The parameters of our 143 classification CNN-DNN model.
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8122",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Vectors and Vector-Borne Zoonotic Diseases",title:"Vectors and Vector-Borne Zoonotic Diseases",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'Vectors and Vector-Borne Zoonotic Diseases is about a group of diseases that can infect humans and animals, and that are transmitted by vectors. These diseases are called vector-borne zoonotic diseases. This book is meant to be used by veterinarians, medical doctors, entomologists, and other experts, as well as students, animal owners, nature lovers, etc. The book has several sections: "Introduction," "Vectors", "Vector-Borne Diseases and Pathogens," and "Vector Control." Each of the sections concerns one stage of a vector-borne disease. Each group of authors has dedicated their work to one of the topics with key roles on pathogens or vectors that are of great public health interest in their country or region. In this book, the authors have tried to show which vectors and diseases are the most interesting, having in mind that their spreading represents a danger to health. With this book, we hope to broaden readers\' knowledge by sharing experiences with vector-borne diseases,with the aim to upgrade the knowledge of general public health from a One Health perspective.',isbn:"978-1-78985-294-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-293-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-045-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77985",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"vectors-and-vector-borne-zoonotic-diseases",numberOfPages:132,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"5a088c3ab82e499c8d5d2f8ceec6a601",bookSignature:"Sara Savić",publishedDate:"February 20th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8122.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4388,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:8,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:12,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 25th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 16th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 15th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 3rd 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 2nd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92185/images/system/92185.jfif",biography:"Sara Savić, Ph.D., DVM, is a researcher, working in a diagnostic laboratory within the Scientific Veterinary Institute 'Novi Sad” from Novi Sad, Serbia.\r\n Her main work is based on the diagnostic procedures for zoonotic diseases and vector-borne zoonoses. 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\r\n\tMass spectrometry is one of the most sensitive and most precise analytical techniques for the detection and analysis of both organic and inorganic molecules. Mass spectrometry is currently used for analysis and characterization of proteins and their modifications in proteomic and clinical studies, for detection and characterization of therapeutic antibodies and monitoring the level of active substances in patients' blood.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tMass spectrometry has a significant potential to further advance the clinical analysis and be a diagnostic tool for pathology or being used in the operation room and enable fast detection of tumor's margin.
\r\n\tThis book aims to provide an insight into different application fields of mass spectrometry for clinical research and routine. Modern mass spectrometry enables analysis and quantitation of very complex samples such as serum or tissue proteome or lipidome and the mass spectrometry imaging complements tissue analysis in pathology departments.
\r\n\tFurthermore, mass spectrometry can be used in an operating room as a device for on-site detection of tumor margins and be a valuable help for the surgeon.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tMass spectrometry imaging of tissue is an advanced type of tissue analysis that complements and aids the pathology and the traditional tissue analysis by staining and optical microscopy.
Since space has already been fully utilized, society has become increasingly dependent on space advantages in various industrial, civil, and commercial applications. This dependence brings an essential vulnerability, especially shortage of continuous situational awareness of the space environment to ensure freedom of movement. Due to the fact that information from space is crucial for key decision-making, such as urban, agricultural, and responsive planning, space is regarded as a significant frontier. In addition to real-time and hidden information constrains, the existence of space object density significantly produces the complexity of the space situational awareness (SSA). Understanding the position of space objects from low-level information fusion can support high-level information fusion SSA missions of sensor, user, and task refinement [1]. In order to implement SSA accurately, it is possible to coordinate the evaluation of residential space objects (RSO) through user-defined operation pictures (UDOP) [2].
Space control and SSA are required for space prevalence, which depend on fast and precise space object behavioral discovery. Developing a theoretical approach for fast discovery of variation of satellite behaviors is the main task of this book chapter. The machine learning methods with novel neural networks are proposed in this case. However, there are numerous challenges for constructing the tools because of the following reasons: (i) partially observable movements, (ii) resident space objects (RSOs), (iii) uncertainties modeling and propagation, (iv) real-time response, and (v) computationally intractable algorithms.
Space access investigation and mission trade-off considers are imperative for the victory of space-borne operations. The tracking algorithms of space object can be measured depending on collecting data to track satellites, debris, and natural phenomena (such as comets, asteroids, and solar flares). Tacking is related with sensor administration, which can point sensors to observation points to decide the circumstance and to aware threatens. SSA improvements consist of models (such as orbital mechanics), measurements, computational software (such as tracking), and application-based system coordination (such as situations). For instance, game-theory methods for SSA can be utilized for pursuit-evasion analysis [3].
This book chapter creates and establishes game theoretic training enabled deep learning (GTEL) methodologies for fast discovery of the behaviors from the satellites. GTEL is an adaptive feedback adversarial theoretic method, which acquires data from sensors related to the relationship between resident space objects (RSOs) of interest and sensing assets from ground and space (GSAs). Thus, a game theory is modeled instead of a control problem for this circumstance. Game reasoning uses data-level fusion, random modeling/propagation, on the other hand, RSO detection/tracking predicting the future RSOs-GSAs relationships. The adversarial engine also supports optional space pattern dictionary/semantic rules for adaptive transition in the Markov game. In the event that no existing pattern dictionary is accessible, GTEL will construct an initial pattern and modify it during the game inference. The output of GTEL inference consists of two parts of control methods: (i) measurements processing and (ii) RSOs localization. The two parts establish a game-equilibrium, one of which is sensing asset management, the other of which is the estimation of RSO behaviors.
The chapter is organized as the following. Section 2 introduces the comprehensive system design for our methods. Section 3 presents the Markov game theory with satellite maneuvering. Section 4 proposes the details of our machine learning model for space behavior detection. And the numerical results and analysis are displayed in Section 5. At the end, Section 6 draws the conclusion of this chapter.
The proposed methodology of GTEL is shown as Figure 1. The core piece of the method for detecting unknown patterns of space objects is Markov Game Engine. Due to the patterns are obscure, there is no preparing training data accessible. Therefore, the Markov Game Engine makes use of zero-shot learning [4] and transfer learning to unsupervised classify unavailable target domain data by training available data from source domain (i.e. simulate data). The knowledge adaptation or domain transfer is performed through manifold learning to share intermediate semantic embeddings (such as attributes) between labeled and unlabeled data. On one hand, the manifold learning can reduce the dimension of sensing data (such as azimuth angle, elevation angle, range, and range rate). On the other hand, the manifold learning can also mitigate the difficulties of object tracking and detection with fast space object behaviors’ detection. Moreover, in order to solve the uncertainties in this task, the
Markov game – The space conflicting situation is inferred by the Markov game structure [5, 6], in which system state is represented by distributions rather than deterministic values.
Uncertainty modeling and propagation – The uncertainties are expressed by the production of Von-Mises and independent Gaussian distribution for both measurement interference and original state uncertainty that are identified on cylindrical manifold
Optimal transport based tracking of space objects in cylindrical manifolds – Compared with ensemble Kalman filter (EnKF) methods for tracking space objects, optimal transport (OT) [8, 9] is much more precise and robust. Furthermore, it is way broader than the algorithms with uncertainties assumption in
Course of actions for behavior modeling – The behavior of RSO is specified a course of action (CoA), which in turn dictates to what the RSO may appear to perform or is doing within subsequent a couple of steps.
Manifold learning for data level sensor fusion – The raw sensor data is generally high-dimensional. Considering that the measurement data is reflections of witnessed satellites (only several parameters will determine their states), so it can be reasonably assumed that the inherent dimension of the measurement domain is low. The communication bandwidth can be saved with decreasing the number of dimensions by using Manifold learning algorithms [10].
GTEL system architecture.
The simulated positions of satellite are used to generate sensor measurements, and the results will be utilized to track several space objects to complete the estimation of the position. Afterwards, the estimations of the orbits are used for collision alert and maneuver detection of space objects. The satellite maneuvers are going to be interpreted as platform commands to perform course of actions and space object movements.
Figure 1 shows an adaptive feedback approach with the game theory enabled. It utilizes sensors to obtain information about the relationships between the ground/space sensing assets and the RSOs of interest [11]. RSOs and GSAs determine the relations. Thus, rather than saying it is a control problem, it is a dynamic game. Data-level fusion, game reasoning, RSO detection/tracking, and uncertainty modeling/propagation are combined to predict the RSO-SA relationships in the future. Optional space behavior dictionary/semantic rule for adaptive transition matrices in our Markov game is also supported by our game engine. In addition, the game solution is an equilibrium, which is controlled by both space sensing asset management and the (estimated) RSO behaviors.
Lloyd Shapley has invented a concept of stochastic game [6], which is a dynamic game played by one or several players focusing on probabilistic transitions. There are several stages for this game. At first, the game is set in one state. Then, the participated players should select an action individually. Based on the current state and the actions players chosen, each player will receive a reward. Therefore, after the chosen from each player, the game comes to a new random state, where the previous state and previous actions chosen by the players determine a distribution of the new random state. Afterwards, the above action will be repeated again for the new state. After finite or infinite number of stages of playing, the total reward for each player is obtained using the discounted sums of each stage reward or the averages of every stage rewards. In this way, each player gets a reward and the reward is compared with each other. The aforementioned sequences are the procedures for the stochastic game, which can be generalized by Markov decision processes (MDP) with repeated games. Our space situational awareness (SSA) would utilize this game tool for intent prediction [12].
The Markov game engine extracts specific information from each event as the following: (i) a finite set of players N, (ii) a finite or infinite set of states, S, (iii) a finite set of accessible actions for each player in N set, Di (the overall action space is D = ×i∈NDi), (iv) a transition rule q: S × D→∆(S), (where ∆(S) is the space of all probability distributions over S), and (v) a reward function r: S × D→RN.
Figure 2 shows a visual description of the simple game states with only two players, who have only two options of actions for each player. The arrows in the graph indicates the probable transitions from one state to the other state. The states with red color means that only player 1 changes the approach. On the contrary, the states with blue color indicates only player 2 changes the approach. The state with green color indicates both players change the approach.
A diagram of states in a Markov game.
The GTEL solution uses a two-player Markov game to investigate the sensor management for tracking space objects. Whether deliberate or unintentional, some of space objects may cause confusion to observers (sensors) when the orbital maneuvers are performed. In general, spatial object tracking can be assumed as an optimal control problem (one side optimization) or a game problem (two side optimization). For the settings of optimal control, the position and velocity of the space objects will be calculated (filtered) as the states dependent on the measurement from the sensor. However, this method ignores the possibility that the space objects may alter their orbits purposely with intelligence. It may cause difficulties for the satellite to track the space objects. Therefore, the Markov game method provides a solution for these difficulties. In this approach, on the one hand, the observed satellite will utilize the tracking and sensing model to destroy the tracking estimations by confusing the observer. On the other hand, the observer figures out ways to minimize the uncertainties of tracking, where the uncertainties are dependent on the entropy of tracking.
In this chapter, the information uncertainty of the GTEL pursuit-evasion (PE) game method [13] was exercised with a circumstance of two satellites, one of which is Geostationary Earth Orbit – GEO (observed satellite), the other of which is space based Low Earth Orbit-LEO satellite (observer satellite). Figure 3 provides an illustration of a space based optical (SBO) sensor measurement model. The angle from the line from the object to the SBO and the line from the sun with object is defined as Bistatic Solar Angle, represented by
SBO with a Bistatic solar angle.
LEO and GEO based on sensor management and maneuver strategies with game theory.
The research scenario is shown in Figure 4, where the red line indicates the direction of sun light, green color is for the GEO orbit with maneuvers, blue color for LEO orbit, and pink lines indicate when the SBO sensor resource is used to track the GEO (use the sensor data to lower the uncertainty).
Figure 5 shows the results of tracking based on intermitted measurements. Both cubature KF (CKF) and extended Kalman Filter (EKF) trackers are shown. With the increase of the period without measurement due to the Earth blockage, the tracking errors increased as well. In addition, the tracking errors increased with the maneuver actions from the satellite. On the contrary, informational entropy decreased by sensor measures in this process.
The performance of tracking using theoretical Markov game strategies.
Figure 6 top graph displayed the PE game control results, with α and β as angles of the maneuver thrust. The zoom-in view of the game optimal controls is shown Figure 6 below, which exhibited that the observer satellite can keep the tracking uncertainty within a desired level while saving the resources of sensor. Figure 7 shows the on–off sensor controls and the associated information gains. The results show that with the larger potential information gain, the sensor would use the resources to take measures (for the observer’s on–off control, 0 means turning off and 1 indicates turning on).
The maneuver controls dependent on the PE game solution for the satellite direction.
Sensor’s game theoretic on–off controls and associated information gains.
The machine learning (ML) details will be described in this section. The main purpose of construction this machine learning scheme is to detect the behaviors of the resident space object (RSO) by fusing sensors data from multiple sources, including the velocity, orbital energy, angular momentum, and the position of RSO compared to the station. Similar with other machine learning model, this model is generally trained off-line by using generated data. Then the generalized weights will be deployed in the application using TensorFlow deployment. In addition, in order to improve the robustness of the trained system, we proposed a neural network scheme with the ability to train the newly-added unknown pattern online with only tiny modifications of the weights.
As shown in Figure 8, the RSO pattern classification architecture is displayed. It consists of two separate parts, one of which is offline part as Modeling, the other of which is online part as Monitoring, to detect the RSO behavior pattern.
The scheme of RSO behavior classification.
As the matter of the offline part, named as Modeling RSO Behavior Pattern, our neural networks will be trained as a classifier by using the collected simulated data. The data specifically indicates the different behaviors of the RSO. As shown in the graph, some useful features are obtained from different sensors in the sessions of feature extraction. Subsequently, the extracted feature will be sent into the training model for neural network tuning and training to generate a classifier, which is used to identify the RSO behavior with fine grained size. On the contrary, the online part, Monitoring RSO Behavior Pattern, acquires RSO patterns in real-time to distinguish the abnormal behaviors. In this way, a warning message would be prompted if there are any abnormal behaviors detected.
Additionally, the classifier generated by the machine learning methods has several properties as the following: (a) ability to fuse heterogeneous and complex input data, (b) scalability, (c) robustness with perturbations relative to the data, (d) high accuracy, and (e) explicitly. However, it is hard to fulfill all the requirements as shown above, therefore, some trade off would be considered for our model. Among different structures of neural networks, convolutional neural networks fit our case appropriately.
The structures of Convolutional Neural networks (CNN) as well as Dense Neural Networks (DNN) are shown in Figure 9. The DNN neural networks consist of several hidden layers with hidden neurons. Every neuron in the subsequent layer is fully connected to the neurons in the previous hidden layer. The neurons contain the linear functions with activation function for each neuron, which is completely independent with the other neurons. Finally, after going through several layers, the input data is generated to the output data as the “output layer”, which utilizes softmax activation function to produce classification probabilities.
The framework of the convolutional neural network.
However, the DNN (as top image shown in Figure 9) has several drawbacks, such as scaling difficulties for large images. For instance, for an image with
On the other hand, the CNN (as bottom graph shown in Figure 9) can solve the aforementioned issues. A simple CNN [14] consists of several different filters as convolutional layer. In addition, the pooling layer can decrease the dimensions of the input data. Meanwhile, since the adjacent data in an image has similar values, the filter can extract the features reasonably with few weight parameters. Thus, using the CNN filters can increase the accuracy of our neural network classifier.
With the development of CNN, it successfully proceeds to be the best model structure for computer vision and image processing tasks. Moreover, CNN has also been used by Natural Language Processing (NLP) area. With small filters moving across the input dataset, the filters, with only small numbers of parameters, are re-utilized to recognize patterns for the large image. Therefore, with the similar classification abilities, CNN network is faster to train and predict compared with DNN. After several filters, the output part is flattened to bypass several dense layers to produce the softmax activation at the last layer with the sparse cross-entropy loss function to backpropagation for the behavior of RSO pattern prediction.
Our GTEL PE method utilizes the CNN architecture to classify the RSO pattern with observed data. Compared with the other conventional methods, the convolutional neural networks can process the RSO observation much faster. Therefore, we utilize the Python and TensorFlow with Keras [15] as the fundamentals for code write up. Although, each filter is computationally expensive to be trained, the overall CNN architecture is faster to be trained to provide similar accuracy classification.
A typical CNN structure is shown in Figure 10. After training our CNN-DNN with our training data, the test data (with 10–20%) will be employed to evaluate the generalization of our CNN-DNN model. Additionally, in order to solve the overfitting problem of our model, several dropout layers were added after each layer. This model outperforms other traditional methods with better accuracy and higher computationally efficiency.
CNN architecture for RSO behavior classification.
The revised deep learning neural network structure for 143-sapce-behavior (we partition the pointing angles of
Revised CNN structure for 143-label data.
The details of the parameters of the CNN are shown in Table 1 and Figure 12. There are 5,303,695 parameters that need to be trained in this large NN for detecting the different behaviors. In order to train the GTEL CNN much faster and more accurately, a learning rate decay is used during the training process. For the first 75 epochs, the learning rate is 1e−4, which can learn faster after the weight initializing. After 75 epochs, the exponentially decay of learning rate finds the optimized path for decreasing the loss for the CNN model.
Layer (type) | Output shape | Param # |
---|---|---|
Conv2d | (None, 3, 15, 128) | 640 |
Conv2d | (None, 3, 15, 128) | 82,048 |
Conv2d | (None, 3, 15, 256) | 164,096 |
Conv2d | (None, 3, 9, 512) | 918,016 |
Conv2d | (None, 3, 3, 256) | 917,760 |
Flatten | (None, 2304) | 0 |
Dense | (None, 1024) | 2,360,320 |
Dropout | (None, 1024) | 0 |
Dense | (None, 512) | 524,800 |
Dropout | (None, 512) | 0 |
Dense | (None, 512) | 262,656 |
Dropout | (None, 512) | 0 |
Dense | (None, 143) | 73,359 |
The parameters of our 143 classification CNN-DNN model.
Model structure for the CNN_DNN network.
In order to capture the training data with the two-line elements (TLEs) from the
The earth-centered inertial coordinates (ECI) is converted from the TLEs at 0 time step;
Use the specified methods (Markov game) shown in Section 3 to propagate the satellites;
Convert the 16 waypoints back to azimuth, elevation, range, range rate relative to a ground site.
Therefore, almost 57,332 tracks were generated for training dataset with the other 6371 tracks as the testing dataset. The original first 10,000 tracks are shown in Figure 13 for 143-space-behavior maneuvers.
The first 10,000 training tracks with various space behaviors.
The data format is list as:
Column 1: track id
Column 2: observation id (from 1 to 15)
Column 3: Azimuth angle (rad)
Column 4: Elevation angle (rad)
Column 5: Range (km)
Column 6: Training label (from 1 to 143)
After 1000 epoch optimization, the GTEL systems achieved almost 98% training accuracy with 96% test accuracy as shown in Figure 14. There is a little overfitting after 400 epochs of training, which can be solved by adding more dropout layers and other methods. Figure 15 displays the cross-entropy loss during the training process. The training set loss is always decreasing; however, the loss of validation set is flat after 200 epochs of training, indicating some overfitting issue after 200 epochs of training of the data.
Training and validation accuracy during the training process.
Training and validation loss during the training process.
Figure 16 shows the confusion matrix to evaluate our model’s performance. As shown, for both training and test datasets, the true labels are almost the same with the predicted label by the GTEL CNN model. The performance evolution pattern is shown in Figure 17.
Confusion matrix of training data and testing data.
Overview of validation classes prediction accuracy during training epochs.
For filter-based normalization, changes are grouped normalized by filters, which aims to display the change distributions over iterations for individual filters. For instance, as shown in Figure 18, the filter changes in the convolutional layer and dense layers are visualized. The changes are drastic in the first several iterations and become relatively small in the later stages (after 400 epochs) for most of the layers due to learning rate decay as well as the convergence of the GTEL CNN model.
The weight changes in filters during iterations. More blue color indicates stronger variation for the filters during iterations.
Notice in Figure 18 (the color maps are shown on the right side of each plot, the whiter the more stable of the training process), there is no constant deep blue color for all training process, indicating the great performance and reasonable training configuration during training of the deep learning neural networks. Understanding the meaning for these weights during training process with further checking is very important in the CNN model design, which leads to more reasonable explanation in the deployment of the model.
In addition, we investigated the filter image correlations in a broad overview. As shown in Figure 19, rows and columns represent layers and image classes, respectively. A sequential color scheme is used to encode the number of anomaly filters to intuitively represent these relationships between satellite behavior labels and anomaly filters. Using a grid-style visualization, interpretability is possible where rows and columns represent layers and classes of behaviors, respectively. The number of rows and columns equal to the number of layers with anomaly filters and classes with anomaly iterations each class, respectively. In Figure 19, the darker the color it is, the more anomaly weights and filters appear in that layer, which are related to that class. From this visualization, it is easy to observe that the second fully connected dense layer has the most anomaly weights and filters among all the other layers. Hence, there are some trends for most anomaly weights and filters during training processes, especially the middle layers of the deep convolutional neural networks. In addition, the anomaly class seems to have the same interval in the dataset, indicating more work is needed for these classes and layers to build a better network. It displays a similar trend compared to the results as shown in Figure 17.
The abstract version of correlation view.
In this chapter, a machine learning design has been presented and implemented to discover space object behaviors. Our GTEL methods using CNN models the circumstance with PE game rather than a control problem. The stochastic modeling/propagation, RSO tracking, and data level fusion are utilized to predict the relations for future space by game reasoning. In order to generate the data for training, the Marko game approach is used with maneuvering strategies. The method provides a way to solve the SSA using unknown behaviors. Additionally, the unknown behaviors exist where a satellite employs the tracking and sensing way to corrupt the tracking estimates to perturb the sensors. On the other hand, the space sensors decrease the uncertainties during tracking process. Finally, the CNN-DNN is used to train the numerical results, where the accuracy is 98% for our classification RSO model with 143 labels.
In the future, a multi-player game theory with adversarial network with SSA will be employed to enhance the deep learning for sensor management, combined tracking, as well as secure communications. Methods for diffusion-based cooperative space object tracking [16] and block chain [17] are emerging as methods for game-theoretical methods.
The work was supported under contract FA9453-15-C-0459, FA9453-15-C-0423, and FA8750-19-C-1000. The views and conclusions contained herein are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as necessarily representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of AFRL, or the U.S. Government.
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