oxidation of alcohol, which is easy with acetic acid in the presence of oxidizing agents such as sulfuric acid and potassium dichromate. Reduction of each mL of N/20 potassium dichromate solution takes place that is equivalent to 0.575 mg of alcohol [6].
This formula is used to estimate the amount in which alcohol is present in the body.
a. For blood analysis
Here, a = Total amount of alcohol absorbed in the body; p = Weight of the person; c = Concentration of alcohol in the blood; r = Constant which is 0.5 in women and 0.68 in men
b. In urine analysis.
Here, a = Total alcohol content present in the body; p = Total weight of the person; q = Alcohol concentration in the urine; r = Constant, namely, 0.68 for men and 0.5 in women [6].
There are several methods in determining ethanol in the blood, urine, and serum. One of the most important methods is gas chromatography (GC). The sample is injected in a heating chamber, and due to its high temperature, alcohol converts in vapors which are carried by inert carrier gas such as nitrogen through the column which is packed by an adsorbent material. Separation of different types of components depends on their different affinity, i.e., partition coefficient toward adsorbent phase which is stationary and later detected as shown in the figure below. A chromatogram so obtained helps in qualitative as well as quantitative analysis [6].
Various components of gas chromatography are [9]:
Carrier gas
Flow regulator
Injector
Column
Stationary phase
Oven
Detectors
Display device
The area covered by the peak represents the amount and position of a particular type of compound [6].
Operating conditions [10]:
Column: Porapak polymer bead 80–100 mesh or its equivalent, which can separate or resolve the ethanol.
Column temperature: 1600°C.
Carrier gas: Nitrogen.
Rate of gas flow: 50 ml/minute.
Detector: Flame ionization detector.
Alternative operating conditions:
Column: 0.3% Carbowax 20 M on 80–100 mesh Carbopak C, 2 m × 2 mm ID or its equivalent.
Column temperature: 350°C for 2 minutes and then programmed at 50°C per minute to 1750°C and hold for at least 8 minutes.
Carrier gas: Nitrogen at 30 ml/minute [6].
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the mode of action and function of poisons once they reached in the human body. The impacts of poisons are severe and even cause death if not treated properly.
IntechOpen publishes different types of publications
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