Environmental and social sustainability impacts of urban transport modes.
\r\n\t"
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc796459268324e827219d1d904e4265",bookSignature:"Prof. Moulay Tahar Lamchich",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7196.jpg",keywords:"Induction motor, smart motor, electrical vehicles, energy generation, drives, electromechanical, hybrid transportation, smart control, high efficiency motor, variable speed drives, power electronic, energy efficiency.",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 4th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 25th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 23rd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 12th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 10th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"21932",title:"Prof.",name:"Moulay Tahar",middleName:null,surname:"Lamchich",slug:"moulay-tahar-lamchich",fullName:"Moulay Tahar Lamchich",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/21932/images/system/21932.png",biography:"Moulay Tahar Lamchich is a Professor at the Faculty of Sciences Semlalia at Marrakech (Morocco). He completed his thesis in electromechanics in September 1991 and received his third cycle degree. Dr. Lamchich received his Ph.D. from the same university in July 2001. His main activity is based on short-circuit mechanical effects in substation structures, control of different types of machine drives, static converters, active power filters. In the last decennia, his research interests have included renewable energies, particularly the control and supervision of hybrid and multiple source systems for decentralized energy production, and intelligent management of energy. He has published more than fifty technical papers in reviews and international conferences. With IntechOpen, he has published two chapters and was editor of the books “Torque Control” and “Harmonic Analysis”. He is also the director of the “Intelligent management of energy and information systems” laboratory and supervising more than ten thesis projects.",institutionString:"University Cadi Ayyad",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Cadi Ayyad University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Morocco"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"270941",firstName:"Sandra",lastName:"Maljavac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270941/images/7824_n.jpg",email:"sandra.m@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"108",title:"Torque Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"torque-control",bookSignature:"Moulay Tahar Lamchich",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/108.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"21932",title:"Prof.",name:"Moulay Tahar",surname:"Lamchich",slug:"moulay-tahar-lamchich",fullName:"Moulay Tahar Lamchich"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6173",title:"Compendium of New Techniques in Harmonic Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"39a6df08251bdf1771d2921b3b7386b6",slug:"compendium-of-new-techniques-in-harmonic-analysis",bookSignature:"Moulay Tahar Lamchich",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6173.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"21932",title:"Prof.",name:"Moulay Tahar",surname:"Lamchich",slug:"moulay-tahar-lamchich",fullName:"Moulay Tahar Lamchich"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"62848",title:"Botulinum Toxin Adverse Events",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79761",slug:"botulinum-toxin-adverse-events",body:'Botulinum toxin is a neurotoxic protein produced by the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium botulinum. There are seven types of distinct botulinum toxin and are indicated with the alphabet letters: A, B, C, D, E, F, and G [1].
Recently, a novel botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT/X) has been identified [2] and the first botulinum-like toxin outside the Clostridia family has been described [3].
The currently used in esthetic medicine is botulinum toxin type A (BoNT-A). It is used for wrinkles of expression and for those dynamic wrinkles linked to the hypertonia of mimic muscles [4]. Botulinum toxin acts at the level of the neuromuscular junction (motor endplate) blocking the release and effects of acetylcholine, an ester of acetic acid and choline, responsible for neurotransmission both at the central nervous system (CNS) level and at the peripheral nervous system (SNP) level. The enzyme acetylcholineesterase, present in the presynaptic nerve endings, continuously hydrolyses the acetylcholine which is then immediately resynthesized and stored through an active transport mechanism by means of a specific carrier protein, within synaptic cholinergic vesicles of storage. Within these cytosolic vesicles, acetylcholine is transported to the presynaptic region of the neuron (synaptic button) where it waits for the ionic signal (calcium ions) to release its role as a neurotransmitter [1].
Acetylcholine is normally released into the synaptic space trough a potential action that, by following the axon of the neuron at the last termination level of the final arborization of the axon, determines the opening of voltage-dependent ion channels: the channels of calcium. The calcium ions, present in the synaptic space, penetrate inside the synaptic button and start the realizing process of ACh into the synaptic space where it acts on specific receptors (ACh receptors). ACh receptors are located on the postsynaptic cell membrane of the muscle fibrocell, which are of two types: nicotinic and muscarinic. Interacting with ACh receptors, the neurotransmitter achieves its effects by determining, at the postsynaptic level, the opening of sodium-potassium ion channels through which the sodium ions penetrate into the muscle fibrocell which, thus, initiate muscle contraction. Immediately afterward, ACh is hydrolyzed by acetylcholinesterase. By inhibiting the release of acetylcholine, botulinum toxin interferes with the nervous impulse and causes a flaccid paralysis of the muscles. Botulinum toxin is in fact a real muscle relaxant [4].
Botulin toxin is a double-chain polypeptide consisting of a heavy chain and a light chain. The former has a molecular weight of 100 KDa while the latter has a molecular weight of 50 KDa. The heavy chain is linked to the light chain via sulfide bridges. The two chains perform different functions. The heavy chain binds to a receptor on the cell membrane of the synaptic button, the SV2 receptor, and begins the endocytosis phenomenon through which the botulinum toxin enters into the synaptic button. The heavy chain works like a sort of light chain conveyor [5].
Once penetrated into the synaptic button, the botulinum toxin releases the light chain that can perform its protease function capable of hydrolyzing the proteins of the SNARE complex (SNAP-25, syntaxin, synaptobrevin) of the neuromuscular junction preventing the release of ACh from synaptic vesicles [6].
The proteins of the SNARE complex play a crucial role in the release of ACh, because they favor the fusion between the membrane of the synaptic vesicles in which the acetylcholine and the membrane of the synaptic button are stored. The protein that is hydrolyzed is SNAP-25, and in this way, the fusion between the synaptic vesicle membrane in which the acetylcholine and the synaptic membrane are crammed is made impossible, and it is for this reason that the acetylcholine cannot be released into the synaptic space of the motor plate and the characteristic flaccid paralysis of the treated muscles is determined [7].
In 1980, botulin toxin was first described and used by ophthalmologists in humans for the treatment of strabismus [8], while its esthetic use was first reported in 1992 by Carruthers and Carruthers [9].
The most widespread toxin in the world has the trade name of Botox. Botox for esthetic use are called:
Vistabel® 50 U (corresponding to Botox® used in pathology); the storage of the solution requires a temperature between 2 and 8°C, because the toxin is thermolabile. According to the technical sheet, it is maintained for up to 4 hours. According to some scientific works, in 12 hours, the effect is reduced to 50%. According to other works, the effect remains intact for 6 weeks. When inserting the needle into the bottle, the syringe must be sucked: this is a sort of test to verify that the product is actually under vacuum and has therefore been stored correctly;
Azzalure® 125 U (corresponding to the Dysport® used in pathology); and
Bocouture® 50 U (corresponding to Xeomin® used in pathology) is a bare toxin (not a complex protein like the previous ones). Units are not equivalent. The conversion rate is 2.5 (1 U Vistabel or Bocouture = 2.5 U Azzalure). Bocouture not requires the cold chain; it is stored at room temperature (0–25°) for 3 years and presents less risk of allergies as albumin is absent in the commercial preparation [10].
In the last 20 years, the therapeutic spectrum of botulinum toxin has greatly increased. BoNT-A has been used for a wide range of established and emerging applications grouped into the following categories:
In 2002, AIFA authorized the esthetic use of BoNT-A with the following indication: “Temporary improvement of vertical wrinkles, moderate to severe, between eyebrows to wrinkling, in adults aged <65 years, when the severity of such wrinkles has an important psychological impact on the patient.” Although this is the only indication for esthetic use approved by the regulatory authority, many physicians use the toxin in off-label mode at injection sites other than those approved, in particular for periocular and frontal wrinkles [14]. Actually, botulinum toxin is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for esthetic use in the treatment of:
axillary hyperhidrosis,
glabellar lines, and
lateral canthal lines.
The dynamic rhytides of the upper third of the face are the best indication of botulinum toxin [15, 16].
These dynamic wrinkles depend on both the muscle factor and the photoaging. If the muscle factor (young subject) predominates and if the skin is fine, you can hope for a good result; if photoaging is predominant (older subject) and if the skin is thick, the result is less good. Despite the apparent ease of injections, the correction of these glabellar wrinkles in particular requires a good understanding of the anatomy and function of the fur muscles of the region. It is necessary to respect the depression/elevator balance, which is not the same for each face, and the type of frowning to choose the appropriate doses and to respect the recommended injection points (Figure 1) [17].
Fronto-orbital balance of the eyebrows: levator muscles and depressor muscles. The fronto-orbital balance clarifies botulinum toxin action: relaxing of the frontalis muscle determines a strength increase of depressor muscles, with possible ptosis. Instead, relaxing of the depressor muscles causes a strength increase of the frontalis.
Side effects are essentially related to active ingredient of the drug and are referred to both therapeutic and esthetic use.
Regarding the side effects related to the drug, those most frequently reported are:
injection of high doses of this drug (more than 200 units in every injection); and
booster within less than 1 month is dangerous [18].
Side effects of this treatment are rare, but can include bruising, headache, allergic reactions due to allergy to human albumin or sodium chloride present as an excipient in the drug, facial and palpebral edema, injection site pain, eye pain, erythema, psoriasis, skin infections, vertigo, nausea, fever, blepharitis, xerostomia, respiratory virosis, itching, asthenia, muscle weakness, psychiatric disorders, and pneumonia ab ingestis ineffectiveness of the drug (the formation of antibodies against botulinum toxin neutralizes the effect of the toxin itself).
In many cases, side effects can be minimized by lower injection doses [19].
In esthetic, the dose of use is between 6 and 400 units; the maximum dose is between 400 and 600 U; the LD50 or toxic dose is between 2500 and 3000 U.
The most common reported side effects are mild and transient, and include injection site discomfort, erythema, bruising, temporary headaches, and rarely, prolonged migraine headaches [20].
A recent study on the safety of botulinum toxin described that the treatment-related adverse events were:
eylid ptosis,
brow ptosis,
eye sensory disorders in the upper face,
lip asymmetries, and
imbalances in the lower face [18].
Eyelid ptosis is due to the interference with the function of the upper eyelid levator muscle. It can mainly occur when there is an excessive diffusion of the toxin to the frontalis muscle. It is therefore necessary to avoid high dosage, to inject slowly and firmly to press the eyeball with a free finger to prevent any possible diffusion of the drug into the orbital area. Eyelid ptosis appears after the 2nd day and can last from 1 to 2 months. Therapy is based on the administration of an eyedrop (Iopidine®) based on apraclonidine (α-adrenergic) which causes, in addition to mydriasis, the contraction stimulation of the Muller muscle of the upper eyelid, resulting in elevation of the lash margin (Figure 2) [21].
Schematic representation of eyelid ptosis complication of BoNT-A administration: uilateral eyelid ptosis.
Eyelid ptosis is connected with the unwanted diffusion of the product toward the eyelid lift if the corrugator has been injected too low and too far outside. This complication is always feared, even if exceptional for an experienced operator, and hardly dissipates before 4–6 weeks. A possible asymmetry of the eyebrows can be corrected secondarily if it is an excessive and/or asymmetrical lift, while the lowering is more difficult to modify. The frontal muscle should not be injected too low, especially in men who already have eyebrows and a fairly low forehead [22, 23].
Lateral brow ptosis is due to chemodenervation of the frontal leaflet and therefore the orbicularis muscle of the eyes (pars superior) pulls down the lateral third of the eyebrow.
Medial brow ptosis can occur after excess of dosage or injections too low in the frontal muscle. Prevention consists of the injections at least 2 cm above the orbital rim.
Lateral brow elevation (mephisto sign) is caused by a compensatory contraction of the lateral portion of the frontal muscle. The remedy consists in the botulinum toxin treatment of the external portion of the frontalis muscle [24, 25].
A full blockage of the frontal mimic muscles can be avoided with intradermal injections to obtain a better distribution of botulinum toxin and with lower concentration in the underlying muscular tissue [26].
A scleral show, greater evidence of sclera, can be verified after a functional deficit of the eye’s orbicularis (pars inferior) following interference with the function of this muscle.
Ectropion, anomalous reversal toward the outside of the lower eyelid, is due to functional deficit of the orbicularis muscle of the eye (pars inferior) for chemodenervation of the orbicularis muscle.
A strabismus, deviation of the visual axes, is caused by the malfunction of the extrinsic oculomotor muscles (lateral rectus) with consequent inability of binocular representation at the retinal level.
Diplopia is caused by the involvement of the lateral rectus muscle through the diffusion of the toxin inside of the secondary orbitary cavity with inoculation too deep and close to the margin orbital. Temporary monolateral ocular bandage may be useful (Figure 3) [27, 28, 29].
Schematic representation of diplopia complication of BoNT-A.
Smile asymmetry is due to the toxin diffusion into the nearby zygomaticus major muscle and asymmetry of mouth mobility is caused by the blockage of the zygomatic muscle with ptosis of the lip (Figure 4).
Schematic representation of asymmetry of mouth mobility of BoNT-A administration.
Difficulty in whistling occurs after a functional deficit of the orbicular muscle of the mouth. Incidence may be reduced using diluted doses of botulinum toxin [30, 31].
Botulinum toxin is often interesting to mitigate the fold of the marionette, which gives the face a sad and aged appearance, injecting the depressor of the corner of the mouth, which lowers the labial commissures. The injection must be low to prevent the lips from spreading to the orbicularis [32].
At the neck, the attraction through the posterior platysmal cords of the area in which the falling cheeks are delineated can be attenuated by the Nefertiti lift, injecting two or three small doses along the posterior platysmal chord and the mandibular edge. The anterior and posterior platysmal chords can be mitigated by small doses of botulinum toxin, injected every 2 cm, pinching and attracting the rope forward [33, 34].
All of these events resolved spontaneously maybe dose-dependent and were attributed to local diffusion of BoNT into adjacent areas [35].
Serious adverse events related to the cosmetic use of botulinum toxin include thyroid eye disease in a patient with Graves hyperthyroidism, sarcoidal granuloma, pseudoaneurysm of the frontal branch of the superior temporal artery, and respiratory damage [36, 37, 38, 39].
Recent studies demonstrate that BoNT trafficking is not restricted to the neuromuscular junction, but also involves internalization of the toxin by spinal cord motor neurons and fast axonal retrograde transportation. Toxin’s effect is sometimes observed beyond the site of local injection. Major adverse events can include:
death,
anaphylaxis,
dysphagia,
respiratory insufficiency, and
muscle weakness.
These systemic events are rare and observed only at high dosages or in patients with underlying medical conditions predisposing to the complications [40, 41, 42, 43, 44].
Bahtia et al. reported on three patients in whom treatment of their dystonia with therapeutic doses of botulinum toxin resulted in clinical muscle weakness distant from the site of injections. It may be speculated that repeated injections at intervals of 10–12 weeks as in their patients may have an impact on toxin binding and diffusion. In fact, according to authors, the cause is most likely presynaptic inhibition due to systemic spread of the toxin [45]. Even in the case of repeated blepharospasm treatments with BoNT-A, an induction of acute myasthenic crisis has been demonstrated [46].
Systemic adverse events have been reported at the time of botulinum toxin A injection (6% injection episodes) and at follow-up (22% injection episodes) in children with cerebral palsy (CP), and children in Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) levels IV and V have increased rates of systemic adverse events [47].
Tugnoli et al. describes a first case of generalized muscular weakness associated with signs of systemic cholinergic autonomic impairment who was treated with 1400 U of BoNT-A for axillary and palmar hyperhidrosis. The authors assert that this case is consistent with a mild but diffuse Botulism-like syndrome, probably related to the high BoNT-A doses uses and to numerous intradermal injections and the slight build of their patient [48].
All these data demonstrate the possible risk of unwanted adverse effects due to spreading of the toxin [42].
In the diffusion phenomena, the concentration gradient and the BoNT molecular size determine the movement of the toxin beyond the immediate injection site through Brownian motion even if these muscles are separated by fasciae. In migration instead, a haematic and neuroaxonal transport of BoNT occurs, which is distant from the muscle and is related to systemic side effects that may be fatal if left untreated [49, 50].
Experimental studies in rodents have shown that botulinum toxin receptors exist in the central nervous system and a small amount of botulinum toxin crosses the blood-brain barrier. This raises the possibility that botulinum toxin is transported retrogradely, similar to tetanus toxin, and may cause centrally mediated side effects [51].
Botulinum toxin type-A can induce autonomic effects such as biliary colic, impairment of gastrointestinal and cardiovascular autonomic pathways, and inhibition of autonomic cholinergic pathways in the bladder. Cholinergic receptors in the pharyngeal and laryngeal sphincters are likely to be inhibited by systemic spread of BoNT and may be the main reason for dysphagia/dysphonia [52, 53, 54].
One of the suggested mechanisms for transport of the toxin from one part of the body (neck) to a remote location (toes) is the vascular spread via absorption through the capillary system and the retrograde axonal spread of the toxin. The injection of proximal upper extremity muscles with BoNT-A can determine diffusion of the toxin into the surrounding muscles resulting in dysphagia. These data suggest a systemic spread even when toxin is injected in sites anatomically adjacent to the locus of the side effect. Retrograde axoplasmic spread of the toxin is the second possible mechanism for the observed distant adverse events.
Recent studies show retrograde transport of enzymatically active toxin molecules via microtubules in the axon to both sensory and motor regions in the spinal cord after intramuscular and intraneural injections of BoNT-A. In fact, antinociceptive effect of BoNT-A may occur through retrograde spread of BoNT-A from the sensory nerves in the periphery to the central nervous system. Moreover, distant effects also may be caused by intrafusal uptake of the toxin in the muscles spindles as well as neuroplastic changes post-BoNT-A injections. Diffusion of BoNT is affected by a variety of factors; however, dose, concentration, and volume probably are the greatest contributors that increase the risk of diffusion. In general, the BoNT reduction in amplitude increased with increasing doses and with increasing concentration [55, 56, 57].
To limit diffusion is target muscle localization using EMG and endoscopic or imaging guidance [58].
Nonresponsiveness to BoNT could be as a result of possible factors that include misdiagnosis, insufficient dose, problems with toxin storage and preparation, and administration. Another possible reason for lack of clinical effect is immunoresistance to BoNT, which refers to ineffectiveness of the toxin as a result of development of neutralizing antibodies against the toxin [59].
The formation of neutralizing antibodies to BoNT is increased by a short time period between injections, the administration of booster injections, and the use of high BoNT doses. To prevent antibody formation against BoNT, the practitioner can use a newer BoNT formulation with the lowest protein content [60].
BoNT is contraindicated in patients with known peripheral motor neuropathies or neuromuscular disorders, such as Eaton-Lambert syndrome, multiple sclerosis, and myasthenia gravis, because further chemodenervation may exacerbate muscle weakness. The cause is to be found in a reduced release of acetylcholine in the neuromuscular endplate, due to the effect of autoantibodies against the presynaptic channels of calcium [61].
The treatment can be performed in the 18–65 age range. Other contraindications are represented by:
allergy to human albumin and/or sodium chloride,
skin infections,
presence of scleral show,
senile ectropion,
pregnancy,
lactation,
dysphagia, and
psychiatric disorders.
Aminoglycoside antibiotics that can enhance the effect of botulinum toxin are netilmicin, tobramycin, gentamicin, neomycin, amikacin, kanamycin, and streptomycin. Other drugs that also interfere with neuromuscular transmission are muscle relaxants such as D-tubocurarine, baclofen, thiocolchicoside, tizanidine, diazepam, dantrolene, and pridinol [62, 63].
The rehabilitation of the motor endplate can be very useful in case of side effects following treatment with botulinum toxin.
Radioiodinated botulinum toxin A (125I-BoNT/A-complex, 67 or 344 U free-125I-BoNT/A) was injected into the gastrocnemius muscle of rats and measured in various tissues at different time points. These “in vivo” studies allowed to establish that after 24 hours, the toxin is no longer present in the infiltrated muscle.
Thus, the side effects reported seem to be related to the damage caused by toxin caused and not to the presence of it in the muscles. These effects can be visible after 10–12 days [64].
For this reason, it is useless to administer the antitoxin which exerts its action by binding to the toxin still in circulation, complexing it and making it inactive. Furthermore, the healing capacity depends on the regeneration of the affected synaptic terminations.
Because the light chain of botulinum toxin causes proteolysis of the SNAP 25 protein, reducing its endocellular pool, one must reestablish its own physiological endocellular pool.
In practice, it is necessary to stimulate the biosynthesis of the SNAP25 protein to favor the structural and functional recovery of the motor endplate.
The aim of the therapy is to stimulate the biosynthesis of the SNAP 25 protein, consisting of about 200 amino acids. So, we can correct side effects such as ectropion, diplopia, palpebral ptosis, strabismus, scleral show, and asymmetries of smile and mouth mobility.
To improve the biosynthesis of the SNAP 25 protein, it is necessary to take:
A proteic diet (meat, fish);
Amino acids such as arginine and cysteine as they belong to the molecular composition of the SNAP-25 protein. Then, we supplement other amino acids: arginine, bioargin, and cysteine;
L-acetylcarnitine which is an agonist of the mitochondrial growth function and reparative agents (NGF), expounds an antioxidant activity in the neurons of the central and peripheral nervous system. L-acetylcarnitine is structurally similar to acetylcholine and plays an indispensable role for proper cellular energy, metabolism, and neurotransmission;
Alpha-lipoic acid (also called thioctic acid), a fat-soluble vitamin that participates in various antioxidant mechanisms such as the regeneration of reduced glutathione (GSH) and ascorbic acid; and
L-carnosine, a dipeptide composed of β-alanine and L-histidine; it has the ability to promote protein regeneration even in difficult situations such as in the late stage of the life cycle. It has antioxidant properties.
This therapy is able to guarantee fast responses (7–10 days) and in 80% of cases [65, 66, 67, 68].
The use of BoNts continues to steadily expand and multiply. New indications of clinical use of BoNTs are continuously emerging in medical therapy and further applications will be developed in the future. Adverse events occur more frequently after the clinical use of the toxin, but may also disclose after its esthetic use. The safe utilization of BoNTs requires knowledge of its indications and pharmacology, anatomy of the treated muscles to avoid serious complications.
Substantial changes in urban mobility systems are required across the globe in order to reach sustainable development goals (SDGs) and climate change objectives. Indeed, sustainable urban transport is essential to achieve SDG targets related to urban access, reduced health impacts from air pollution and road traffic crashes, clean energy, inefficiency of fossil fuel subsidies, resilient infrastructure, climate change measures and sustainable cities and communities [1].
\nExposure to ambient air pollution results in 4.2 million deaths annually [2], and 9 out of 10 urban dwellers breathe air that does not comply with the WHO standards. The transport sector is the largest contributor to PM2.5 pollution [3], with, for example, the economic cost of air pollution from road transport in OECD countries estimated at close to USD 1 trillion per year, measured in terms of the value of lives lost and ill health [4]. In addition, physical inactivity is responsible for 3.2 million deaths annually [5]. Data on noise impacts are limited; however, the health effects from exposure to noise are substantial. In the European Union, 65% of the urban population is exposed to noise above 55 dB, leading to an estimated 1–2 million DALYs annually [6]. Other concerns related to urban transport include increasing congestion and lack of accessibility, social equity and transport justice [7], urban liveability, habitat fragmentation [8] and energy security or oil price vulnerability [9].
\nAt the global level, urban (passenger) transport contributed about 2 billion tonnes of CO2 in 2015 or one-quarter of total transport emissions (including international aviation and maritime transport) [4]. In order to meet the Paris Agreement climate change targets of staying well below 2° and aiming for 1.5°, total transport emissions have to be limited to 2–3 billion tonnes in 2050 from approximately 8 billion tonnes today [10]. As transport is where emissions are rising the most rapidly among all sectors, this is a major challenge.
\nTraditionally, transport planning has been focussing on providing infrastructure to meet a projected future demand for transport. As Banister argued in his seminal article, ‘The Sustainable Mobility Paradigm’ [11], addressing the above-mentioned challenges requires fundamental shifts in transport planning. This new paradigm involves, among others, focussing on accessibility of opportunities in the urban space rather than mobility and vehicular travel per se, management of travel demand, considering street as a ‘space’ rather than a road and including environmental and social concerns in transport project evaluation.
\nMost literature on sustainable mobility considers modal shift away from cars to more environmentally benign modes. Within this, there is a significant and growing amount of research on cycling, with bicycles also enjoying a good reputation with policymakers in most countries. Motorcycles, on the other hand, are, by and large, ignored in sustainable transport research, as well as in policy discussions and climate change literature, although some researches are acknowledging its importance in meeting climate change objectives [12]. Since 2010, more literatures have been published on electric two-wheelers, such as e-bikes and electric scooters, which assess their potential impacts on the mobility systems and the environment, user motivations and aspects such as safety and driver behaviour [13].
\nThis chapter aims to add to existing literature by (1) assessing qualitatively how electric two-wheelers (E2W) can contribute to sustainable urban mobility and (2) reviewing policy options to enhance the role of E2W.
\nIn this chapter, we adopt the following approach. The e-bike is a relatively new vehicle and in fact represents ‘the most rapid uptake of alternative fuelled vehicles in the history of motorisation’ [13]. E2W thereby change urban mobility ecosystems or regimes, including the vehicle fleet composition, mobility options and urban planning. As a new mobility option for both passenger and freight (e-cargobikes), it has the potential to replace trips by other modes, notably bicycles, motorcycles, public transport and cars but also small trucks and vans. In addition, E2W may support other modes such as public transport by providing convenient first and last mile mobility. We particularly look at shifting from motorcycles to E2W as a way to maintain space-efficient (passenger) mobility on two wheels, yet in a cleaner fashion; however, shifting away from other modes may also be significant.
\nTwo-wheelers powered by a combustion engine, including mopeds, scooters and motorcycles, play a key role in transport in many parts of the world. In South and Southeast Asia, the share of two-wheelers in the passenger vehicle population is particularly high, for example, 72% in India [14], 87% in Indonesia and 95% in Vietnam (95%) [15]. The fleet is growing by up to 10% annually in several Asian countries. In Europe, 12% of all registered vehicles are powered two-wheelers, though almost half of these are >250 cc [14] and often used for touring and sports purposes rather than utility mobility. In Brazil, 26% of the vehicle population are motorcycles and in North America, only 3% [14]. In China and Southeast Asia, two-wheelers account for more than a quarter of total passenger transport activity (measured in passenger-km) in 2015, more than any other mode [12].
\nA motorcycle uses seven times less space compared to a car [16] and is more energy-efficient, even when accounting for a higher average occupancy of cars. Nevertheless, motorcycles are significant sources of air pollution, noise and CO2 emissions and are involved in a large share of road crashes.
\nIn many cities in Asia, motorcycles are the preferred mode of transport by a large share of the population [17]. In dense cities, for example, Hanoi, accessibility to jobs by motorcycle is higher than by any other modes [18]. It enjoys higher status than a bicycle and is considered more convenient, particularly for hot and humid weather conditions. Motorcycles are relatively affordable and can be acquired by most households, thereby making it an equitable mode of transport.
\nIn European cities, motorcycle mode share is often low, however rising in recent years. Amsterdam is a case in point, with about 2% of trips in 2016 by mopeds and scooters, which is a doubling compared to 2008. Moreover, such two-wheelers are involved in 16% of road crashes [19]. Although there are plans and strong public support to ban mopeds and scooters from using bicycle lanes, as of mid-2018, these are still allowed on all bike lanes and are not required to wear helmets. The users are relatively diverse, that is, they include all age and income groups.
\nAt the same time, electric two-wheelers are gaining importance and already take a significant modal share in some countries in 2015, notably China (7%) and 2–4% in Denmark, the Netherlands and Japan [20]. China dominates E2W sales with about 30 million and a stock of about 250 million [17], followed in sales by Europe with 2.3 million, while the rest of the world accounts for about 1 million in 2015 [13].
\nThese are predominantly e-bikes, which fall roughly in two categories: pedal-assisted bicycles (also called pedelecs) or throttle-controlled electric mopeds with the option of pedal power (often for regulatory purposes). The former are the most common in Europe, while in China and some Southeast Asian countries, e-bikes of the latter types are dominant. The speeds are up to 20–25 km/h for pedelecs and up to 45 km/h for e-mopeds, and the weight ranges from 20 to 45 kg. Electric scooters are capable of higher speeds and often fall in a different vehicle category than e-bikes.
\nTo explore the characteristics of different E2W markets and their role in the mobility system, we examine—briefly and in broad terms—developments in China, Vietnam and the Netherlands.
\nIn China, petrol-fuelled motorcycle bans in many cities in the early 2000s—starting with a sales ban in Shanghai in 1996 [21]—have resulted in a large and fast uptake of especially scooter-style e-bikes, with a 15–25% trip mode share in major cities [22]. They have become popular as well in cities where conventional motorcycles are still allowed (Figure 1). E-bikes have pedals and are classified as nonmotorised vehicles, thereby there is no requirement to wear helmet nor for licencing, and they can use bicycle lanes. E-bikes are used by a wide range of user groups, in small, medium and large cities, also as access mode for public transport. However, in general two-wheelers are used more by lower-income groups [23].
\nGuilin, China: both conventional and electric motorcycles are used.
Within Southeast Asia, Vietnam has the highest share of motorcycles in the vehicle fleet [15]; however, e-bikes are not yet popular. The main users are those that do not have access to motorcycles. A key user group is students, who find these more convenient than the bicycle while it does not require a licence, registration or helmet, as is the case for motorcycles. E-bikes (Figure 2) are often of type that could be considered a hybrid between scooter-style and bicycle-style e-bikes. They have pedals, yet these are rarely used. There are two-wheeler lanes in some cities; however, in general they have to mix with other traffic. There are no specific policies to promote electric two-wheelers. A ban on motorcycles is planned in the city centre of Hanoi in 2030; however, whether this will cover e-bikes is not clear.
\nHanoi, Vietnam: two-wheelers in mixed traffic, although on some roads space is allocated by mode.
In Europe, most e-bikes are of the bicycle style. Weather is less of a barrier to cycling compared to Asian countries; however, e-bike extends the range of trips that can be covered by bicycle, in distance and user groups. Looking at the Netherlands, e-bikes sales are increasing rapidly and in 2017 account for about one-third of bicycle sales [24]. Although in the early days of e-bikes it was mostly the elderly buying E2W, in recent years, its popularity is spreading to many other groups, including students, commuters and parents of young children. Approximately half of the km travelled is for recreational purposes [24]. E-bikes, just as mopeds, are allowed on the bicycle lanes (Figure 3); however, as of July 2018, speed pedelecs need to use the main road in urban areas.
\nAmsterdam, the Netherlands: bike lanes are used by bicycles, mopeds and electric bikes.
In this section, we review how E2W fits in a sustainable urban mobility system. Based on Banister [11], we focus on aspects of accessibility, as well as social and environmental sustainability.
\nMost trips in cities across the globe are less than 10 km, and many are shorter than 5 km. In the Netherlands, over 50% of car trips are shorter than 7.5 km [24], and in medium-sized cities such as Rajkot and Visakhapatnam (1–2 million population) in India, nearly 80% of all trips are below 5 km [25]. Even in the United States, known for their relatively low density and sprawl, 35% of all car trips are less than 5 km and 60% are below 8 km [20]. Trips up to 5 km are generally considered to be suitable for cycling. E-bikes can extend the range of trips currently or potentially undertaken by bicycle [24, 26] by reducing barriers such as hilly terrain, weather, low speed, physical strain and bad air quality [13]. At the same time, e-bikes can replace trips by motorised modes such as motorcycle, car and public transport.
\nMode shift impacts vary, as shown in emerging literature. In Chinese cities where petrol-fuelled motorcycles are not allowed, e-bikes are displacing bus trips, yet also a significant share of trips by car/taxi and bicycle [13]. Some of the factors that impede use of bicycles are also barriers to using e-bike, for instance, heat, rain and air quality [26]. In Sweden, more than 50% of e-bike users in both urban and rural areas report replacing car trips, across different trip purposes [27]. An analysis of studies in Europe shows that the proportion of e-bike trips that replace car trips ranges from 16 to 76% [28].
\nTwo-wheelers provide accessibility benefits over cars and public transport. Especially in dense cities in Asia and Europe, bicycles and motorcycles are more affordable, flexible, reliable and often faster than cars. In addition to reduced space require for parking, motorcycles use 3.4 times less road space than cars in Hanoi [29]. Two-wheelers are thereby much more space-efficient than other private vehicles, even when considering a slightly higher average occupancy rate for cars. In the longer term, mobility based on two wheels thus has an impact on land use and urban development and enables denser and liveable cities as opposed to ‘sprawling car-dominated cities’ [20]. Therefore, mobility modes and transport planning are strongly related to more fundamental questions around urban development and the future of cities.
\nOther positive impacts of e-bikes—compared to car or motorcycle travel—for individuals and society include health due to physical activity [13] and social interaction in the public space [30], although both these effects are less strong than for bicycle travel. In the economic realm, electrification of transport is a key strategy to reduce oil consumption and improve energy supply security.
\nEnvironmental benefits are substantial as well, in particular for climate change, air quality and noise. Compared to conventional motorcycles, electric two-wheelers emit substantially less CO2 emissions per km (on a life cycle basis), even when powered by coal-based electricity [31]. Indeed, over 80% of the 29 million tonnes of CO2 savings in 2017 by all types of electric vehicles globally are due to e-bikes in China [17]. For Vietnam, e-bikes are identified as the option with the second-largest CO2 abatement potential in the transport sector [32]. Kerdlap and Gheewala [33] show that in Thailand, deploying a fleet of 13.6 million electric motorcycles to replace an equivalent fleet of conventional petrol-powered motorcycles between 2015 and 2030 could reduce two-wheeler life cycle CO2-eq emissions by approximately 42–46%. Globally, it is estimated that in 2050, 22% of urban passenger travel can be by (e)bike, compared to 6% in the base case. This results in 300 MtCO2 reductions in 2050 and USD 1 trillion in savings from vehicle purchase and operation and construction and maintenance of infrastructure [20]. Moreover, meeting the Paris Agreement targets requires 70% of global two-wheelers to be electric [17]. It should be noted that in peer-reviewed literature on climate change mitigation, however, there is limited attention for the role of electric two-wheelers.
\nUrban air pollution impacts are significant as well. The health impact of particulate matter on a person-km basis is lower than other modes that include petrol-powered cars, even for a coal-based electricity grid [34]. Finally, e-bike can reduce noise significantly [35], as conventional motorcycles and cars are key sources of urban traffic noise.
\nTable 1 presents a qualitative assessment of the sustainability aspects of electric two-wheelers discussed above, in comparison with other modes. It should be noted that this comparison is for illustration purposes only, as the modes cover different trip distances and impacts may differ considerably depending on local circumstances, particularly transport planning and environmental standards. Public transport modes are bus, tram and metro. Paratransit covers a variety of more informally organised transport such as motorcycle taxis, three-wheelers and minibuses, which are sometimes used as feeder mode for high-capacity public transport. Equity assessment is based on typical costs of travel, including ticket prices for public transport and total costs of ownership for private vehicles. In space efficiency, both parking and road space are considered. Lower CO2 emissions also imply improved energy efficiency (i.e. reduced resource consumption) as well as energy security. Public transport first and last mile trips often involve ‘active’ modes such as walking or cycling. Other environmental impacts, such as pollution from battery production, are not explicitly considered here.
\nMode | \nTypical trip distance | \nEquity | \nSpace efficiency | \nAir pollution | \nCO2 emissions/energy use | \nNoise | \nPhysical activity | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Walking | \n<1.5 | \n+++ | \n+++ | \n+++ | \n+++ | \n+++ | \n+++ | \n
Cycling | \n1–5 | \n+++ | \n+++ | \n+++ | \n+++ | \n+++ | \n+++ | \n
E2W | \n1–15 | \n++ | \n++ | \n+++ | \n+++ | \n+++ | \n+ | \n
Motorcycle | \n1–15 | \n++ | \n++ | \n+ | \n+ | \n0 | \n0 | \n
PT + NMT | \n1–20+ | \n++ | \n+++ | \n++ | \n++ | \n++ | \n++ | \n
PT + paratransit | \n1–20+ | \n++ | \n+++ | \n+ | \n+ | \n+ | \n+ | \n
Paratransit | \n1–5 | \n++ | \n++ | \n0 | \n+ | \n+ | \n0 | \n
Car | \n1–20+ | \n+ | \n0 | \n+ | \n0 | \n+ | \n0 | \n
Environmental and social sustainability impacts of urban transport modes.
Notes: PT, public transport; NMT, nonmotorised transport; 0, lowest rating; +, low rating; ++, medium rating; +++, high rating.
In the above assessment, road safety has not been taken into account. A meaningful comparison between modes is not possible as often multiple modes are involved in one road crash. In addition, among countries, road crash rates and fatalities for all modes differ by more than an order of magnitude. That said, motorcycles are often associated with safety concerns, and globally 23% of the 1.3 million road deaths were drivers or passengers of motorised two- and three-wheelers [36]. In the Netherlands, an increase in road deaths in 2017 was associated with the rising use of e-bikes among the elderly, as these are more difficult to handle than bicycles [37], with e-bikes taking 30% of total bike fatalities [24]. Unruly driving behaviour, for example, jumping red lights at intersections, is a key concern with e-bike riders as well as bicyclists and motorcycles in various countries [13].
\nIn Figure 4, the sustainability impacts as included in Table 1 are added and compared with accessibility benefits for urban trips of 2–10 km length in a dense city that has a balanced approach to transport planning for the different modes. Accessibility, or the ease of reaching opportunities, covers travel time, flexibility, reliability and ease of parking. The width of the ovals indicates how strongly accessibility depends on local conditions such as congestion, parking options, public transport service quality and urban planning. For example, in some cases a car may be as fast as a motorcycle, whereas in heavy congestion and limited parking availability, a car provides low accessibility.
\nIndicative qualitative assessment of sustainability impacts and accessibility benefits of urban transport modes for trips 2–10 km, on a person-km basis. Accessibility covers travel time including parking and reliability. Sustainability aspects here include equity, road and parking space efficiency, air pollution, CO2 emissions and fuel consumption, noise and physical activity (see Table 1). Larger ovals indicate larger spread in accessibility/sustainability benefits depending on local conditions. All vehicles except E2W are powered by internal combustion engines.
A key observation from this figure is that E2Ws increase range and comfort of bicycles and improve sustainability performance of motorcycles while preserving accessibility benefits.
\nIn various countries, a limited number of policy initiatives are taken to promote electric mobility on two wheels. Yet in general, it can be stated there is a lack of policy attention, particularly in comparison to policy and research on other electric vehicles such as cars and buses.
\nThere is a large potential in different regions to expand the use of electric two-wheelers, so what can be done do to harness this potential? Policymakers have a range of instruments that can be deployed [17]. In general, these can be organised by regulatory, economic and informative instruments [38], while for transport, often planning instruments are considered as well [39]. Table 2 presents a brief overview, after which these options are discussed.
\nInstrument type | \nPolicy measure | \n
---|---|
Regulatory instruments | \nPhase-out conventional motorcycles | \n
Low-emission zones in cities | \n|
Speed limit 30 km/h on shared roads | \n|
Vehicle standards and registration requirement | \n|
Planning instruments | \nDedicated lanes for E2W (and bicycles) | \n
Travel demand management, including traffic calming and parking management | \n|
Dedicated waiting boxes at intersections, optionally with shading | \n|
Electric bike-sharing facilities | \n|
Economic instruments | \nIncentives such as subsidies, tax breaks for purchase or registration of E2W | \n
Taxation of fuels (petrol and diesel) | \n|
Information/communication instruments | \nCampaigns | \n
Behaviour change programmes | \n
Overview of policy options to promote E2W.
In the realm of regulatory instruments, the strongest policy measure is to ban motorcycles powered by fossil fuels, as implemented in Chinese cities. A phase out of conventional motorcycles and moped sales is considered in the Netherlands [40]. Similarly, a low-emission zone in a city can be designed such that conventional motorcycles will not be able to comply with the required emission standard to be allowed to circulate in the zone. Further, to improve safety for two-wheelers, speed limits for shared roads can be an effective tool, e.g. 30 km/h in urban areas where no dedicated lanes exist. At the same time, helmet use can be made compulsory for vehicles capable of travelling faster than a certain speed, for example, 25 km/h. Finally, electric two-wheelers need an appropriate legal framework in national vehicle legislation. Malaysia, for example, has adopted standards for electric mopeds with speeds in the range of 25–50 km/h, covering safety, performance and national compliance issues [41].
\nPlanning instruments are key as well, for example, allocating dedicated road space for two-wheelers, together with quality standards for existing and new road surface that improves safety [14]. E2W then co-exist with either conventional motorcycles or bicycles, depending on the desired speed range and design of the two-wheeler lanes. For example, in China, e-bikes are often allowed on bike lanes. In addition, two-wheeler mobility can be made more attractive, for example, by advanced stop boxes for two-wheelers at intersections (see Figure 1, right-hand side), which can be shaded in tropical regions to protect drivers from heat and rain. Travel demand management, to make car travel less attractive, is required as well. Measures include traffic calming (e.g. speed bumps), reducing parking supply, fuel taxation and restricting access to roads while allowing two-wheelers, ensuring a lower ‘detour’ factor for the latter. Finally, electric bikes can be included in bike-sharing schemes.
\nFinancial incentives are another important instrument to promote E2W purchase and use. These can be designed, for example, as purchase subsidies, as done in some provinces in China [21], sales tax breaks [42] or an increase in petrol tax. In countries where motorcycle taxis are common, specific programmes to convert motorcycle fleets in a city to electric two-wheelers can be designed. In the Netherlands, a tax-deduction scheme for employees to buy a bicycle or e-bike exists. For behaviour change policies, incentives are often used in tandem with information instruments. It is argued that key life-changing events, such as moving to a new city or the birth of a child, are often powerful catalysts for behaviour change. Policy instruments can mimic such disruptive change [43], e.g. by pilot programmes with free e-bikes in exchange for car keys, as done in a promotion programme in Switzerland [44] or other incentives and campaigns. At the same time, information and training on road safety are needed for drivers of two-wheelers and other road users, e.g. as part of driver training curricula [14].
\nElectric two-wheelers can play an important role in sustainable urban mobility systems and addressing climate change. However, two-wheelers, including electric, suffer from a bad reputation and a lack of attention from policymakers in many countries. This chapter gives an overview of developments in China, Vietnam and the Netherlands, each with their own mobility system characteristics. Other than China, e-bikes and electric scooters are still in an early stage of development.
\nYet there is a large potential: electric two-wheelers can on the one hand address negative impacts of fossil-fuelled motorcycles and cars on air quality, climate and noise while on the other hand extend the distance range of bicycles, by reducing the physical effort needed, which is especially attractive in hilly and tropical environments. In general, compared to other modes, electric two-wheelers score high on key criteria for sustainable mobility in terms of accessibility (flexibility, reliability, and speed), road space use, equity and environmental externalities, although road safety remains a concern.
\nFinally, this chapter proposes a range of policy measures—regulatory, planning, economic and communicative instruments—that can be used to promote purchase and use of electric two-wheelers. These include for example implementing low-emission zones, phasing out of conventional motorcycles, improving the legal framework, urban planning to increase attractive and safety of two-wheelers and conducting behaviour change programmes that cover both incentives and information for individual users or motorcycle taxi fleets.
\nComments and feedback from the book editor, Kathleen Dematera and Todd Litman, on a draft version of this chapter are greatly appreciated.
\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications
",metaTitle:"Types of publications",metaDescription:"IntechOpen publishes different types of publications",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"IntechOpen Edited Volumes are integrated collections of chapters about particular topics that present new areas of research or novel syntheses of existing research and, as such, represent perspectives from various authors.
\\n\\nEdited Volumes can be comprised of different types of chapters:
\\n\\nRESEARCH CHAPTER – A research chapter reports the results of original research thus contributing to the body of knowledge in a particular area of study.
\\n\\nREVIEW CHAPTER – A review chapter analyzes or examines research previously published by other scientists, rather than reporting new findings thus summarizing the current state of understanding on a topic.
\\n\\nCASE STUDY – A case study involves an in-depth, and detailed examination of a particular topic.
\\n\\nPERSPECTIVE CHAPTER – A perspective chapter offers a new point of view on existing problems, fundamental concepts, or common opinions on a specific topic. Perspective chapters can propose or support new hypotheses, or discuss the significance of newly achieved innovations. Perspective chapters can focus on current advances and future directions on a topic and include both original data and personal opinion.
\\n\\nINTRODUCTORY CHAPTER – An introductory chapter states the purpose and goals of the book. The introductory chapter is written by the Academic Editor.
\\n\\nMonographs is a self-contained work on a particular subject, or an aspect of it, written by one or more authors. Monographs usually have between 130 and 500 pages.
\\n\\nTYPES OF MONOGRAPHS:
\\n\\nSingle or multiple author manuscript
\\n\\nCompacts provide a mid-length publishing format that bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters, and monographs, and cover content across all scientific disciplines.
\\n\\nCompacts are the preferred publishing option for brief research reports on new topics, in-depth case studies, dissertations, or essays exploring new ideas, issues, or broader topics on the research subject. Compacts usually have between 50 and 130 pages.
\\n\\nCollection of papers presented at conferences, workshops, symposiums, or scientific courses, published in book format
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"IntechOpen Edited Volumes are integrated collections of chapters about particular topics that present new areas of research or novel syntheses of existing research and, as such, represent perspectives from various authors.
\n\nEdited Volumes can be comprised of different types of chapters:
\n\nRESEARCH CHAPTER – A research chapter reports the results of original research thus contributing to the body of knowledge in a particular area of study.
\n\nREVIEW CHAPTER – A review chapter analyzes or examines research previously published by other scientists, rather than reporting new findings thus summarizing the current state of understanding on a topic.
\n\nCASE STUDY – A case study involves an in-depth, and detailed examination of a particular topic.
\n\nPERSPECTIVE CHAPTER – A perspective chapter offers a new point of view on existing problems, fundamental concepts, or common opinions on a specific topic. Perspective chapters can propose or support new hypotheses, or discuss the significance of newly achieved innovations. Perspective chapters can focus on current advances and future directions on a topic and include both original data and personal opinion.
\n\nINTRODUCTORY CHAPTER – An introductory chapter states the purpose and goals of the book. The introductory chapter is written by the Academic Editor.
\n\nMonographs is a self-contained work on a particular subject, or an aspect of it, written by one or more authors. Monographs usually have between 130 and 500 pages.
\n\nTYPES OF MONOGRAPHS:
\n\nSingle or multiple author manuscript
\n\nCompacts provide a mid-length publishing format that bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters, and monographs, and cover content across all scientific disciplines.
\n\nCompacts are the preferred publishing option for brief research reports on new topics, in-depth case studies, dissertations, or essays exploring new ideas, issues, or broader topics on the research subject. Compacts usually have between 50 and 130 pages.
\n\nCollection of papers presented at conferences, workshops, symposiums, or scientific courses, published in book format
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5774},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5240},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10411},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15812}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118381},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"6,5"},books:[{type:"book",id:"9662",title:"Vegetation Index and Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0abf2a59ee63fc1ba4fb64d77c9b1be7",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Eusebio Cano Carmona, Dr. Ricardo Quinto Canas, Dr. Ana Cano Ortiz and Dr. Carmelo Maria Musarella",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"87846",title:"Dr.",name:"Eusebio",surname:"Cano Carmona",slug:"eusebio-cano-carmona",fullName:"Eusebio Cano Carmona"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9659",title:"Fibroblasts - Advances in Cancer, Autoimmunity and Inflammation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"926fa6446f6befbd363fc74971a56de2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Mojca Frank Bertoncelj and Ms. Katja Lakota",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9659.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"328755",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mojca",surname:"Frank Bertoncelj",slug:"mojca-frank-bertoncelj",fullName:"Mojca Frank Bertoncelj"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8977",title:"Protein Kinase - New Opportunities, Challenges and Future Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6d200cc031706a565b554fdb1c478901",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rajesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8977.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-singh",fullName:"Rajesh Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10557",title:"Elaeis guineensis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"79500ab1930271876b4e0575e2ed3966",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hesam Kamyab",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10557.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"225957",title:"Dr.",name:"Hesam",surname:"Kamyab",slug:"hesam-kamyab",fullName:"Hesam Kamyab"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10218",title:"Flagellar Motility in Cells",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5fcc15570365a82d9f2c4816f4e0ee2e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Yusuf Bozkurt",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10218.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10750",title:"Solanum tuberosum - a Promising Crop for Starvation Problem",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"516eb729eadf0d1a9d1d2e6bf31e8e9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mustafa Yildiz and Dr. Yasin Ozgen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10750.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"141637",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa",surname:"Yildiz",slug:"mustafa-yildiz",fullName:"Mustafa Yildiz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10797",title:"Cell Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2c628f4757f9639a4450728d839a7842",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Xianquan Zhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10797.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10772",title:"Parasitic Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"31abd439b5674c91d18ad77dbc52500f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ana Maria Gonzalez and Dr. Hector Sato",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10772.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"281854",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"ana-maria-gonzalez",fullName:"Ana Maria Gonzalez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10737",title:"Equus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"258ffafc92a7c9550bb85f004d7402e7",slug:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Adriana Pires Neves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10737.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"188768",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Adriana",surname:"Pires Neves",slug:"adriana-pires-neves",fullName:"Adriana Pires Neves"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10777",title:"Plant Reproductive Ecology - Recent Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3fbf391f2093649bcf3bd674f7e32189",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Balkrishna Ghimire",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10777.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"206647",title:"Dr.",name:"Balkrishna",surname:"Ghimire",slug:"balkrishna-ghimire",fullName:"Balkrishna Ghimire"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10749",title:"Legumes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"49d3123cde96adbe706adadebebc5ebb",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10749.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10751",title:"Bovine Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9e3eb325f9fce20e6cefbce1c26d647a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Abubakar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10751.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"112070",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Abubakar",slug:"muhammad-abubakar",fullName:"Muhammad Abubakar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:19},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:21},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:24},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5252},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine",parent:{title:"Health Sciences",slug:"health-sciences"},numberOfBooks:1511,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:39573,numberOfWosCitations:21767,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11544,numberOfDimensionsCitations:29307,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"medicine",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9406",title:"Clinical Implementation of Bone Regeneration and Maintenance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"875a140c01518fa7a9bceebd688b0147",slug:"clinical-implementation-of-bone-regeneration-and-maintenance",bookSignature:"Mike Barbeck, Nahum Rosenberg, Patrick Rider, Željka Perić Kačarević and Ole Jung",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9406.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"204918",title:"Dr.",name:"Mike",middleName:null,surname:"Barbeck",slug:"mike-barbeck",fullName:"Mike Barbeck"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9122",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"207026ca4a4125e17038e770d00ee152",slug:"cosmetic-surgery",bookSignature:"Yueh-Bih Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9122.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202122",title:"Prof.",name:"Yueh-Bih",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"yueh-bih-tang",fullName:"Yueh-Bih Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9134",title:"Recent Advances in Digital System Diagnosis and Management of Healthcare",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff00a5718f23cb880b7337b1c36b5434",slug:"recent-advances-in-digital-system-diagnosis-and-management-of-healthcare",bookSignature:"Kamran Sartipi and Thierry Edoh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9134.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"29601",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamran",middleName:null,surname:"Sartipi",slug:"kamran-sartipi",fullName:"Kamran Sartipi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9569",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"691d3f3c4ac25a8093414e9b270d2843",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9018",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",slug:"some-rna-viruses",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9523",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5eb6ec2db961a6c8965d11180a58d5c1",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1511,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"19013",doi:"10.5772/21983",title:"Cell Responses to Surface and Architecture of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds",slug:"cell-responses-to-surface-and-architecture-of-tissue-engineering-scaffolds",totalDownloads:9697,totalCrossrefCites:109,totalDimensionsCites:230,book:{slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",fullTitle:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering - Cells and Biomaterials"},signatures:"Hsin-I Chang and Yiwei Wang",authors:[{id:"45747",title:"Dr.",name:"Hsin-I",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",slug:"hsin-i-chang",fullName:"Hsin-I Chang"},{id:"53659",title:"Ms.",name:"Yiwei",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"yiwei-wang",fullName:"Yiwei Wang"}]},{id:"46479",doi:"10.5772/57353",title:"Floating Drug Delivery Systems for Eradication of Helicobacter pylori in Treatment of Peptic Ulcer Disease",slug:"floating-drug-delivery-systems-for-eradication-of-helicobacter-pylori-in-treatment-of-peptic-ulcer-d",totalDownloads:1995,totalCrossrefCites:79,totalDimensionsCites:180,book:{slug:"trends-in-helicobacter-pylori-infection",title:"Trends in Helicobacter pylori Infection",fullTitle:"Trends in Helicobacter pylori Infection"},signatures:"Yousef Javadzadeh and Sanaz Hamedeyazdan",authors:[{id:"94276",title:"Prof.",name:"Yousef",middleName:null,surname:"Javadzadeh",slug:"yousef-javadzadeh",fullName:"Yousef Javadzadeh"},{id:"98229",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Hamedeyazdan",slug:"sanaz-hamedeyazdan",fullName:"Sanaz Hamedeyazdan"}]},{id:"25512",doi:"10.5772/30872",title:"Epidemiology of Psychological Distress",slug:"epidemiology-of-psychological-distress",totalDownloads:8066,totalCrossrefCites:57,totalDimensionsCites:145,book:{slug:"mental-illnesses-understanding-prediction-and-control",title:"Mental Illnesses",fullTitle:"Mental Illnesses - Understanding, Prediction and Control"},signatures:"Aline Drapeau, Alain Marchand and Dominic Beaulieu-Prévost",authors:[{id:"84582",title:"Dr.",name:"Aline",middleName:null,surname:"Drapeau",slug:"aline-drapeau",fullName:"Aline Drapeau"},{id:"84605",title:"Dr.",name:"Alain",middleName:null,surname:"Marchand",slug:"alain-marchand",fullName:"Alain Marchand"},{id:"84606",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominic",middleName:null,surname:"Beaulieu-Prévost",slug:"dominic-beaulieu-prevost",fullName:"Dominic Beaulieu-Prévost"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"43758",title:"Anxiety Disorders in Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period",slug:"anxiety-disorders-in-pregnancy-and-the-postpartum-period",totalDownloads:39763,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:20,book:{slug:"new-insights-into-anxiety-disorders",title:"New Insights into Anxiety Disorders",fullTitle:"New Insights into Anxiety Disorders"},signatures:"Roberta Anniverno, Alessandra Bramante, Claudio Mencacci and Federico Durbano",authors:[{id:"157077",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Durbano",slug:"federico-durbano",fullName:"Federico Durbano"},{id:"166382",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberta",middleName:null,surname:"Anniverno",slug:"roberta-anniverno",fullName:"Roberta Anniverno"}]},{id:"70711",title:"Fetal Growth Restriction",slug:"fetal-growth-restriction",totalDownloads:1706,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"growth-disorders-and-acromegaly",title:"Growth Disorders and Acromegaly",fullTitle:"Growth Disorders and Acromegaly"},signatures:"Edurne Mazarico Gallego, Ariadna Torrecillas Pujol, Alex Joan Cahuana Bartra and Maria Dolores Gómez Roig",authors:[{id:"202446",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maria Dolores",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez Roig",slug:"maria-dolores-gomez-roig",fullName:"Maria Dolores Gómez Roig"},{id:"311835",title:"Dr.",name:"Edurne",middleName:null,surname:"Mazarico",slug:"edurne-mazarico",fullName:"Edurne Mazarico"}]},{id:"70405",title:"Hemostasis in Cardiac Surgery: How We Do it with Limited Resources",slug:"hemostasis-in-cardiac-surgery-how-we-do-it-with-limited-resources",totalDownloads:2694,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:null,title:"Contemporary Applications of Biologic Hemostatic Agents across Surgical Specialties - Volume 1",fullTitle:"Contemporary Applications of Biologic Hemostatic Agents across Surgical Specialties - Volume 1"},signatures:"Fevzi Sarper Türker",authors:null},{id:"64851",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:9954,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:17,book:{slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"59779",title:"Effective Communication in Nursing",slug:"effective-communication-in-nursing",totalDownloads:6504,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"nursing",title:"Nursing",fullTitle:"Nursing"},signatures:"Maureen Nokuthula Sibiya",authors:[{id:"73330",title:"Dr.",name:"Nokuthula",middleName:null,surname:"Sibiya",slug:"nokuthula-sibiya",fullName:"Nokuthula Sibiya"}]},{id:"64858",title:"The Neurobiology of Anorexia Nervosa",slug:"the-neurobiology-of-anorexia-nervosa",totalDownloads:892,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"anorexia-and-bulimia-nervosa",title:"Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa",fullTitle:"Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa"},signatures:"Ashley Higgins",authors:null},{id:"63771",title:"The Role of Catheter Reshaping at the Angiographic Success",slug:"the-role-of-catheter-reshaping-at-the-angiographic-success",totalDownloads:536,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"angiography",title:"Angiography",fullTitle:"Angiography"},signatures:"Yakup Balaban",authors:[{id:"252647",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Yakup",middleName:null,surname:"Balaban",slug:"yakup-balaban",fullName:"Yakup Balaban"}]},{id:"61866",title:"Plants Secondary Metabolites: The Key Drivers of the Pharmacological Actions of Medicinal Plants",slug:"plants-secondary-metabolites-the-key-drivers-of-the-pharmacological-actions-of-medicinal-plants",totalDownloads:5564,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:32,book:{slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Rehab A. Hussein and Amira A. El-Anssary",authors:[{id:"212117",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab",middleName:null,surname:"Hussein",slug:"rehab-hussein",fullName:"Rehab Hussein"},{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary"}]},{id:"17956",title:"Sexual and Reproductive Function in Chronic Kidney Disease and Effect of Kidney Transplantation",slug:"sexual-and-reproductive-function-in-chronic-kidney-disease-and-effect-of-kidney-transplantation",totalDownloads:11790,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"after-the-kidney-transplant-the-patients-and-their-allograft",title:"After the Kidney Transplant",fullTitle:"After the Kidney Transplant - The Patients and Their Allograft"},signatures:"Mahboob Lessan-Pezeshki and Shirin Ghazizadeh",authors:[{id:"26564",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahboob",middleName:null,surname:"Lessan Pezeshki",slug:"mahboob-lessan-pezeshki",fullName:"Mahboob Lessan Pezeshki"},{id:"26571",title:"Prof.",name:"Shirin",middleName:null,surname:"Ghazizadeh",slug:"shirin-ghazizadeh",fullName:"Shirin Ghazizadeh"}]},{id:"64747",title:"Bone Development and Growth",slug:"bone-development-and-growth",totalDownloads:3711,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"osteogenesis-and-bone-regeneration",title:"Osteogenesis and Bone Regeneration",fullTitle:"Osteogenesis and Bone Regeneration"},signatures:"Rosy Setiawati and Paulus Rahardjo",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"medicine",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"75604",title:"Normal Puerperium",slug:"normal-puerperium",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96348",book:{title:"Midwifery"},signatures:"Subrat Panda, Ananya Das, Arindam Mallik and Surajit Ray Baruah"},{id:"75596",title:"The Use of a Dynamic Elastomeric Fabric Orthotic Intervention in Adolescents and Adults with Scoliosis",slug:"the-use-of-a-dynamic-elastomeric-fabric-orthotic-intervention-in-adolescents-and-adults-with-scolios",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96391",book:{title:"Spinal Deformities in Adolescents, Adults and Older Adults"},signatures:"Martin Matthews and James Wynne"},{id:"75582",title:"Elimination of Plasmodium vivax Malaria: Problems and Solutions",slug:"elimination-of-plasmodium-vivax-malaria-problems-and-solutions",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96604",book:{title:"Current Topics and Emerging Issues in Malaria Elimination"},signatures:"Liwang Cui, Awtum Brashear, Lynette Menezes and John Adams"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:652},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/102452/giulia-pasello",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"102452",slug:"giulia-pasello"},fullPath:"/profiles/102452/giulia-pasello",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()