Description and benefits of millets
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
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Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Dobrzański",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5951.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15880",title:"Prof.",name:"Leszek A.",middleName:null,surname:"Dobrzański",slug:"leszek-a.-dobrzanski",fullName:"Leszek A. Dobrzański"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"204968",title:"Dr.",name:"Neide",middleName:null,surname:"Pena Coto",fullName:"Neide Pena Coto",slug:"neide-pena-coto",email:"neidecoto@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"5951",title:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",slug:"biomaterials-in-regenerative-medicine",publishedDate:"February 14th 2018",bookSignature:"Leszek A. Dobrzański",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5951.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15880",title:"Prof.",name:"Leszek A.",middleName:null,surname:"Dobrzański",slug:"leszek-a.-dobrzanski",fullName:"Leszek A. Dobrzański"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10496",leadTitle:null,title:"Feed Additives in Animal Nutrition",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tIt is well known that the quality of animal origin foodstuffs (e.g. meat) is influenced by the quality of feed very strongly. Therefore, a very important area of animal nutrition research is focused on improving quality of animal products by feeding so that it can better meet the requirements of human nutrition.
\r\n\r\n\tAnimal nutrition in the 21st century aims to provide safe and good quality foodstuffs of animal origin and at the same time achieve a high efficiency of production and a low level of environmental pollution. These criteria, however, contribute to the complexity and rapid expansion of nutrition science. The continuously increasing demand of the human population needs to be supplied from a diminishing agricultural area, while maintaining the sustainability of production. According to the global trends, the challenges facing animal nutrition in the 21st century can be summarized as follows: more awareness and activity of participation is needed in animal production to supply quality and safe food in sufficient quantities, in accordance with the requirements of the society. Therefore, the efficiency of animal production needs to be improved. This can be achieved by enhancing 1) biological efficiency, 2) technological efficiency and 3) economic efficiency. Among many other factors, feed additives play a very important role in achieving the above objectives.
\r\n\tAnimal food additives are products used in animal nutrition for purposes of improving the quality of feed or to improve the animal’s performance and health. Other additives can be used to enhance digestibility or even flavour of feed materials. In addition, feed additives are known which improve the quality of compound feed production; consequently e.g. they improve the quality of the granulated mixed diet.
\r\n\tGenerally feed additives could be divided into five groups:
\r\n\t1.Technological additives which influence the technological aspects of the diet to improve its handling or hygiene characteristics.
\r\n\t2. Sensory additives which improve the palatability of a diet by stimulating appetite, usually through the effect these products have on the flavour or colour.
\r\n\t3. Nutritional additives, such additives are specific nutrient(s) required by the animal for optimal production.
\r\n\t4.Zootechnical additives which improve the nutrient status of the animal, not by providing specific nutrients, but by enabling more efficient use of the nutrients present in the diet, in other words, it increases the efficiency of production.
\r\n\t5. In poultry nutrition: Coccidiostats and Histomonostats which widely used to control intestinal health of poultry through direct effects on the parasitic organism concerned.
\r\n\tThe aim of the book is to present the impact of the most important feed additives on the animal production, to demonstrate their mode of action, to show their effect on intermediate metabolism and heath status of livestock and to suggest how to use the different feed additives in animal nutrition to produce high quality and safety animal origin foodstuffs for human consumer.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-404-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-403-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-405-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",bookSignature:"Prof. László Babinszky",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",keywords:"Technological Feed Additives, Feed Industry, Quality of Compound Feed, Non-Antibiotic Growth Promoter, Product Quality, Additive Enzymes, Digestibility of Nutrients, NSP Enzymes, Farm Animals, Livestock, Immunity, Microbiome",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 24th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 20th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 10th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor Emeritus from the University of Debrecen, Hungary who authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited 3 books. Member of various committees and chairman of the World Conference of Innovative Animal Nutrition and Feeding (WIANF).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.jpg",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus of animal nutrition at the University of Debrecen, Hungary. From 1984 to 1985 he worked at the Agricultural University in Wageningen and in the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition in Lelystad (the Netherlands). He also worked at the Agricultural University of Vienna in the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition (Austria) and in the Oscar Kellner Research Institute in Rostock (Germany). From 1988 to 1992, he worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition (Agricultural University in Wageningen). In 1992 he obtained a PhD degree in animal nutrition from the University of Wageningen.He has authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters). He edited 3 books and 14 international conference proceedings. His total number of citation is 407. \r\nHe is member of various committees e.g.: American Society of Animal Science (ASAS, USA); the editorial board of the Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section A- Animal Science (Norway); KRMIVA, Journal of Animal Nutrition (Croatia), Austin Food Sciences (NJ, USA), E-Cronicon Nutrition (UK), SciTz Nutrition and Food Science (DE, USA), Journal of Medical Chemistry and Toxicology (NJ, USA), Current Research in Food Technology and Nutritional Sciences (USA). From 2015 he has been appointed chairman of World Conference of Innovative Animal Nutrition and Feeding (WIANF).\r\nHis main research areas are related to pig and poultry nutrition: elimination of harmful effects of heat stress by nutrition tools, energy- amino acid metabolism in livestock, relationship between animal nutrition and quality of animal food products (meat).",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"25",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",slug:"veterinary-medicine-and-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7144",title:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"75cdacb570e0e6d15a5f6e69640d87c9",slug:"veterinary-anatomy-and-physiology",bookSignature:"Catrin Sian Rutland and Valentina Kubale",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7144.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Millets represent small grain crops that are mainly cultivated in marginal environments. Exceptional to this definition is pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] that has a large seed size. Among the widely cultivated millets, those traditionally considered as millet are pearl millet, finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn], foxtail millet [Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauvois], Japanese barnyard millet [Echinochloa esculneta (A. Braun) H. Scholz], Indian Barnyard millet [Echinochloa frumetacea Link], kodo millet [Paspalum scrobiculatum L.], little millet [Panicum sumatrense Roth ex Roem. & Schult.] and proso millet [Panicum miliaceum L.] (Table 1). Tef [Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter] was included in the millet group at the First Small Millets Workshop held 30 years ago in Bangalore, India [1], while both tef and fonio or acha [Digitaria exilis (Kippist) Stapf and D. iburua Stapf] were grouped under small millets by international agricultural organizations in the mid-1990s [2]. The inclusion of tef and fonio to the millet family is justifiable due to the close relationship of the two species with other millets. The genetic difference between some traditional millets is as large as that between tef or fonio and other millets. Due to this substantial variability among themselves, millets are grouped into two subfamilies, namely Panicoideae, which includes pearl millet, foxtail millets, Japanese barnyard millet and Indian millet, and to Chloridoideae, which includes finger millet and tef, and eight genera (Table 1). This indicates that finger millet which is normally grouped under millet is more closely related to tef than to other millets [3]. The divergence among traditional millets is also exhibited in the chromosome number and ploidy level which range from the diploid pearl millet (2n = 2x = 14) to the hexaploid fonio (2n = 6x = 54) [4, 5]. Millets are also divergent in the size and colour of seeds, seed weight, plant stature and shape of their panicles (Table 1). The geographical distributions of small millets were recently summarized by Goron and Raizada [6]. Except for finger millet, which is extensively cultivated in Africa and Asia, other small millets are mainly grown in Asia.
\n\t\t\t\tCommon name\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTraditional millets\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||
\n\t\t\t\tPearl millet\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tFoxtail millet\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tJapanese Barnyard millet\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tIndian Barnyard millet\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tKodo millet\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Other names | \n\t\t\tBulrush millet | \n\t\t\tItalian millet | \n\t\t\tJapanese millet | \n\t\t\tBillion dollar grass | \n\t\t\tKoda millet | \n\t\t
Botanical names | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPennisetum glaucum\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tSetaria italica\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tEchinochloa esculneta\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tEchinochloa frumetacea\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPaspalum scrobiculatum\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Subfamily | \n\t\t\tPanicoideae | \n\t\t\tPanicoideae | \n\t\t\tPanicoideae | \n\t\t\tPanicoideae | \n\t\t\tPanicoideae | \n\t\t
Tribe | \n\t\t\tPaniceae | \n\t\t\tPaniceae | \n\t\t\tPaniceae | \n\t\t\tPaniceae | \n\t\t\tPaniceae | \n\t\t
Distribution | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | Japan, Korea, China | \n\t\t\tIndia, Pakistan, Nepal | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
Ploidy level | \n\t\t\tDiploid | \n\t\t\tDiploid | \n\t\t\tHexaploid | \n\t\t\tHexaploid | \n\t\t\tTetraploid | \n\t\t
Chromosome number | \n\t\t\t2n = 2x = 14 | \n\t\t\t2n = 2x = 18 | \n\t\t\t2n = 6x = 36 | \n\t\t\t2n = 6x = 36 | \n\t\t\t2n = 4x = 40 | \n\t\t
Purpose | \n\t\t\tFood, feed | \n\t\t\tFood, biofuel | \n\t\t\tFood, feed | \n\t\t\tFood | \n\t\t\tFood, feed | \n\t\t
Agronomic benefits | \n\t\t\tDrought & heat tolerance | \n\t\t\tDrought tolerance | \n\t\t\tEarly maturity, anti-fungal | \n\t\t\tEarly maturity | \n\t\t\tDrought tolerance | \n\t\t
Nutritional benefits | \n\t\t\tHigh protein, starch & minerals | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | anti-diabetic | \n\t\t\tHigh protein content | \n\t\t\tHigh-quality protein | \n\t\t
Health benefits | \n\t\t\tNo gluten | \n\t\t\tNo gluten | \n\t\t\tNo gluten | \n\t\t\tNo gluten | \n\t\t\tLow glycaemic index, anti-oxidant | \n\t\t
Reference | \n\t\t\t[4, 20, 27] | \n\t\t\t[16, 27] | \n\t\t\t[5, 18, 27] | \n\t\t\t[6] | \n\t\t\t[27, 36] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tCommon name\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTraditional millets\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tOther millets\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\tLittle millet\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tProso millet\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tFinger millet\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTef\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tFonio\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Other names | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | Common millet | \n\t\t\tRagi, African millet | \n\t\t\tTeff, lovegrass | \n\t\t\tAcha | \n\t\t
Botanical names | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPanicum sumatrense\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPanicum miliaceum\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tEleusine coracana\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tEragrostis tef\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tDigitaria exilis, D. Iburua\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Subfamily | \n\t\t\tPanicoideae | \n\t\t\tPanicoideae | \n\t\t\tChloridoideae | \n\t\t\tChloridoideae | \n\t\t\tPanicoideae | \n\t\t
Tribe | \n\t\t\tPaniceae | \n\t\t\tPaniceae | \n\t\t\tEragrostideae | \n\t\t\tEragrostideae | \n\t\t\tPaniceae | \n\t\t
Distribution | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Ploidy level | \n\t\t\tTetraploid | \n\t\t\tTetraploid | \n\t\t\tTetraploid | \n\t\t\tTetraploid | \n\t\t\tDiploid or hexaploid | \n\t\t
Chromosome number | \n\t\t\t2n = 4x = 36 | \n\t\t\t2n = 4x = 36 | \n\t\t\t2n = 4x = 36 | \n\t\t\t2n = 4x = 40 | \n\t\t\t2n = 2x = 30 or 2n = 6x = 54 | \n\t\t
Purpose | \n\t\t\tFood | \n\t\t\tFood, feed | \n\t\t\tFood, feed | \n\t\t\tFood, feed | \n\t\t\tFood, feed | \n\t\t
Agronomic benefits | \n\t\t\tAbiotic stress tolerance | \n\t\t\tDrought tolerance, early maturity | \n\t\t\tDrought and salt tolerance | \n\t\t\tWater-logging tolerance, storage pest tolerance | \n\t\t\tDrought tolerance | \n\t\t
Nutritional or | \n\t\t\tHigh in phytochemicals, fibre | \n\t\t\tRich in amino acids | \n\t\t\tRich in calcium, methionine and tryptophan | \n\t\t\tRich in protein | \n\t\t\tRich in amino acids | \n\t\t
Health benefits | \n\t\t\tAnti-diabetic | \n\t\t\tAnti-cancer | \n\t\t\tLow glycaemic index, anti-oxidant | \n\t\t\tNo gluten | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
Reference | \n\t\t\t[38–40] | \n\t\t\t[6, 23, 27] | \n\t\t\t[6, 20, 27, 35, 37] | \n\t\t\t[33, 47] | \n\t\t\t[20, 24, 25] | \n\t\t
Description and benefits of millets
Millets play a key role in the economy of the developing world especially in countries with extensive areas of marginal land used for crop cultivation. In 2013, the global area under millet cultivation was 34.9 million hectares, corresponding to 4.7 % of the global area for all cereals including wheat, maize and rice [7] (Table 2). On the other hand, the global production of millets in the same year was estimated to be 36.7 million tons, which contributes only 1.2% to the total cereal production. This lower production was due to the inferior average yield of millets (only 0.9 t ha–1) compared to other cereals (3.8 t ha–1). However, the contribution of India to global millet production is significant. In 2013, India produced over 30% of the global millet yield from only 25% of the global millet area, mainly due to improved productivity. In the same year, while the mean seed yield of millet in India was 1.2 t ha–1, it was only 0.8 t ha–1 for other countries. This 50% production advantage in India over other countries especially African countries was due to the widespread use of improved varieties and techniques. A decade ago, the rate of adoption of improved pearl millet cultivars by farmers was 65% in India but below 10% in some African countries [8].
\n\t\t\t\tCountry\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tTraditional milletsa\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTef\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tFonio (Acha)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTotal\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tProduction (ton)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||
India | \n\t\t\t10,910,000 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 10,910,000 | \n\t\t
Ethiopia | \n\t\t\t848,956b\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t4,418,642 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 5,267,598 | \n\t\t
Nigeria | \n\t\t\t5,000,000 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 90,000 | \n\t\t\t5,090,000 | \n\t\t
Niger | \n\t\t\t2,995,000 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 6,000 | \n\t\t\t3,001,000 | \n\t\t
China | \n\t\t\t1,746,000 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 1,746,000 | \n\t\t
Mali | \n\t\t\t1,152,331 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 22,090 | \n\t\t\t1,174,421 | \n\t\t
Burkina Faso | \n\t\t\t1,078,570 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 19,887 | \n\t\t\t1,098,457 | \n\t\t
Sudan (former) | \n\t\t\t1,090,000 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 1,090,000 | \n\t\t
Guinea | \n\t\t\t215,000 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 429,000 | \n\t\t\t644,000 | \n\t\t
Chad | \n\t\t\t582,000 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 582,000 | \n\t\t
Senegal | \n\t\t\t572,155 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 1,030 | \n\t\t\t573,185 | \n\t\t
Russia | \n\t\t\t418,844 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 418,844 | \n\t\t
USA | \n\t\t\t418,145 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 418,145 | \n\t\t
Tanzania | \n\t\t\t322,731 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 322,731 | \n\t\t
Pakistan | \n\t\t\t310,000 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 310,000 | \n\t\t
Nepal | \n\t\t\t305,588 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 305,588 | \n\t\t
Uganda | \n\t\t\t228,000 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 228,000 | \n\t\t
Myanmar | \n\t\t\t185,000 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 185,000 | \n\t\t
Ghana | \n\t\t\t155,131 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 155,131 | \n\t\t
Cameroon | \n\t\t\t97,000 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 97,000 | \n\t\t
others | \n\t\t\t1,233,696 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 19,000 | \n\t\t\t1,252,696 | \n\t\t
Total production | \n\t\t\t29,864,147 | \n\t\t\t4,418,642c\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t587,007 | \n\t\t\t34,869,796 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTotal area (ha)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t33,118,792 | \n\t\t\t3,016,521 | \n\t\t\t554,451 | \n\t\t\t36,689,764 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tYield (ton ha–1)d\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.90 | \n\t\t\t1.47 | \n\t\t\t1.06 | \n\t\t\t0.95 | \n\t\t
Reference | \n\t\t\t[7,9] | \n\t\t\t[9] | \n\t\t\t[7] | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
The top 20 millet-producing countries in the world in 2013.
a Traditional millets include finger millet, foxtail millet, Indian barnyard millet, Japanese barnyard millet, kodo millet, little millet, pearl millet and proso millet.
b Only for finger millet.
cOnly for Ethiopia.
d Average global yield except for tef where it is the national average yield for Ethiopia.
Tef and fonio are exclusively cultivated in Africa. While fonio is cultivated on a total of half a million hectares in West Africa mainly in Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and Côte d\'Ivoire [7], tef is grown in the Horn of Africa especially in Ethiopia where it is annually cultivated on three million hectares of land and is a staple food for about 50 million people [9]. In the last two decades, the productivity of tef was raised by 100%, from just 0.7 t ha–1 in 1994 to 1.4 t ha–1 in 2013 mainly due to an increase in the use of improved cultivars.
In general, millets play a key role in food security in Asia and Africa. Together with sorghum, millets account for about half of the total cereal production in Africa [10]. Millets, are therefore considered as a poor man’s crop due to their significant contributions to the diet of resource-limited farmers and consumers.
Millets are resilient to the extreme climatic and soil conditions prevalent in the semi-arid regions of Asia and Africa. The similarities of millets are that they are all grown under extreme environmental conditions, especially those of inadequate moisture and poor soil fertility which are poorly suited to the major crops of the world [11] (Table 1). Proso millet is considered to have been domesticated before rice in China, based on the extreme resistance of this millet to drought [12, 13]. In addition to its resistance to drought, proso millet escapes the terminal drought that normally occurs late in the growing season since it matures in only three months; hence, proso millet is considered to be a millet with low water requirements [6].
Similar to maize and sorghum, millets possess a C4 photosynthesis system [14, 15]; hence, they prevent photorespiration and, as a consequence, efficiently utilize the scarce moisture present in the semi-arid regions. Since C4 plants are able to close their stomata for long periods, they can significantly reduce moisture loss through the leaves. In addition to its tolerance to drought, tef is tolerant to waterlogging especially in poorly drained soils where other crops such as maize and wheat could not survive. Foxtail millet is also considered to be a model plant for biofuel studies [16]. A novel peptide isolated from foxtail millet and barnyard millet has shown strong antifungal properties as has one from finger millet which is especially effective and works against four fungus species, namely Alternaria, Trichoderma, Botrytis and Fusarium [17, 18].
Millets are rich sources of nutrients for both humans and animals. Saleh et al. [19] have compiled detailed information on the nutritional advantages of several millets. The grains of most millets possess levels of protein comparable to those of wheat but higher than those of rice [20] (Table 1). In addition, the seeds of finger millet contain valuable amino acids especially methionine [20], which is lacking in the diets of hundreds of millions of the poor who live on starchy staples such as cassava. Other reports indicate that finger millet is rich in lysine, threonine and valine [21, 22] while proso millet has plentiful leucine, isoleucine and methionine [23]. The seeds of fonio are also nutritious, especially in amino acids such as leucine, methionine and valine [24, 25]. Since proso millet is rich in essential amino acids including leucine, isoleucine and methionine, the protein quality of the grain is higher than that of wheat [23].
The grains of extensively cultivated pearl millet contain high amounts of starch, fibres and minerals [26, 27]. In general, millets have high amounts of vitamins, calcium, iron, potassium, magnesium and zinc [28].
The straws and crop residues of millets are also the main source of livestock feed for farmers in developing countries. In Ethiopia, compared to the straw from other cereals, the straw of tef is the most palatable to livestock and fetches the highest price [29].
In addition to being nutritious, millets are also considered to be a healthy food. Two recent reviews examined the health-related benefits associated with millets [19, 6]. A number of leading newspapers and media have recently indicated the potential of millets particularly tef as a global lifestyle crop [30–32]. This is particularly due to the lack of gluten in the grain of tef [33] (Table 1). Gluten is a substance present in wheat and other grains that causes celiac disease or other forms of allergies. Similar to tef, several other millets, particularly foxtail millet, do not contain gluten.
Six millet species (namely kodo, finger, proso, foxtail, little and pearl millets) were shown to have an anti-proliferative property and might have a potential in the prevention of cancer initiation [34, 35]. The anti-proliferative property of these millets is associated with the presence of phenolic extracts. Among the first four millets indicated above, the maximum phenolic content was obtained in kodo millet while the minimum was in foxtail millet [36].
Finger millet is also a popular food among diabetic patients because of its low glycaemic index and slow digestion due to high fibre content [37]. The glycaemic index of little millet was also lower than that of rice, wheat and sorghum; hence, it is considered to be an anti-diabetic grain [38]. The composition of useful antioxidants and related products could be enhanced through processing the grain. A study in little millet showed that the levels of phenolics, flavonoids and tannins were substantially increased by germinating, steaming and roasting soaked grains [39].
Biotic stresses such as insect pests and diseases are a cause for substantial yield losses to diverse types of millets. However, abiotic stresses are the biggest contributor to losses every year. Although, in general, millets perform better than cereals such as wheat and rice in semi-arid environments, these challenging climatic and soil conditions are by no means an optimum environment for millet cultivation. In semi-arid and arid environments where millets are the dominant crop, drought or inadequate moisture is the major abiotic stress affecting productivity. Studies in pearl millet showed that drought impacts include growth, yield, membrane integrity, pigment, osmotic adjustment, water relations and photosynthetic activity [40].
Drought is defined as a temporary reduction in moisture availability in which the amount of available water is significantly below normal for a specified period. In general, drought can be explained as meteorological, hydrological or agricultural drought [41]. Agricultural drought occurs when there is not enough soil moisture to meet the needs of a particular crop at a particular time. Drought is also commonly expressed as a shortage or absence of rainfall causing a loss in rain-fed agriculture. For example, the decline in the level of rainfall during severe drought years in Ethiopia was accompanied by serious reductions in rain-fed agricultural outputs; this is because a 10% drop in rainfall (below the long-term national averages) results in an average drop of 4.2% in cereal yields [42].
As indicated above, millets are crops of dry land areas of the world. According to the United Nations, dry lands, which cover 40% of the world’s land area or one-third of the global arable land, support two billion people, of which 90% live in the developing world [43]. Dry lands are classified into four, namely hyper-arid deserts, arid, semi-arid and dry subhumid. Millets are extensively cultivated in the semi-arid region, which is characterized by low and erratic rainfall and periodic drought. Climate change is expected to worsen the situation in this part of the world by reducing the grassland productivity by 49–90% by 2020 [43]. The Sahel Region in Africa, covering over three million km2 in 10 countries (namely northern Senegal, southern Mauritania, central Mali, northern Burkina Faso, the extreme south of Algeria, Niger, the extreme north of Nigeria, central Chad, central and southern Sudan and northern Eritrea) is the typical semi-arid region situated between the Sahara desert in the north and the tropical or savanna climate in the south [44].
The frequency and intensity of drought has increased in recent times. In Ethiopia, severe droughts used to occur periodically every 6–8 years [45], but recently, they have happened every 1–2 years especially in the south of the country [46].
Similar to other millets, drought is implicated among the major yield limiting factors in tef production [47]. Although tef grows in a wide variety of agro-ecological conditions ranging from semi-arid areas with low rainfall to areas with high rainfall, the rainfall pattern in most tef growing regions is not consistent enough to support the normal growth of the crop during the crop cycle. In most tef growing regions, greater rainfall variability exists over the growing period than over the year-cycle [48, 49] which results in poor agricultural outputs. The Water Requirement Satisfaction Index (WRSI), a crop-specific performance indicator taking rainfall and soil characteristics into account, indicates extreme and increasing variability in Ethiopia. A recent study also confirmed that climate will have a negative impact on the acreage and productivity of tef unless urgent interventions are implemented which favours mitigation and adaptation strategies [50].
Various yield loss studies made for millets treated with drought conditions are summarized in Table 3. Using polyvinylchloride (PVC) tubes filled with sandy soil, Matsuura and colleagues [51] investigated the effect of moisture deficit before and after flowering on four millets, namely proso millet, little millet, foxtail millet and wild millet [Setaria glauca (L.) Beauv.]. Compared to the well-watered plants, a significant yield reduction was obtained in all four millets when the drought treatment was implemented at early developmental stage, that is, before flowering (or heading). However, terminal drought, which occurs from the flowering stage to the harvesting of the crop, contributed to a significant yield loss only in proso and little millets while the effect on foxtail and wild millets was negligible.
\n\t\t\t\tMillet type\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tYield loss (%)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tCritical stage\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tReference\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tEarly droughta\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tterminal droughtb\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tLong-term droughtc\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Proso millet | \n\t\t\t30.1* | \n\t\t\t34.6* | \n\t\t\t64.0* | \n\t\t\tBefore and after heading | \n\t\t\t[51] | \n\t\t
Little millet | \n\t\t\t62.6* | \n\t\t\t80.1* | \n\t\t\t80.5* | \n\t\t\t[51] | \n\t\t|
Foxtail millet | \n\t\t\t19.2* | \n\t\t\t3.4NS\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t20.3* | \n\t\t\tBefore heading | \n\t\t\t[51] | \n\t\t
Wild millet (Setaria gluaca) | \n\t\t\t27.3* | \n\t\t\t15.3NS\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t30.1* | \n\t\t\t[51] | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tMid-season stressd\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTerminal stresse\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Pearl millet | \n\t\t\t6.6 | \n\t\t\t60.1 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | Flowering | \n\t\t\t[53] | \n\t\t
Finger millet | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 109.8*f\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | Flowering | \n\t\t\t[54] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tPrior to flowering\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tBeginning flowering\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tEnd of flowering\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Pearl millet | \n\t\t\t72 | \n\t\t\t61 | \n\t\t\tInsignificant | \n\t\t\tFrom four weeks to flowering | \n\t\t\t[52] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tEarly stressg\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Tef | \n\t\t\t69–77 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | [55] | \n\t\t
The magnitude of yield loss due to moisture scarcity in millets.
a Early drought: water stress from 25 days after sowing till flowering.
*Indicates statistically significant difference from the well-watered samples.
b Terminal drought: water stress from flowering till harvesting.
c Long-term drought: water stress from 25 days after sowing till harvesting.
d Mid-season stress: water stress for 30 days from floral initiation to flowering.
eTerminal stress: water stress at flowering.
f Water stress from 28 days after sowing to harvest.
g Early stress: water stress from two weeks after emergence until symptoms of stress observed.
A study by Winkel et al. [52] in Niger where the annual rainfall is around 200 mm investigated the impact of water deficit at three stages of pearl millet development. The three stages were prior to flowering, at flowering and at the end of flowering. According to the findings of the work, the grain yield of pearl millet was severely reduced when moisture was limited prior to and at the flowering stage but not at the end of flowering. On the other hand, in pearl millet, terminal drought in which irrigation was terminated from the flowering until crop maturity, was severe, as it resulted in 60% yield loss [53]. The mid-season stress, which occurred from one month before flower initiation to full flowering, resulted in only 7% yield loss.
The study in two landraces of finger millet in which a drought treatment was imposed four weeks after sowing, resulted in 100% yield loss and over 30% biomass damage [54]. Similarly, yield loss reached up to 77% when the tef plant experienced drought at the flowering stage [55].
Although yield loss studies were not exhaustively made for most millets as they are considered drought tolerant, substantial damage occurs to these crops depending on the severity of drought. However, millets produce at least some grain and straw even in bad years unlike drought-intolerant cereals such as wheat and rice which completely fail to produce any yield.
Plants cope with drought using three main strategies, namely, drought escape, drought avoidance and drought tolerance, although a fourth strategy, known as drought recovery, has also been identified [56–60].
Drought escape: Drought escape refers to the condition in which plants reach maturity before the drought occurs. Traits associated with drought escape are rapid growth, early flowering, high leaf nitrogen level and high photosynthetic capacity [58]. The study in West Africa indicated that pearl millet matches its phenology to the mean distribution of the rainfall where precipitation is limited and erratic [61]. In this case, the development of the main panicle coincided with an increasing period of rain, thus reducing the risks associated with drought events occurring prior to or at the beginning of flowering.
Drought avoidance: Drought avoidance refers to the ability of the plant to maintain a favourable water balance under moisture stress in order to avoid water deficit in the plant tissue. Two types of drought avoidance mechanisms have been identified: (i) those that reduce water loss through transpiration (e.g. low stomata conductance and reduced leaf) and (ii) those that maintain water uptake during drought period (e.g. high root-to-shoot ratio) [56, 58, 62].
Drought tolerance: Drought tolerance refers to the ability of the plant to produce some yield by withstanding low water potential [62]. Traits associated with drought tolerance are increased osmoprotectants (or compatible solutes such as betaines and amino acids), and osmotic adjustment (i.e. reducing osmotic potential through accumulation of organic and inorganic substances) [58, 60].
Drought recovery: Drought recovery refers to a condition in which plants recover from the adverse effects of drought in order to provide some yield and/or biomass. Desiccation‐tolerant or resurrection plants particularly the wild Eragrostis nindensis is the typical example of drought recovery since it stabilizes its cells or membranes at desiccated state [63].
These strategies which are devised by plants to cope with drought are manifested through changes in some phenotypic traits. In a recent review, Kooyers [58] showed for each strategy the path followed by plants in terms of life cycle, altered phenotypes and to the type of drought the plant fits itself. This indicates that the strategies and mechanisms of drought tolerance are interrelated.
Table 4 summarizes various mechanisms of drought tolerance in diverse millet types. These inherent properties of plants which include agronomical, morphological and physiological traits are briefly discussed below.
\n\t\t\t\tParameter\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tMillet type\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tResponse to drought\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tReference\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tAgronomy-related traits\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
Seed number and biomass | \n\t\t\tPearl millet | \n\t\t\tUnaffected under drought | \n\t\t\t[64] | \n\t\t
Seed yield | \n\t\t\tPearl millet | \n\t\t\tHigh for drought-tolerant genotypes | \n\t\t\t[65] | \n\t\t
Flowering time | \n\t\t\tPearl millet | \n\t\t\tAdjust phenology to rainfall pattern | \n\t\t\t[53] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tMorphology-related traits\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
Shoot length | \n\t\t\tLittle millet | \n\t\t\tDecreased under drought | \n\t\t\t[40] | \n\t\t
Root length | \n\t\t\tLittle millet | \n\t\t\tIncreased under drought | \n\t\t\t[40] | \n\t\t
Leaf tensile strength | \n\t\t\tTef | \n\t\t\tIncreased in drought-tolerant plants | \n\t\t\t[68] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tPhysiology-related traits\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
Water extraction | \n\t\t\tPearl millet | \n\t\t\tLess extraction before flowering; more extraction after flowering | \n\t\t\t[65] | \n\t\t
Chlorophyll content | \n\t\t\tLittle millet | \n\t\t\tDecreased under drought | \n\t\t\t[40] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tBiochemical-related traits\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
Anti-oxidants | \n\t\t\tLittle millet | \n\t\t\tAccumulated under drought | \n\t\t\t[40] | \n\t\t
ROS scavenging enzymes | \n\t\t\tLittle millet, tef | \n\t\t\tAccumulated under drought | \n\t\t\t[40, 71] | \n\t\t
Free proline | \n\t\t\tTef, little millet | \n\t\t\tIncreased concentration | \n\t\t\t[40, 71] | \n\t\t
GB (glycine betaine) | \n\t\t\tLittle millet | \n\t\t\tAccumulated under drought | \n\t\t\t[40] | \n\t\t
Superoxide | \n\t\t\tLittle millet | \n\t\t\tAccumulated under drought | \n\t\t\t[40] | \n\t\t
AP (ascorbate peroxidase) | \n\t\t\tTef, little millet | \n\t\t\tIncreased specific activity | \n\t\t\t[40, 71] | \n\t\t
CAT (catalase) | \n\t\t\tLittle millet | \n\t\t\tAccumulated under drought | \n\t\t\t[40] | \n\t\t
GR (glutathione reductase) | \n\t\t\tTef | \n\t\t\tIncreased concentration | \n\t\t\t[71] | \n\t\t
MDAR (monodehydro-ascorbate reductase) | \n\t\t\tTef | \n\t\t\tIncreased concentration | \n\t\t\t[71] | \n\t\t
Total free amino acid | \n\t\t\tLittle millet | \n\t\t\tIncreased concentration | \n\t\t\t[40] | \n\t\t
Traits associated to diverse drought tolerance mechanisms in millets.
Agronomy-related traits: These refer to the traits that are commonly known as yield and yield components. Among these, number of tillers, number and size of panicle, seed and biomass yield, seed weight and harvest index are the major ones. However, conclusions could not be made from the two studies using drought-tolerant pearl millet cultivars since drought did not affect the shoot biomass in the first case [64] while it boosted the seed yield in the second case [65].
Morphology-related traits: Morphological or anatomical traits which play important roles in drought tolerance include root- and shoot length and leaf area [66]. However, changes in the morphological and biochemical properties of the flag leaf play a key role in drought tolerance as flag leaves are the primary source of photosynthesis [67]. Mechanical properties of the plant also affect drought tolerance in millets. Balsamo et al. [68] studied the leaf tensile strength or also known as force to tear in three Eragrostis species with different levels of tolerance to drought. According to their findings, drought-tolerant E. curvula had higher tensile strength values than the moderately drought-tolerant E. tef, which in turn had higher values than the drought-susceptible E. capensis, indicating a positive correlation between drought tolerance and leaf tensile strength [68]. Structural investigations of leaves from the three species revealed the presence of extensive lignification of bundle sheath extensions in E. tef and E. curvula unlike in E. capensis. A study in maize indicated that lignification of the midrib parenchyma and epidermis was directly correlated with increased tensile strength [69].
Physiology-related traits: Among the several physiological traits that are differentially regulated during moisture deficit, osmotic adjustment is a major mechanism that increases drought avoidance to enable the plant produce some yield. Osmotic adjustment, which refers to the lowering of the osmotic potential in the cytoplasm due to the accumulation of compatible solutes such as proline, glycine betaine and organic acids, contributes to turgor maintenance of shoots and roots [40]. In little millet, drought stress increased the amount of proline and glycine betaine in both the root and leaf [40]. According to the authors, the accumulation of free amino acids in this millet during drought might be related to the disruption in protein synthesis, induced proteolysis or its partial hydrolysis [40].Water-use efficiency of the plant is also important as moisture is mostly limited in the areas where millets are extensively cultivated. The experiment using drought-sensitive and drought-tolerant pearl millet genotypes showed that under moisture deficit conditions, the total amount of water extracted by both genotypes was comparable [65]. However, compared to susceptible genotypes, tolerant genotypes extracted less water prior to flowering and more water after flowering, enabling these genotypes to support the tillers and maintain the stay-green phenotype.
Biochemical-related traits: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are chemically reactive molecules that are useful in cell signalling at low concentrations but are damaging to cells when present at high concentrations. The main causes for the high production of ROS are environmental stresses such as drought and salinity [70]. In order to reduce the damaging effects of ROS, plants produce antioxidants, which include glutathione, ascorbate and carotenoids and ROS-scavenging enzymes which include superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT) and ascorbate peroxidase (AP or APX) [40]. In little millet, the activity of SOD, POD and CAT were elevated under drought conditions to enable the plant cope with unfavourable ROS accumulation [40]. Similarly, the activity of AP and monodehydro-ascorbate reductase (MDAR) increased in tef plants treated with drought compared to control plants receiving normal watering [71].
The sequence of the genome and transcriptome of plants provides information important to the understanding of the types of genes involved in the regulation of drought tolerance, particularly in plants with increased resistant to moisture scarcity. So far, the genome of foxtail millet [72, 73] and tef [3] has been sequenced.
Transcriptome sequencing of millets after exposure to moisture-deficit condition provides information on genes differentially regulated under exposure to abiotic stresses particularly to drought. A transcriptome-wide study of finger millet plants exposed to drought obtained 2824 genes that were differentially expressed under these conditions [74].
Genes known to be involved in drought response and/or tolerance of selected millets are presented in Table 5. Wang et al. [75] indicated that the overexpression of SiLEA14, a type of LEA gene from foxtail millet, increased the tolerance of Arabidopsis plants to salt and osmotic stress. Parvathi et al. [76] reported the induction of several genes when finger millet was exposed to drought. The up-regulated genes include metallothionein, farnesylated protein ATFP6, Farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase and protein phosphatase 2A.
\n\t\t\t\tGene name\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tSource of the gene\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTest organism (type)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tReference\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
SiLEA | \n\t\t\tFoxtail millet | \n\t\t\tOverexpression in foxtail millet and Arabidopsis increased drought tolerance | \n\t\t\t[75] | \n\t\t
SiARDP | \n\t\t\tFoxtail millet | \n\t\t\tOverexpression in foxtail millet and Arabidopsis increased drought tolerance | \n\t\t\t[83] | \n\t\t
EcDehydrin7 | \n\t\t\tFinger millet | \n\t\t\tOverexpression of EcDehydrin7 | \n\t\t\t[80] | \n\t\t
Ec-apx1 | \n\t\t\tFinger millet | \n\t\t\tExpression increased under drought | \n\t\t\t[82] | \n\t\t
Mt1D | \n\t\t\tbacteria | \n\t\t\tFinger millet expressing mt1D had better osmotic adjustment and chlorophyll retention under drought | \n\t\t\t[81] | \n\t\t
Metallothionein, | \n\t\t\tFinger millet | \n\t\t\tInduced under drought | \n\t\t\t[76] | \n\t\t
Farnesylated protein ATFP6 | \n\t\t\tFinger millet | \n\t\t\tInduced under drought | \n\t\t\t[76] | \n\t\t
Farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase | \n\t\t\tFinger millet | \n\t\t\tInduced under drought | \n\t\t\t[76] | \n\t\t
Protein phosphatase 2A | \n\t\t\tFinger millet | \n\t\t\tInduced under drought | \n\t\t\t[76] | \n\t\t
RISBZ4 | \n\t\t\tFinger millet | \n\t\t\tInduced under drought | \n\t\t\t[76] | \n\t\t
β-carbonic anhydrase (PgCA) | \n\t\t\tPearl millet | \n\t\t\tUp-regulated when exposed to drought | \n\t\t\t[79] | \n\t\t
Differentially regulated drought-related genes in millets.
Traits associated with drought tolerance were investigated using a genome scan and association mapping methods [77, 78]. A single gene known as β-carbonic anhydrase (PgCA) was consistently up-regulated in pearl millet exposed to multiple abiotic stresses including drought, salinity and heat [79]. Hence, this particular gene is useful in adapting the plant to diverse abiotic stresses. Other genes known to be involved in drought response or tolerance in millets were EcDehydrin 7 [80], mt1D [81] and Ec-apx1 [82] from finger millet, and SiARDP [83] from wild foxtail millet.
Although not yet reported for millets, the suppression of two genes, namely, SAL1 and ERA1, increased the drought tolerance of the model plant Arabidopsisthaliana [84, 85]. The era1 mutants develop tolerance to drought through a mechanism involving closing of the stomata [85].
National and international efforts have been made to collect and maintain landraces of various millets types. The recent review by Goron and Naizanda [6] indicates the institutions involved in the preservation efforts and the amount of germplasm available at each institution. In general, India and China dominate the collections of millets. While institutions in India maintain 67% of the total of 33650 finger millet accessions, a single institution in China called the Chinese National Gene Bank preserves 61.2% of the total of 43,580 foxtail collections. Similarly, in the Ethiopian Institute of Biodiversity (EIB), over 5000 tef landraces collected from various tef-growing regions in the country are available [86]. Although these germplasm collections might not be exhaustive, they can play a key role in improving the productivity of respective crops. Further, large-scale expeditions need to be made for other millets in order to fully survey and bank the existing diversity in millets.
Breeding for drought tolerance is the major objective of many crop-breeding programmes due to the widespread prevalence of the moisture-deficit problem in global agriculture. A number of crops with drought tolerance have been developed. There are two options for the management of crops in water-limiting environments: the genetic and agronomic [87]. The genetic approach requires robust and reproducible screening methods for the identification of traits of drought tolerance in germplasm and breeding materials, and incorporation of the same into high-yielding varieties using conventional and biotechnological tools.
Crop breeding has relied for many years on conventional and ancient techniques such as selection and hybridization. Mutation breeding, the process of using chemicals or radiation to generate mutant plants with desirable traits, has also been used for several decades and has been a key in the release of over 2000 crop varieties to the farming community among which drought-tolerant cultivars are included [88]. Crop improvement techniques that apply modern genetic and omics (genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics) tools include the following: (i) marker-assisted selection (MAS) which refers to the utilization of molecular markers located near genes of interest to breed for traits that are difficult to observe, (ii) TILLING (targeting induced local lesions in genomes) [89] or EcoTILLING [90], the high-throughput and non-transgenic techniques which rapidly detect point mutations in mutagenized populations, and (iii) Gene targeting that relies on the following three tools to increase the efficiency of gene targeting: zinc-finger nucleases [91, 92], TALEN (transcription activator-like effector nuclease) [93] and CRISPR/Cas (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats)/(CRISPR associated), type II prokaryotic adaptive immune system [94, 95].
The wise use of crop management practices which include the time of planting, frequency of tillage and the rate and time of fertilizer application is important particularly in the semi-arid regions where moisture is scarce. Flexibility to change from late maturing crops to early maturing crops when the rainfall arrives late in the season is important. In the central semi-arid regions of Ethiopia farmers start their season by planting sorghum in April. When sorghum fails due to late arrival of rain, they sow wheat in June. However, if the rain is still late or not enough for wheat plant establishment, farmers sow tef in July or early August as the last option. Compared to sorghum and wheat, tef requires less moisture and matures early.
Suggestions have been earlier given on the type of technologies to be adopted in the semi-arid regions of Southern Africa [96] and West Africa [97]. According to Mir and colleagues, these technologies should include genomics, physiology and breeding [98].
Access to agricultural inputs such as improved seeds, fertilizer and chemicals as well as credit and markets is important for farmers. In semi-arid areas where millets are dominantly cultivated, the amount and pattern of rainfall is erratic. Due to this, an insurance system known as Weather Index Drought Insurance has been implemented for the last decade in several African countries including Niger [99], Ghana [100], Kenya [101] and Burkina Faso [102] as well as India [103]. The successful insurance organization called ‘Kilimo Salama’ which was initially established by Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture (SFSA) and implemented in several East African countries has been recently transferred to the Agriculture and Climate Risk Enterprise Ltd. (ACRE) [104, 105].
Collaborations among national and international institutions are required in both research and development, in order first to develop improved millet cultivars and later to disseminate them to the farming community. Among the institutions with a global mandate to improve millets, ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics) has recently added tef to the list of its mandate crops [106]. With its headquarters in Patancheru, India and regional officers in Nairobi (Kenya) and Bamako (Mali), it has been focusing on the improvement of diverse millets. The centre is among the 15 international agricultural research centers that belong to the CGIAR (Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research), the global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for food security. Hence, the research and development of tef, a vital crop in the Horn of Africa that feeds over 50 million people in Ethiopia alone, will receive a global partnership towards its improvement and development. In general, suggestions given to the improvement of understudied or orphan crops [107, 108] could also be applied to the research and development of millets.
Millets play a significant role in the livelihood of the population of developing world especially due to their enormous contribution to the food security of these countries. However, these crops have not been sufficiently studied and hence have been named orphan crops. Both conventional and modern improvement techniques have not yet been adequately implemented. It is believed that the changing climate will have significant effects on the types of crops cultivated in the next century. Currently, widely cultivated crops that provide the daily diet for many (such as wheat) might not be extensively cultivated in the future due to environmental stresses, especially the increase in global temperature. Millets might provide alternative climate-smart crops, as their adaptations to challenging environment are better than the current major crops of the world. Enhancing the productivity of millets requires concreted efforts of breeders, agronomists, policy makers and donors at both individual and institutional capacities.
ABA; Abscisic acid
ACRE; Agriculture and Climate Risk Enterprise Ltd
AP or APX; Ascorbate peroxidase
CAT; Catalase
CGIAR; Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research
CSA; Central Statistical Agency (Ethiopia)
Ec-apx1; Ascorbate peroxidase
EIB; Ethiopian Institute of Biodiversity
FAO; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FAOSTAT; Food and Agriculture Organization Statistics
GR; Glutathione reductase
ICRISAT; International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics
LEA; Late embryogenesis abundant
MDAR; Monodehydro-ascorbate reductase
Mt1D:; Mannitol dehydrogenase
PgCA; β-carbonic anhydrase
POD; Peroxidase
PVC; Polyvinylchloride
ROS; Reactive oxygen species
SFSA; Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture
SiARDP; Setaria italica ABA-responsive DREB-binding protein
SiLEA14; Setaria italica late embryogenesis abundant 14
SOD; Superoxide dismutase
UN; United Nations
WRSI; Water Requirement Satisfaction Index.
I would like to thank Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture, SystemsX.ch and the University of Bern for supporting the Tef Improvement Project based at the Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Switzerland.
During the development stage, which is around year 1980, there were discussions about the pros and cons of EM [1]. The surfacing of EM was sparked from the critique towards customer centric model in marketing, which caused the lack of innovation and therefore resulted in process and replication of relatively similar products and services, and not very innovative results [2]. For years, EM research was focused on companies; moreover, researchers and practitioners tried to identify the success factors of a company, but were not fully focused on EM problem [3]. In addition, EM domain at the time has not become a developed field of study with established ideas.
Discussion about Entrepreneurial Marketing (EM) surfaced as a marketing practice that can help companies operating in fast changing environments. EM originates from an intercept between marketing and entrepreneurship, and integrates marketing and entrepreneurship through the common concepts that the two fields possess [4]. EM approach can proactively take advantage of innovation and help manage risk as long as marketing process is intended to “create, communicate, and give added value to customers” [5].
Several previous studies identified several characteristics of EM behavior, such as decision making [6], resources decision making and decision based on intuition and experience [7], focus on opportunity recognition, flexible approach on market and exploiting smaller niche market [8]. From initial discussions conducted, there was a phenomenon where EM behavior is proven to be different between companies that have been operating longer (scale-up companies) and start-ups. This conclusion is based on several initial researches that show that startup companies were more successful in implementing entrepreneurial marketing, and scale-up company would also be more successful in implementing entrepreneurial marketing. Despite that, there was still no study that explicitly studied the implementation of EM on scale-up companies compared to start-up companies. Majority of EM studies depended on case study, and as a result, although it gave an overview of the companies’ experience in detail, but it could not be generalized to various samples. Several studies conducted previously also tend to be unable to decide on the dimension that is most dominant that would contribute to the entrepreneurial marketing behavior if the researcher decided to research companies with certain characteristics.
Based on the reasons above, researcher will attempt to analyze the difference in entrepreneurial marketing behavior of start-up companies compared to scale-up companies. The unit of this study is companies located in Indonesia, and operating in eight provinces. Start-up company is defined as a company that has been conducting business operation for less than 6 years, whereas scale-up company is a company that has been operating for more than 6 years. Snowball sampling was used to select the respondents with the entirety of firms in Indonesia, be it services or manufacturing, as the population. Furthermore, this study is aimed to bridge the gap in literature by analyzing how far the difference is in the implementation of entrepreneurial marketing behavior between start-up company and scale-up company.
In the study on EM definition [9], expanded it to a wider version by combining the definition of entrepreneurship and the definition of marketing of American Marketing Association (page 27): EM is an organizational function and a series of processes to create innovation, communicate, and give value to customer and to manage relationship with customer in a way that benefits the organization and its stakeholders, and this can be indicated by innovation, risk taking, proactive, that can be done without the currently existing resources. However in the initial conception, EM was often seen as reactive, not advanced and limited to individual’s wants [4, 9, 10]. EM practice is describes as “an entrepreneur’s unplanned action, not linear and visionary.” Conceptualized EM as “proactive identification and exploitation of opportunities to obtain and maintain customers that is beneficial through innovative approach on risk management, increasing resources, and value creation,” a more recent definition proposed in the literature [9, 10]. Researcher realized the two definitions are in accordance with the core concept of EM, and this article focuses on the dimension that underlies both definitions.
Several studies have explored various combinations of EM dimensions. Though fragmented, several researchers collectively formed EM paradigm [11, 12]. Several further studies were conducted by focusing on the understanding of the reciprocal relationship between the main constructs (for example, encouraged opportunity, proactive, focus on innovation, customer intensity, risk management, resource development and value creation) of Entrepreneurial Marketing. EM scale recently developed and tested it for convergent, discriminant and nominative validity. The latest development shows that EM is a multidimensional construct [9].
Therefore, based on the results of various studies, it can be suggested that EM dimensions are as follows: growth orientation, opportunity orientation, total customer focus, value creation networking, informal market analysis, and closeness to the market whereby each EM dimension will be explained briefly below.
EM is often linked with growth. Entrepreneur marketers often have long term goal in their marketing activity and aim to generate sales growth through long term relationship. Marketer’s ambition to grow the company will eventually determine the company’s business model, competitive strategy and resource management. To grow, marketers adopt several ways to grow their business, including increasing repeated business and creating a community of customers who are dedicated and loyal to the product. Several researchers suggested that on EM characteristic dimension is encouraging growth in the identified target market.
EM puts emphasis on pursuing opportunities, regardless of consideration to the existing resources. Marketers respond to the opportunities that arise by improvising and allocating their resources [13]. Even though opportunities can arise randomly, but EM is known to be proactive and to always look for new opportunities. Entrepreneurial marketers are able to see and have the willingness to be a pioneer in serving unfulfilled needs and capturing arising opportunities before their competitors. Therefore, innovation and creativity are important processes that help EM to change opportunity to reality. Companies that adopt EM often focus on creating new product category and directing their customer to respond to the result of company’s innovation continuously [14]. Innovation is to be understood not only limited to the product or service, but also including the process or marketing strategy.
EM make their customers their main priority and treat customers as active participants in their marketing decision making process. Marketers integrated their customers to their operation and accept regularly recommendations from customers. Customers’ preference directly plays an important role in determining product approach, price, distribution, and communication of a company. In order to follow the change, EM behavior prioritizes customers’ preference, using very focused, flexible approach that can be adjusted to the market [4, 13]. They are willing to make new promises to customers, modify their product design and change price to give the most satisfactory product or service for the customers.
Value creation through networking is an important concept in EM. EM collects market information and gain access to potential customer through their network. The information from network is also what’s helping marketer to give product with the best quality to the customers, and to create a competitive advantage compared to the competitors [15]. Resources from network can help companies to manage their risks and allocate their resources more efficiently. This is especially applicable to small companies with marketing activities that are usually limited by their lack of resources. Note that entrepreneurial marketer’s network is not limited to suppliers and customers, but also including competitors.
Entrepreneurial marketers often follow their intuition when making marketing decision and consider intuitive assessment as a very important part in assessing market potential [16]. Marketing decision under EM does not always depend on formal planning process. Company’s marketing strategy can also appear and adjusted during implementation. Marketers have the tendency to not conduct formal market research since they believe that they gain intuitive understanding that is rich about the market through their constant contact with the customers. By taking into consideration customers’ perception during the interaction, marketer can gain valuable market information and identify appropriate market opportunity.
EM often have decision-making process that is tightly related to the customer. They make decisions based on customer’s feedback or information that they gain during the direct interaction or face-to-face conversation with the customer. Through relationship with suppliers and trade partners, marketers can gather information about the market and customer’s change in preference. This information enables them to more effectively implement marketing strategy and communication. Several EM rely on experience when making decision about new product and service because they believe that experience helps make competent marketing decision.
Previous entrepreneurial studies consider 6 years or less as the conventional operational definition of start-up companies [17, 18]. This research also explored the validity of the results using different cut off, whereby the company has been operating for 6 or 7 years, but it did not make any difference. This further ensures that the cut off for start-up companies operating for 6 years has a strong judgment (Figure 1).
Conceptual model. Source: Christina [1].
The relationship between EM and company’s characteristic needs to be explored, two hypotheses about the relationship between the practice of EM in company and characteristic was beginning to be developed. Considering entrepreneurial behavior is often found in small companies, start-up companies and scale-up companies, this research studies the relationship between the practice of EM and company’s characteristic, which is the operating age of the company. In the context of EM practices being related to company’s age, several researchers admitted that company’s age has significant impact towards the strategy and performance of the company [19]. Previous studies stated that entrepreneurial process usually happens at the beginning stages of company development [20]. Several studies have also provided evidence that shows that start-up companies have several characteristics that enables it to be more entrepreneurial than scale-up companies. Start-up companies are not limited by certain structures and routines that prevents them from thinking creatively. As a result, they can use their resources more innovatively and make more innovation. Several studies also found that start-up companies have slight advantage compared to scale-up companies in exploring new technology [21], and that start-up companies tend to have more innovation activities compared to scale-up companies. The lack of routine also enables start-up company to react more readily to rising market opportunity in unknown region better than scale-up companies. In a study, start-up company can make use of their knowledge from the international market and expand their business through the launch of new product or service, whereby scale-up companies are unable to do that [22]. For companies at the beginning of the life stages (start-up), they do have a very well-defined knowledge management process. Start-up companies are more informal in their planning and marketing analysis [23] and often improvise to make or implement a solution [24]. Improvisation enables them to be more customer oriented by adjusting their product/service rapidly based on customer’s preference and by using innovative marketing strategy that might not be thought up of by scale-up companies. Start-up companies emphasize more on network creation and relationship through using more of information from their network compared to scale-up companies. Network and alliances help companies to plant themselves in their market and gather important market information through direct interaction with their customers. Researchers believe that network not only helps start-up companies identify new market opportunities, but also helps them to survive [25]. This might be the reason why start-up companies are able to grow in small market and in environments that do not require wide production asset [26]. Based on the discussion from the studies, therefore the hypotheses are as follows:
H1. Start-up companies have higher entrepreneurial marketing behavior than scale-up companies.
H2. Value creation networking will be the dominant dimension in start-up companies and scale-up companies.
This research used quantitative approach, since it examined the significance of EM dimension in determining the dominant dimension among start-up companies and scale-up companies. In quantitative approach, the study uses rationalization process of a phenomenon that occurred and measured the variable (indicator variable) that is being studied, and would subsequently try to make a generalized conclusion. The population of the study is companies in eight provinces in Indonesia. Snowball sampling was used to select the chosen respondents. Questionnaires were distributed to national sample from 406 business owners in Indonesia, spread throughout eight provinces. Start-up companies are companies that have been operating for less than 6 years, whereas scale-up companies are companies that have been operating for more than 6 years. The analysis technique to test the hypotheses proposed is by the use of multiple regression analysis and t-test difference test.
The dependent variable in this study is EM behavior, measured using 6 questions. Five points Likert scale is used as follows: agree, slightly agree, disagree, slightly disagree, and strongly disagree. The independent variables are categorized according to the EM dimensions, which are growth orientation, closeness to the market, value creation networking and informal market analysis, each measured through three questions, as for opportunity orientation and total customer focus are each measured through four questions (Figure 2).
Research model. Source: Christina [1].
From the sample of 406 companies there are 185 (45.56%) start-up companies and 221 (54.43%) scale-up companies that were the respondents. In terms of the company asset, there are 23% companies with asset between 200 and 500 million, 37% companies with assets more than 500 million to 10 billion, and 40% companies with assets more than 10 billion. The sample characteristics are based on the type of industries as follows: 3% service, 10% manufacturing, 3% real estate, 7% retail, 3% health tools industry, 3% biotechnology, 3% sugar refination, 3% property, 3% food and beverage, 3% retail houseware, 3% coffee processing, 3% trading company, 3% hospitality, 7% freight forwarding and logistic, 3% fishery, 7% batik industry, 3% paint company, 3% agency, 7% furniture, 10% digital industry, and 7% branding and graphic design.
All 406 companies have launched new product or service in their business with details as follows: 58% of the companies have launched new product or service in its business within ≤2 years, 26% of the companies have launched a new product or service within 2.5 ≤ 5 years, 13% of the companies have launched a new product or service within 5.5 ≤ 10 years and 2% of the companies have launched a new product or service within ≤10.5 tahun. Therefore, more than half of the sample has launched new product or service in less than 2 years. A total of 96% of the sample agreed and strongly agreed to appreciate process related to innovation and only 4% slightly disagreed or disagreed with innovation process.
In addition, below is the observation of respondents’ answers for each of the questionnaires questions that can be seen in Table 1 as follows:
Code | Question | Mean | Std. deviation |
---|---|---|---|
G1 | Long term growth is more important than immediate gain | 4.5 | 0.7593 |
G2 | Our main purpose is to grow the business | 4.633 | 0.5405 |
G3 | We aggressively try to expand our customer base | 4.1601 | 0.9514 |
O1 | We keep searching for new business opportunities | 4.4113 | 0.73419 |
O2 | Our marketing effort leads the customer, and not to respond | 3.4704 | 1.33809 |
O3 | Adding innovative product or service is very important to our success | 4.5 | 0.73954 |
O4 | Creativity stimulates good marketing decision | 4.5739 | 0.65032 |
T1 | Majority of our marketing decisions is based on what we learnt from daily contact with the customers | 4.2833 | 0.80189 |
T2 | Our customers require us to act flexibly and according to their specific needs | 4.0739 | 0.97851 |
T3 | Everyone in this company make customers their main priority | 4.5123 | 0.71912 |
T4 | We adjust ourselves quickly to fulfill our customers’ everchanging expectations | 4.4532 | 0.67515 |
V1 | We learn from our competitors | 4.4039 | 0.81612 |
V2 | We use our friends and main industry partners extensively to help us in developing and marketing our products and services | 4.2931 | 0.86084 |
V3 | Majority of our marketing decisions is based on information exchange with people in our personal and professional network | 4.1897 | 0.81103 |
I1 | Introducing new product or service usually only involves limited research and formal market analysis | 3.1059 | 1.41635 |
I2 | Our marketing decisions are based more on informal customer feedback rather than formal market research | 3.4631 | 1.16634 |
I3 | It is important to rely on intuition when making marketing decision | 3.2217 | 1.25122 |
C1 | Customer demands are usually the reason why we introduce new product and/ or service | 4.9012 | 0.90122 |
C2 | We usually introduce new product and service based on the recommendation from our suppliers | 4.9831 | 0.98316 |
C3 | We highly rely on experience when making marketing decision | 4.7436 | 0.74367 |
EM1 | Growth orientation is an important factor in building business success | 4.5148 | 0.63131 |
EM2 | Opportunity orientation is an important factor in building business success | 4.4852 | 0.60739 |
EM3 | Total customer focus is an important factor in building business success | 4.5 | 0.63148 |
EM4 | Value Creation Through Networking is an important factor in building business success | 4.5 | 0.67678 |
EM5 | Informal Market Analysis is an important factor in building business success | 4.3374 | 0.67909 |
EM6 | Closeness To The Market is an important factor in building business success | 4.4113 | 0.71372 |
Mean and standard deviation of respondents’ answers.
Source: data processing, 2020.
Almost all responses from respondents for all questions have the mean of above 4, only the mean for the answers to opportunity orientation dimension question, which is “Our marketing effort leads the customer, and not to respond” and the three questions for all dimensions of informal analysis dimension that have answers mean between 3 and 3.5, which are “Introducing new product or service usually only involves limited research and formal market analysis,” “Our marketing decisions are based more on informal customer feedback rather than formal market research,” “It is important to rely on intuition when making marketing decision.”
Validity test using Pearson correlations shows that the value of calculated r is > table r, based on the significance test 0.01 (two-tailed), which means that the items above are valid. As for the reliability test, it was conducted using Cronbach’s alpha that shows value of 0.876, higher than 0.6 which means that it is reliable, that the instrument used in the study to obtain information used can be relied on as a tool to collect data and can reveal actual information in the field.
t-Test differences test is used to prove that there is a difference in the entrepreneurial marketing behavior between start-up and scale-up companies, based on Tables 2 and 3 as follows.
Start_Scale | Mean | Std. deviation | Std. error mean | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Antremark2 | Start-up | 185 | 4.4595 | 0.51224 | 0.03766 |
Scale-up | 221 | 4.457 | 0.47518 | 0.03196 |
Group statistic.
Levene’s test for equality of variance | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
F | Sig | t | df | Sig. (2-tailed) | Mean difference | Std. error difference | 95% confidence interval of the difference | |||
Lower | Upper | |||||||||
Entre mark2 | Equal variance assume of | 2.763 | 0.097 | 0.05 | 404 | 0.96 | 0.00245 | 0.04907 | −0.09402 | 0.09891 |
Equal variance assume of | 0.05 | 379.758 | 0.961 | 0.00245 | 0.0494 | −0.09468 | 0.09957 |
T-test difference testing.
Table 2 shows that there are 185 (45.56%) start-up companies and 221 (54.43%) scale-up companies as respondents, with mean of 4.45 for start-up companies and mean of 4.45 for scale-up companies. The standard deviations for the two are 0.51 and 0.47 respectively, which indicates that the respondents’ responses tend to be homogeneous.
Table 3 shows EM differences test analysis for companies managed by founders and companies managed by professionals by using Levene’s test in independent t-test. Sig value (two-tailed) or p value. In the test below the p value is 0.96, whereby it is >0.05. Since it is >0.05, then there is no statistically meaningful or significant difference between entrepreneurial marketing behavior of start-up companies and scale-up companies on the 0.05 probability level.
As for Tables 4–6, multiple regression tests were conducted to analyze whether the six dimensions have significant impact on entrepreneurial marketing behavior of start-up companies compared to scale-up companies.
Model | R | R square | Adjusted R square | Std. error of the estimate |
---|---|---|---|---|
Young (<6 years) | 0.767 | 0.588 | 0.579 | 0.33896 |
Old (>6 years) | 0.608 | 0.370 | 0.352 | 0.38244 |
Model summary.
Type of companies | Sum of squares | df | Mean square | F | Sig. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Young (start-up) | Regression | 36.250 | 6 | 6.042 | 89.404 | 0.000 |
Residual | 12.029 | 178 | 0.068 | |||
Total | 48.279 | 184 | ||||
Old (scale-up) | Regression | 18.376 | 6 | 3.063 | 20.940 | 0.000 |
Residual | 31.299 | 214 | 0.146 | |||
Total | 49.675 | 220 |
ANOVA.
Type of companies | Unstandardized coefficients | Std. error | Standardized coefficients | t | Sig. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | Beta | ||||
Young Old | Young Old | Young Old | Young Old | Young Old | |
(Constant) | 0.983 | 0.164 | 6.01 | 0 | |
1.713 | 0.311 | 5.516 | 0 | ||
GrowthOrient1 | 0.165 | 0.051 | 0.194 | 3.227 | 0.001 |
0.119 | 0.058 | 0.142 | 2.063 | 0.04 | |
OpportunityOrient2 | 0.053 | 0.055 | 0.061 | 0.976 | 0.33 |
–0.106 | 0.055 | –0.141 | –1.933 | 0.055 | |
TotasCustFocus3 | 0.065 | 0.044 | 0.087 | 1.463 | 0.145 |
0.254 | 0.059 | 0.268 | 4.334 | 0.00 | |
ValueCreationNetwork4 | 0.46 | 0.055 | 0.568 | 8.352 | 0.0 |
0.178 | 0.049 | 0.25 | 3.669 | 0 | |
InformalMarketAnalysis5 | −0.006 | 0.025 | −0.012 | −0.24 | 0.811 |
−0.18 | 0.031 | −0.412 | −5.888 | 0 | |
ClosnessToTheMarket6 | 0.076 | 0.102 | 0.117 | 0.743 | 0.459 |
0.345 | 0.063 | 0.384 | 5.472 | 0 |
Coefficient.
According to Table 4, R value is 0.767 and R square value is 0.588 for start-up companies, and as for scale-up companies, the R is 0.606 and the R square is 0.444, which suggests that the percentage contribution of the independent variables (which are: growth orientation, opportunity orientation, total customer focus, value creation networking, informal market analysis, and closeness to the market) on EM behavior is 58.8% for start-up companies and 37.0% for scale-up companies.
According to Table 5, it shows that the significance is 0.000 be it for start-up companies and also for scale-up companies, which means that there is a significant impact of growth orientation, opportunity orientation, total customer focus, value creation networking, informal market analysis, and closeness to the market simultaneously on EM behavior of start-up companies and also for scale-up companies.
According to Table 6, it can be analyzed that the six dimensions have significant impact on entrepreneurial marketing behavior. For start-up companies, there are only two dimensions that are significant, which are opportunity orientation and value creation networking. As for scale-up companies, all dimensions are significant, which are growth orientation, opportunity orientation, total customer focus, value creation networking, informal market analysis, and closeness to the market. They are deemed significant because the significance value is smaller than 0.05. Value creation networking variable is the most dominant dimension for start-up companies, with beta value of 0.46, and as for scale-up companies, the most dominant dimension is closeness to the market, with beta value of 0.345.
The result of the study shows that there is no difference in entrepreneurial marketing behavior between start-up companies and scale-up companies. For both start-up and scale-up companies, value creation networking seems to be the most dominant dimension. For start-up companies, they use difference approach in pursuing their market opportunity. Start-up companies pursue opportunity by relying on speed, flexibility, and ability to satisfy market niche, whereas scale-up companies pursue opportunity by relying on financial resources and human resources [27]. Start-up companies have opportunistic, flexible and innovative marketing decision making process with clear target. Company can improvise and make sudden changes in their decision making pattern when involved with their market. As a result, they have the ability to react rapidly to environmental changes and tend to capture new opportunities at a faster rate than scale-up companies [6, 28]. Start-up companies have less decision makers that dominate compared to scale-up companies. As a result, decision and strategy in start-up companies will be directly impacted by the personal intention of the decision maker [29].
Finally, start-up companies have a more flat organizational structure compared to scale-up companies, and it makes them closer with the customers. Members of the company at all levels in start-up companies have potential to be involved in interactions at individual level and direct face to face interaction with the customers [6]. Also, it is relatively easy for start-up companies to access market information through direct means [30]. As a result, start-up companies have the tendency to invest in creating personal relationship with their main customers to build strong customer contact compared to scale-up companies.
In detail, this research found that start-up companies are more oriented to value creation to build networking in marketing. As for scale-up companies, closeness to the market dimension is shown to be the dimension with the most dominant impact on entrepreneurial behavior.
Various studies suggested that the EM behavior is common in start-up companies, and this suggests the assumption that scale-up company type is not suited for Entrepreneurial Marketing. However, this study has systematically found that there is not difference between the entrepreneurial marketing behavior of start-up and scale-up companies. However, it was found that for start-up companies, value creation networking is the most dominant dimension, and as for scale-up companies, closeness to the market dimension is the most dominant dimension.
In the context of EM practices, the findings of this study, which are the characteristics of start-up and scale-up companies, are the right determining factor for EM practices. Therefore, this study gives important theoretical contribution, whereby EM behavior cannot be conceptualized only through the activities of start-up companies and scale-up companies, but should also use other steps that will represent the entrepreneurial level of a company better, such as analyzing the entrepreneurial organization aspect.
This study offers several implications for future studies. Whereby, the result of this study illustrates that start-up companies do not have well defined market or established customer base, therefore they rely less on market demand/market information compared to scale-up companies when introducing new products. These findings suggest that future studies need to analyze how far EM can help in reducing effect of responsibility for newness within the company and to identify the best EM practices that should be adopted by the company so that they can survive in the long run.
The research was financially funded by the Ministry of Research, Technology, and Higher Education Directorate General of Research and Development (Kementerian Riset, Teknologi, dan Pendidikan Tinggi Direktorat Jenderal Penguatan Riset dan Pengembangan).
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