Chemical analysis results of L1, L2, L3, L4, and L5.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1668",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Zoonosis",title:"Zoonosis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'Zoonotic diseases are mainly caused by bacterial, viral or parasitic agents although "unconventional agents" such as prions could also be involved in causing zoonotic diseases. Many of the zoonotic diseases are a public health concern but also affect the production of food of animal origin thus they could cause problems in international trade of animal-origin goods. A major factor contributing to the emergence of new zoonotic pathogens in human populations is increased contact between humans and animals. This book provides an insight on zoonosis and both authors and the editor hope that the work compiled in it would help to raise awareness and interest in this field. It should also help researchers, clinicians and other readers in their research and clinical usage.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0479-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6955-0",doi:"10.5772/2125",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"zoonosis",numberOfPages:450,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"43d931014e6a572810efe358dd1fa9e5",bookSignature:"Jacob Lorenzo-Morales",publishedDate:"April 4th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1668.jpg",numberOfDownloads:58245,numberOfWosCitations:41,numberOfCrossrefCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:51,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:109,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 30th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 27th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 1st 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 1st 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 30th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"57106",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacob",middleName:null,surname:"Lorenzo-Morales",slug:"jacob-lorenzo-morales",fullName:"Jacob Lorenzo-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/57106/images/system/57106.jpg",biography:"Dr. Jacob Lorenzo-Morales graduated from the Faculty of Biological Sciences at the University of La Laguna (ULL), Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain in 2001. He was granted a PhD degree in Parasitology in the same University in 2006. Since then he has been working on water-borne and zoonotic diseases (mainly protozoa) in different institutions such as the University of the West Indies in Jamaica and the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom. Currently he is working as the Senior Researcher at the University Institute of Tropical Diseases and Public Health of the Canary Islands, ULL. His interests and areas of research are epidemiology, molecular biology and therapy against emerging pathogens such as free-living amoebae and zoonotic parasites. Dr. Lorenzo-Morales is the author of more than 30 papers and chapters in international journals and books.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of La Laguna",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1046",title:"Infectious Diseases",slug:"infectious-diseases"}],chapters:[{id:"34761",title:"Managerial Epidemiology and Zoonoses: Application of Managerial Epidemiology in Control of Zoonotic Disease in Bosnia and Herzegovina",doi:"10.5772/37389",slug:"managerial-epidemiology-and-zoonoses-application-of-managerial-epidemiology-in-control-of-zoonotic-d",totalDownloads:3829,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Semra Čavaljuga",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34761",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34761",authors:[{id:"112512",title:"Prof.",name:"Semra",surname:"Cavaljuga",slug:"semra-cavaljuga",fullName:"Semra Cavaljuga"}],corrections:null},{id:"34762",title:"Health Adjusted Life Years (HALY) - A Promising Measure to Estimate the Burden of Zoonotic Diseases on Human Health?",doi:"10.5772/38269",slug:"health-adjusted-life-years-haly-a-promising-measure-to-estimate-the-burden-of-zoonotic-diseases-on-h",totalDownloads:4929,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Dietrich Plass, Paulo Pinheiro and Marie-Josée Mangen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34762",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34762",authors:[{id:"116318",title:"Dr.",name:"Marie-Jose",surname:"Mangen",slug:"marie-jose-mangen",fullName:"Marie-Jose Mangen"},{id:"118372",title:"Dr.",name:"Dietrich",surname:"Plass",slug:"dietrich-plass",fullName:"Dietrich Plass"},{id:"118392",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",surname:"Pinheiro",slug:"paulo-pinheiro",fullName:"Paulo Pinheiro"}],corrections:null},{id:"34763",title:"Sciences of Complexity and Chaos to Analyze Vectors and Zoonosis",doi:"10.5772/38291",slug:"sciences-of-complexity-and-chaos-to-analyze-vectors-and-zoonosis",totalDownloads:1534,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Emilio Arch-Tirado and Alfonso Alfaro-Rodríguez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34763",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34763",authors:[{id:"42077",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilio",surname:"Arch-Tirado",slug:"emilio-arch-tirado",fullName:"Emilio Arch-Tirado"}],corrections:null},{id:"34764",title:"Zoonotic Role of the Grasscutter",doi:"10.5772/37893",slug:"zoonotic-role-of-the-grasscutter",totalDownloads:4343,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Maxwell N. 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Among them, water pollution is the most serious due to its liquidity which may bring other pollutions. Surface water pollution and groundwater contamination are some of the environmental problems today. One of the cases of environmental pollution is due to heavy metal contaminants such as copper, lead, cadmium, chromium, arsenic, zinc, etc. Also, heavy metals are concerned because of their strong toxicity even at low concentrations. Based on the type of mining, the kinds and the concentrations of metal ions are many and varied. Heavy metal ions have high toxicity and poor biodegradability for plants and animals at higher concentrations [3, 4].
In recent years, clay minerals have been aroused increasing interest as adsorbents by virtue of their properties, which make them attractive materials for adsorbing heavy metal ions. Their abundance in nature, low cost, and good cation adsorptive properties, a result of their negatively charged layers and high specific surface areas, make them suitable for adsorption of metal ions [5, 6]. LDH used in this paper are the antitypes of clay minerals. Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) are lamellar ionic compounds containing a positively charged layer and exchangeable anions in the interlayer. They consist of brucite-like layers and are represented by the general formula
The layered structure of LDHs.
The ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) is a chelating agent widely used in industry and agriculture. It forms strong complexes with the ratio 1:1 between heavy metal ions and ligand. The EDDS (N, N′-1, 2-Ethanediylbis-1-Aspartic Acid) is also a chelating agent, which may offer a biodegradable alternative to EDTA and is currently used on a large scale in numerous applications [10, 11]. The structure of this two chelating agents were shown in Figure 2.
The structure of EDTA and EDDS.
Considering the structure of LDHs, it is suggested that these compounds can be intercalated with different polydentate ligands. Recently, the study using LDHs modified with chelating agents as the potential adsorbents of heavy metals from aqueous solution has been reported [12, 13]. The aim of this work is at first to synthesize and to characterize LDHs intercalated with EDTA or EDDS and to study the uptake of heavy metals (Cu2+, Pb2+, Cd2+) by these hybrid compounds. The following five kinds of compounds synthesized in this work are ZnAl-NO3 (L1), ZnAl-EDTA (L2), MgAl-NO3 (L3), MgAl-EDTA (L4), and MgAl-EDDS (L5). To confirm the effect of intercalation with EDTA, the adsorption of metallic ions onto L1 and L2 is also compared. This study investigated the adsorption ability of LDHS as adsorbent for Pb, Cu, and Cd from aqueous solution. Finally, the further developments of LDHs as useful adsorbent with the future of application in the environmental chemistry are mentioned.
Chemical reagents including Zn(NO3)2·6H2O, Al(NO3)3·9H2O, Mg(NO3)2·6H2O, Cu(NO3)2·6H2O, Pb(NO3)2, Na2H2EDTA·2H2O, NaOH, HNO3 and Zn(II) Mg(II), and Al(II) standard solution were purchased from Kanto Chemical Co., Inc.; Cd(II) standard solutions were prepared by diluting a standard solution (1000 mg L−1); EDDS (35%) was purchased from Sigma Co., Ltd.; and all reagents used were of analytical grade. CO2 free water (>18.2 MΩ) which was treated as an ultrapure water system (RFU 424TA, Advantech Aquarius) was employed throughout the work. The pH meter (HORIBA F-72) was used for measurement of pH while adjusting the pH by using 0.01 or 0.1 mol L−1 NaOH aqueous solution and 0.01 or 0.1 mol L−1 HNO3 aqueous solution. All synthesis should be performed under a N2 atmosphere condition to avoid carbonate contamination.
The synthesis of LDHs intercalated with EDTA or EDDS includes two steps: (1) the preparation of the precursor LDHs (L1 or L4) and (2) the anion exchange reaction of this compound with chelating agents [14]. All the synthesis was purged with N2 to avoid CO2 uptake from atmosphere.
Synthesis of Precursor L1 and L4
L1 was prepared by dropping addition of 100 mL aqueous solution of 0.02 mol L−1 Zn(NO3)2·6H2O and 0.01 mol L−1Al (NO3)3·9H2O to 100 mL NaOH/NaNO3 solution. Then, the solutions were agitated at 70°C for 8 h by maintaining the pH, separated by centrifugation, and washed until neutral. L4 was also synthesized by using Mg (NO3)2·6H2O and Al (NO3)3·9H2O as the similar method [15, 16].
Synthesis of L2, L3, and L5
L2 was synthesized as follows. Under a N2 atmosphere, 0.015 mol of EDTA or EDDS was added to the 150 mL of suspended solution of L1. Then, the mixing solutions were agitated at 70°C for 8 h under a certain pH degree, then separated by centrifugation, washed until neutral, and then dried at 60°C overnight [12, 17]. L5 was synthesized by L4 as the similar method for L2.
Elemental chemical analyses of C, H, and N in LDHs were carried out using an elemental analyzer instrument (JMC10, J-SCIENCE LAB CO., Ltd.). After dissolving the sample by HNO3, the amount of metallic ions in LDHs was obtained by ICP-MS (Agilent HP 4500, Thermo). Infrared spectra were obtained using the KBr disc method, with wavenumbers from 400 to 4000 cm−1 on a FT-IR (FTIR-4200, Jasco, Japan). XRD (X-ray powder diffraction) of LDHs samples were carried out on a RINT2500HR-PC (RIGAKU Corporation) using Cu
For obtaining the optimum conditions regarding the adsorption of heavy metal, the batch experiments were studied by varying pH, contact time, adsorbent dose, and initial concentration on the adsorption of heavy metal [18, 19, 20]. The adsorption experiments of Cu(II) and Pb(II) using L2 and L3 were carried out. A certain amount of L2 or L3 was contacted with 30 mL of an aqueous solution containing known initial each metal ion (nitrate salts) ranging from 0.1 to 2 g L−1. Sorption experiments were conducted in the pH range of 2–6, contact time from 30 minutes to 6 h, temperature from 25 to 40°C, and adsorbent dosage 5–40 mg. The pH of each solution was adjusted using 0.1 mol L−1 NH4OH and 0.1 mol L−1 HNO3. The adsorption capacities of Cu(II) or Pb(II) on L1, L2, and L3 were compared with that of commercial LDHs: DHT-4A ([Mg4.5Al2(OH)13CO3⋅3.5H2O], Kyowa Chemical Industry Co., Ltd), which is abbreviated as L0 below.
The adsorption experiments of Cd(II) were also carried out similar as the method below. The experiment using heavy metallic ions solution without the adsorbent was also performed to identify potential loss of heavy metallic ions during the process such as precipitation. To confirm the effect of intercalation with EDTA, the adsorption of Cu(II), Pb(II) Cd(II) onto L4 and L5 are also compared.
The suspension containing the adsorbent and each of the above metallic solution was filtered through a 0.10 μm membrane filter (Mixed Cellulose Ester 47 mm, Advantec MFS, Inc.) to remove each metallic ion that have been adsorbed into the adsorbent. Then, the concentration of Cu(II) or Pb(II) in the filtrate was determined with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS), and the concentration of Cd(II) in the filtrate was determined by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrophotometer (ICP-AES) (SPS 1500, Seiko Instrument Inc).
For data analysis, various equilibrium, kinetic, and thermodynamic models (equations) were employed to interpret the data and establish the extent of adsorption. The metallic ions uptake by each adsorbent was calculated using the Eq. (1):
where
In adsorption processes, it is necessary and critical for the equilibrium isotherm studies to predict the behavior of pollutant adsorption onto the sorbent surfaces. Two common adsorption models, Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models, were applied to evaluate the adsorption data obtained in this study.
The Langmuir adsorption model is based on the assumption that maximum adsorption corresponds to saturated monolayer of solute molecules on the adsorbent surface [21, 22]. Langmuir model is given by Eq. (2):
where
The linearized Freundlich model isotherm is represented by the following equation:
where
The kinetic data can be used to determine the time required for adsorption equilibrium and provide useful data to improve the efficiency of the adsorption model and develop predictive models [24, 25]. In this work, pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order models were applied for modeling the adsorption process. The pseudo-first-order model is expressed as the Eq. (4):
where
The linear form of the pseudo-second-order rate equation is given as follows:
where
The chemical analysis of LDH samples is shown in Table 1. The molar ratio of
wt% | N | H | Atomic ratios | Proposed formula | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C | MII/MII | C/H | H/N | ||||
L1 | 0.54 | 5.17 | 3.24 | 2.23 | 0.01 | 8.79 | [Mg2Al(OH)6]NO3 |
L2 | 11.2 | 3.83 | 4.19 | 1.88 | 0.22 | 20.1 | [Mg2Al(OH)6]2[C10H14N208] |
L3 | 9.82 | 2.21 | 4.15 | 1.79 | 0.20 | 26.3 | [Mg2Al(OH)6]2[C10H13N2Na08] |
L4 | 0.06 | 4.26 | 2.38 | 2.10 | 0.00 | 7.82 | [Zn2Al(OH)6]NO3 |
L5 | 13.7 | 3.35 | 3.60 | 1.67 | 0.31 | 15.1 | [Zn2Al(OH)6]2 [C10H14N208] |
Chemical analysis results of L1, L2, L3, L4, and L5.
The FT-IR spectra of L1 and L2 and L3 are shown in Figure 3, and that of L4 and L5 are shown in Figure 4. Typical M-OH (M—metallic ions) vibration modes due to the hydroxide layer between 400 and 1000 cm−1 are found in both Figures 3 and 4.
FT-IR spectra of (a) L1, (b) L2, and (c) L3.
FT-IR spectra of (a) L4 and (b) L5.
The very sharp peak at 1385 cm−1 in Figures 3(a) and 4(a) is attributed to the NO3− stretching vibration. The NO3− stretching vibration at 1385 cm−1 is not observed from Figures 3(b) to 4(b). It may be due to the group which is hidden by the band at 1394 cm−1 [26, 28]. The absorption bands at 1600 and 1394 cm−1 are characteristics of the symmetrical and asymmetrical vibration of COO- groups. The position of these bonds is similar to the spectrum of LDHs which is reported by Parida et al. [29] and [30]. It is found that EDTA has been intercalated into the interlayer successfully, although a certain amount of -NO3 may still retain in the compound judging from the results of chemical analysis. The wide band at around 3450 cm−1 may be attributed to the -H bonding stretching vibrations of -OH groups and water molecules. The band at 1623 cm−1 of L1 and L4 is assigned to water bending vibration [8, 26].
XRD patterns of L1 and L2 and L3 are shown in Figure 5, and those of L4 and L5 are shown in Figure 6. They are typical XRD patterns of LDHs. The strong diffraction peaks at low angle, assigned to basal planes (003), (006), (009), were sharp and symmetric compared to the peaks at high angle, which are characteristics of clay mineral shaving a layered structure [29, 30, 31]. From the XRD pattern, the basal spacing (d) values of sample were calculated by using Bragg equation and the angle of peak (003).
XRD patterns of (a) L1, (b) L2, and (c) L3.
XRD patterns of (a) L4 and (b) L5.
Then the gallery height was obtained by subtraction from the basal spacing to the layer width (0.48 nm) [30]. The basal spacing and the gallery height of L1, L2, L4, and L5 are shown in Table 2. It indicates that the intercalation of EDTA into NO3-LDHs gives rise to an increase of basal spacing. This basal spacing could identify the existence of EDTA, because it is close to the dimensions of EDTA complexes (0.9 nm−1 nm) founded by single crystal XRD of M-EDTA (M—metallic ions) compound [12, 17, 30, 32].
L1 | L2 | L4 | L5 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Basal spacing | 0.91 | 1.42 | 0.89 | 1.47 |
Gallery height | 0.43 | 0.94 | 0.41 | 0.99 |
The basal spacing of L1, L2, L4, and L5 calculated from XRD by using Bragg’s equation.
SEM images of all composite synthesized in this work are shown in Figure 7. These adsorbents have clear plate-like morphology, which is typical for LDHs [33]. The intercalated product particles are more homogeneous than the precursor product which may be due to the hydrogen bonding on the layer. Hydrogen bonding makes soft agglomeration occur on the surface of the LDHs, and after the chelating agent, anion replaces the nitrate ions between the layers, the hydrogen bonding between the hydroxyl groups is reduced, and the aggregation is weakened to a certain extent.
SEM image of (a) L1, (b) L2, (c) L3, (d) L4, and (e) L5.
The inhomogeneous surface of the adsorbent indicated that a large amount of metal salt attached to the surface of the hydrotalcite in an excessive state, its unique layered structure, resulting in removal of heavy metal ions in the aqueous solution not only by interlayer anion and heavy metal cation interaction but also rely on the role of surface adsorption and sedimentation.
Element distribution analysis of L1, L2, L4, and L5 by EPMA is shown in Figure 8. After the ion exchange, the element distribution of N decreased obviously (by comparing red parts in these pictures), and this decrease is observed in both MgAl-LDHs (a, b) and ZnAl-LDHs (c, d). Furthermore, it is found that the moles of divalent metals are at least equal to or greater than that of the trivalent metals [34, 35], which is consistent with the results of chemical analysis.
Element distribution analyzed by EPMA of (a) L1, (b) L2, (c) L4, and (d) L5.
Figure 9 has shown the specific surface area of the product. Specific surface area of L2 and L3 are bigger than that of L1, and that of L5 is bigger than L4, which may be attributed to intercalation of EDTA or EDDS. Specific surface area of L0 is bigger than that of L1; it is due to the difference of their particle size.
Specific surface area of L0, L1, L2, L3, L4, and L5 by BET method.
The adsorption capacities of Cu(II) or Pb(II) onto L1, L2, L3, and L0 are compared in Figure 10. The adsorption efficiency of Cu2+ was larger than that of Pb2+ for the same absorbent, which could be attributed to their stability constant (EDTA-Cu, 18.7; EDDS-Cu, 18.4; EDTA-Pb, 18.0; EDDS-Pb, 12.7) [12, 26]. That is to say, it can be considered that the large adsorption capacity is obtained when the stability constant of chelate-metal is high. By comparing among adsorbents used in this work, the order of the adsorption capacity is L2 > L3 > L0 > L1. The higher adsorption efficiency of L0 than L1 may be attributable to its high specific surface area.
The adsorption capacity of Pb2+ and Cu2+ onto L1, L2, L3, and L0.
In order to confirm the effect of the intercalation with chelate agents on the adsorption capacity of metals, the adsorption experiments of some metallic elements onto L1 and L2 are compared. The adsorption of Cd(II), Cu(II), and Pb(II) onto these LDHs under the optimum condition are shown in Figures 11–13, respectively.
Adsorption of Cd(II) onto L4 and L5.
Adsorption of Cu(II) onto L4 and L5.
Adsorption of Pb(II) onto L4 and L5.
Both LDHs were found to take up Cd(II), Cu(II), and Pb(II) from aqueous solutions, and the uptake was found to increase with time. The adsorption capacity of both LDHs for Cd(II), Cu(II), and Pb(II) increased rapidly during the initial stages, and thereafter it increased gradually. It is generally found that the time needed for L5 to reach equilibrium was shorter than that for L4. From the adsorption experiment, the improvement of adsorption capacity by intercalation was observed. On the other hand, the adsorption capacity of Cu(II) and Pb(II) at equilibrium was higher than that of Cd(II). It is considered that heavy metal was removed by LDHs including two mechanisms: chemical precipitation and chelation [16]. In the first case, the hydroxyl anions compete with chelating agents for the precipitation of metal hydroxides at higher pH, and divalent ions are usually selectively dissolved. In the second case, the adsorption affinity is generally determined by the stability constant of the corresponding complex [36, 37, 38].
The adsorption isotherms for Cu(II) or Pb(II) were obtained under the optimum adsorption conditions (i.e., pH 6, contact time 120 minutes, temperature 25°C, and adsorbent dosage 10 mg). The adsorption isotherms of Cu(II) or Pb(II) onto L2 and L3 were analyzed using Langmuir and Freundlich equations and were shown in Figures 14 and 15, respectively. From Figure 14, the linear correlation coefficient (
The correlation of experimental data to Langmuir isotherm models.
The correlation of experimental data to Freundlich isotherms models.
Sample/T (298 K) | Langmuir | Freundlich | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R2 | KL (L−1 mg−1) | qmax (mg g−1) | R2 | KF (mg1–1/n g−1 L−1) | n | |
L2(Pb2+) | 0.979 | 5.60 × 10−3 | 422 | 0.988 | 346 | 4.11 |
L3(Pb2+) | 0.976 | 5.40 × 10−3 | 330 | 0.983 | 199 | 4.17 |
L2(Cu2+) | 0.994 | 1.90 × 10−3 | 256 | 0.930 | 9.90 × 10−3 | 1.87 |
L3(Cu2+) | 0.993 | 2.10 × 10−3 | 201 | 0.914 | 2.20 × 10−3 | 1.89 |
Coefficient of Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms for Cu(II) and Pb(II) adsorption onto L2 or L3.
The kinetic isotherms for Cu(II) or Pb(II) were obtained under the optimum adsorption conditions (i.e., pH 6, concentration 200 ppm, temperature 25°C and adsorbent dosage 10 mg). The parameters for two kinetic models of adsorption of Cu(II) or Pb(II) on L2 or L3 are presented in Table 4 which showed that adsorption process followed pseudo-second-order rather than pseudo-first-order model.
Sample/T (298 K) | Pseudo-first-order | Pseudo-second-order | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
L2(Pb2+) | 228 | 0.990 | 217 | 5.48 | 0.997 | 276 | 2.75 |
L3(Pb2+) | 169 | 0.940 | 169 | 5.27 | 0.993 | 229 | 1.25 |
L2(Cu2+) | 71 | 0.983 | 78.5 | 4.35 | 0.991 | 111 | 0.104 |
L3(Cu2+) | 59 | 0.983 | 54.8 | 4.09 | 0.995 | 91.9 | 0.910 |
The kinetic fit parameters for Cu(II) and Pb(II) adsorbed on L2 or L3.
The second order kinetic models plot for the adsorption of Cu(II) or Pb(II) on L2 or L3 is shown in Figure 16. The experimentally calculated values of
The correlation of experimental data to pseudo-second-order models.
The comparison of maximum adsorption capacity of these LDHs for Cu(II) in a present study with that of another adsorbents in previous literatures [39] are presented in Table 5. Moreover, Table 6 shows the comparison of adsorption capacity of Pb(II) by other adsorbents reported in the literature. As seen in Tables 5 and 6, the adsorption capacity of these LDHs for Cu(II) and Pb(II) in this work is on a level with that of another adsorbents in previous works.
Adsorbents | References | |
---|---|---|
LS-LDH: MgAl-LDH intercalated by sulfonated lignin (LS) | 64 | [39] |
TA-HTC: hydrotalcite modified by tannin | 81 | [40] |
CL-LDH: LDHs intercalated by chloride | 38 | [41] |
H100-LDH: MgAl-LDH intercalated by humate anions | 85 | [12] |
Sx-LDH: MgAl-LDH intercalated by polysulfide | 127 | [42] |
L0 (MgAl-CO3) | 28 | This study |
L1 (MgAl-NO3) | 20 | This study |
L2 (MgAl-EDTA) | 71 | This study |
L3 (MgAl-EDDS) | 59 | This study |
L4 (ZnAl-NO3) | 31 | This study |
L5 (ZnAl-EDTA) | 90 | This study |
Comparison of the adsorption capacities of LDHs in other literature Cu2+.
Adsorbents | References | |
---|---|---|
MNP-CTS—MNPs modified with chitosan (CTS) | 140 | [43] |
CL-LDH—LDHs intercalated by chloride | 40 | [16] |
CDpoly-MNPs—(CM-β-CD) polymer-modified Fe3O4 nanoparticles | 65 | [44] |
H100-LDH—MgAl-LDH intercalated by humate anions | 99 | [12] |
MoS4-LDH—LDHs intercalated with the MoS42− ion | 290 | [45] |
L0 (MgAl-CO3) | 78 | This study |
L1 (MgAl-NO3) | 58 | This study |
L2 (MgAl-EDTA) | 228 | This study |
L3 (MgAl-EDDS) | 169 | This study |
L4 (ZnAl-NO3) | 80 | This study |
L5 (ZnAl-EDTA) | 223 | This study |
Comparison of the adsorption capacities of LDHs in other literature Pb2+.
In present study, LDHs intercalated with chelating agents have been extensively examined and applied for adsorption of aqueous containing heavy metals and REEs. The following five kinds of compounds were synthesized (MgAl-NO3 (L1), MgAl-EDTA (L2) and MgAl-EDDS (L3), ZnAl-NO3 (L4), ZnAl-EDTA (L5)). These five kinds of synthesized samples are characterized by some instruments and the adsorption capacities of LDHs intercalated with chelating agents for Cu(III), Pb(III), and Cd(III), and REEs ions were investigated by batch experiments. Influence of various condition including pH, adsorbents dose, concentration of metallic ions, adsorption time, and temperature on the removal of metallic ions was evaluated. The Langmuir and Freundlich models were used for the mathematical description of the adsorption isotherms. The suitability of the kinetic model for the adsorption processes is also discussed. The following matters were suggested from the experimental results:
In present study, the precursor LDHs (ZnAl-NO3 and MgAl-NO3) were intercalated with the chelating agent EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) and EDDS (N, N′-1, 2-Ethanediylbis-1-Aspartic Acid) by anion exchange. The obtained material was characterized and used for the removal of heavy metallic ions and REEs removal from aqueous solutions. The result from FT-IR etc. suggests that the intercalation into LDHs is performed successfully.
LDHs synthesized in this work were very effective for removing heavy metallic ions from water solutions. Higher adsorption efficiency is obtained by intercalating chelating agent (i.e., EDTA or EDDS) into LDHs. It is considered that the adsorption capacity of metallic ions onto LDHs is based on the stability constant of metal-chelating agents. For example, the adsorption efficiency of Cu(III) was higher than that of Pb(III) for the same absorbent.
Adsorption isotherms of adsorption data were studied at varying initial concentration of metallic ions under optimized conditions of contact time and the dosage of adsorbents in this work. The adsorption experimental data of heavy metallic ions onto LDHs were well fitted by the Freundlich adsorption isotherms model. The results suggest that LDHs synthesized in this work could be suitable as sorbent materials for the adsorption and removal of heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions.
The pseudo-first-order kinetic and pseudo-second-order models were applied to test the experimental data and explain the kinetics of the LDHs adsorption process. The comparison of evaluated correlation coefficients suggested that the pseudo-second-order model is most suitable for describing the adsorption processes. The confirmation of this model implies that the rate-limiting step in this adsorption system may be controlled by chemical process. Also, the concentrations of both adsorbent and adsorbate are associated with the rate determining step of the adsorption process.
From this work, it was quantitatively clarified that LDHs could be an efficient adsorbent for heavy metal. It is a very significant information from the viewpoint of environmental protection and can be used for treating industrial waste waters including pollutants and thus a promising option for the treatment of contaminated waters.
The present work was partially supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (Research Program(C), no. 16K00599) and a fund for the promotion of Niigata University KAAB Projects from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan. The authors are also grateful to Mr. M. Ohizumi of the Office for Environment and Safety in Niigata University, Dr. E. Tayama of Faculty of Science, Dr. M. Teraguchi, Mr. T. Nomoto, Prof. T. Tanaka, and Mr. T. Hatamachi of Faculty of Engineering and Mr. M. Kobayashi of Facility of Dentistry in Niigata University for permitting the use of ICP-AES, elemental analyzer, FT-IR, SEM, specific surface area analyzers, and EPMA and for giving helpful advice in measurement.
The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) stated that “the major challenge threatening the dryland communities is degradation of the natural resource base, which is leading to soil and vegetation loss, fertility decline, water stress, drying of water resources, lakes and rivers. This degradation is being exacerbated by increasing climate variability and change, with profound impacts on the livelihoods of dryland communities” [1]. Despite the fact that Ethiopia’s contribution to global GHGs is about 0.04% [2], climate change poses significant challenges for agriculture in general and dryland agriculture in particular. In return, conventional agriculture in general and malpractice agriculture in particular have contributed to climate change by emitting greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as CO2, CH4 and N2O. In this case, a paradigm shift at all levels is needed in such a way that agriculture should be at the core of sustainable development and poverty-reduction efforts as well as those related to lower-carbon and climate-resilient growth [2, 3].
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [4, 5], in Ethiopia, over the past five decades, the temperature has been increasing annually at a rate of 0.2°C. This has already led to a decline in agricultural production, and cereal production is expected to decline still further (12%) under moderate global warming [6]. Furthermore, it has led to a decline in biodiversity, a shortage of food and an increases in human and livestock health problems, as well as rural-urban migration and dependency on external support. Factors exacerbating the impact of climate change in Ethiopia are rapid population growth, land degradation, widespread poverty, dependency on rain fed agriculture, lack of awareness by policy and decision-makers about climate change and lack of appropriate policies and legislation ([7, 8], National Meteorological Agency of Ethiopia [9]. More than 85% of the people in Ethiopia depend mainly on agriculture for their livelihoods. This will render them very vulnerable to climate variability and change. Consequently, a large number of people in Ethiopia are being affected chronically by drought and/or flooding, leading to deaths and loss of assets [10]. For instance in the period 1900–2019, there were 16 drought events that caused a total death of 402,367 people and a total affected population of 77,141,879 and resulted in total economic damage amounted to USD 1.5 billion [10]. This has obliged the country to make an appeal for international support. The problem is very serious in the arid and semi-arid areas, especially among the herders (Table 1) [12].
Dryland features | Descriptions |
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General characteristics |
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Ecologies |
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Resource |
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Population |
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Farming systems |
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The livelihoods of pastoralists are highly dependent on natural resources and very sensitive to climate change, yet such events cannot be easily separated from other events such as land degradation and policy changes [12]. The study by Thomas
Despite all those challenges for agricultural development in the dryland agro-climatic zones in Ethiopia, agriculture has remained conventional and traditional in such environments. Those conventional and traditional agricultural developments, combined with the impacts of climate change and variability, are not sustainable, retard climate change mitigation and adaptation initiatives, and exacerbate food insecurity. Therefore, the core objectives of this review were to assess the contribution of such conventional agricultural developments to GHGs emissions from global and Ethiopian perspectives; to give directions on how these unsustainable forms of agriculture could be transformed into sustainable developments by applying climate-smart technologies and proper resource management strategies.
Greenhouse gases allow the penetration of incoming solar radiation but absorb the outgoing long wave radiation from the earth’s surface and re-radiate the absorbed radiation back to the surface of the earth and by doing so they have caused global warming and climate change [4, 5].
The emission of GHGs from anthropogenic activities such as industrial processes, land use change and agriculture are the main causes of climate change. As indicated in Figure 1, agriculture’s contribution to GHGs emissions is huge. It takes 14% of CO2, 47% of CH4 and 84% of N2O to make up the global share of GHGs emissions [2, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19]. These gases are the most persuasive GHGs that are emitted from unsustainable agricultural practices [20, 21, 22]. In Ethiopia, agriculture contributed 80% of total country’s GHGs emission. Of this, CH4, N2O and CO2 contributed 72%, 15% and 14% to aggregated emission respectively [23]. Agriculture includes cropland management; grazing land management/pasture improvement; management from agricultural organic soils; restoration of degraded lands; livestock management; manure/bio-solid management; and bioenergy production [2, 4, 19]. These practices can result in GHGs emissions such as CH4 from enteric fermentation and rice production, N2O emissions from soils, N2O and CH4 from manure management and biomass burning, and CO2 emissions and removals in agricultural soils. This in turn impacts agricultural developments by contributing to climate change.
Percentage global contribution of GHGs to climate change (Source: [
To soothe the impacts of climate change, countries should act now, act together and act differently to stabilize the fractions of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at a level that would also stabilize the climate system. This will give sufficient time to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner [24]. As was dealt in Kyoto Protocol, in order to promote sustainable agricultural development, countries should promote sustainable forms of agriculture in light of climate change [25]. Based on the results of the International Food Policy Research Institute [26], climate change was supposed to have reduced net crop revenue by −28% to −79% in Central Africa, by −7% to −32% in West Africa, by −12% to −17% in Southern Africa, by −11% to −12% in East Africa and by −4% to −7% in North Africa. In Ethiopia, the study by Deressa [26] showed that a unit increase in temperature during summer and winter would reduce net revenue by $177.62 ha−1 and $464.71 ha−1, respectively. On the other hand, the marginal impact of increasing precipitation during spring would increase net revenue by $225.09 ha−1. How can agricultural GHGs emissions (Table 2) be reduced or sequestration enhanced while maintaining and even increasing food supply, particularly in dryland agriculture? As shown in Figure 2, this can be answered by adopting climate-compatible agricultural development strategies [29, 30].
Sub-sector in Agriculture | Main drivers | Emission in million tonnes of CO2e | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
2010 | 2020 | 2030 | ||
Forestry | Deforestation Forest degradation | 50 | 125 | 90 |
Livestock | Methane from enteric fermentation N2O from manure left on pastures | 65 | 146 | 125 |
Soil management | Crop production Fertilizer use Manure management | 12 | 5.8 | 60 |
Options of strategies and key issues in climate change-agricultural development nexus (Source: [
Climate-smart agriculture can be defined as agriculture that sustainably increases productivity, resilience (adaptation), reduces/removes GHGs (mitigation), and enhances achievement of national food security and development goals [2, 31, 32, 33]. Making agriculture climate-smart is one of the means to tackle climate change and its impacts which is the focus of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Goal 13) and complements SDGs 1 and 2. Agricultural development in drylands is a victim of climate change impacts. It is anticipated that higher temperatures could reduce crop yields by 10–20% in Sub-Saharan Africa by 2050. In return, unsustainable agricultural development is one of the causes of climate change as it is responsible for 10–12% of anthropogenic GHGs emissions each year and much more (30%) if human beings take into account the clearance of forests to make way for crops and livestock [34, 35]. Agricultural development must be effective in terms of food production, reducing GHGs emissions and helping farmers adapt to climate change [36, 37]. To build the resilience of drylands, it is essential to make agricultural land management practices more sustainable; improving grassland management so as to enhance carbon sequestration; reforestation and restoration of dryland forests; improving the efficiency and productivity of livestock by rearing improved breeds and transforming high emitter livestock (
Climate change requires environmental conservation and global partnerships that are related to two of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): ensure environmental sustainability and develop a global partnership for development [38]. These have been strongly strengthened in the SDGs under goals 15 and 17 [39]. Parry [40] stated that climate change is a binary development issue. In the first case, unsustainable development, in the past and present, is the root cause of climate change. In the The second case, sustainable development is certainly a necessary, and probably sufficient condition for overcoming this challenge (Figure 3). Portfolios of mitigation and adaptation strategies to unsustainable development will not result in the right co-benefits. Rather sustainable transformations are important for the case in point [41, 42]. For instance, Denmark has reduced GHGs emissions by 28% in 1990–2009 because of a 31% reduction in N2O emissions due to improved use of manure and a 40% reduction in the use of inorganic fertilizer in 1990–2000, with a further consensus to reduce GHGs emissions from agriculture by 50–70% without a decrease in food production [43]. Ethiopia has also planned to follow similar trends through its climate resilient green economy strategy. This creates a win-win situation between climate change and agricultural development [28, 44, 45].
The climate change and agricultural development relationships (negative signs before GHGs indicate emission reduction and the yellow arrows show negative impacts on each other & positive signs before GHGs indicate emission enhancement and the green arrows show win-win). The strategies that help to make such transformations are described in Sections 3.1 to 3.4 below.
Land degradation and human population growth in the drylands of Ethiopia, exacerbated by climate change such as severe droughts, have greatly impaired the country’s economic and social development and its food security status. It is clear that combating desertification and land degradation, and mitigating the effects of drought are the basis for accelerated sustainable development, poverty reduction and insuring food security in Ethiopia. This requires the realization of strong partnership building and commitment at regional and international levels. Cognizant of this fact, the Ethiopian Government was one of the pioneering governments to accept and endorse the Great Green Wall for the Sahel and Sahara Initiative (GGWSSI) and was ready for its implementation [46].
Drylands are characterized by low and highly variable precipitation and warm temperatures. Livestock grazing is the predominant type of land use, providing a livelihood for a considerable number of people [47]. Optimal rangeland management depends on (i) the current state of the vegetation; (ii) the observed rainfall; and (iii) optimizing the stocking density and rate to reduce emission of GHGs, particularly methane. The stocking density refers to the number of livestock per hectare of rangeland while the stocking rate refers to the ratio of livestock to available forage on the pasture in a given year [48].
The livestock population of Ethiopia, which reached more than 160 million heads in 2011 and more than 224 million heads in 2020 [49, 50], is the largest in Africa and the 10th in the world. It constitutes a large component of the Ethiopian agricultural sector and is well integrated with the farming systems in general and provides the sole means of subsistence for the herders in the lowlands in particular. More than 50% of Ethiopia’s land is utilized for grazing and browsing. Herders in the lowlands take the lion’s share of this figure. Even if the world share of non-CO2 emissions from the livestock sector of Ethiopia is the minimum as shown in Figure 4 [28, 51], sector-wise Ethiopia’s emission profile is dominated by emissions from agriculture contributing about 80% of the total. Whereas gas-wise it is dominated by CH4 contributing 80% of the total CO2 equivalent emissions in 1994 [52] and most of this contribution is from less productive livestock. Even in current times, cattle take more than 80% of the share of CH4 emission in Ethiopia [53, 54]. Based on IPCC [55] guidelines, methane emissions from enteric fermentation are estimated using equation 1 for eight major livestock subcategories in Ethiopia (Table 3). The livestock subcategories are donkeys, camels, cattle, goats, mules, sheep, horses and poultry. Livestock population data for each subcategory is from CSA [49, 50]. The emission factors attributed to each livestock subcategory for enteric fermentation are all IPCC default values ascribed for Ethiopian conditions. The methane emissions resulting from equation 1 are then multiplied by 21, the global warming potential for methane at 100 years in the atmosphere, to yield the carbon dioxide equivalent in tonnes of CO2e (Table 3). In order to optimize methane emissions while there is an increasing livestock population [50], there is a need to settle climate smart livestock production with proper rangeland management, improved feed and highly productive livestock breeds. If Ethiopia’s livestock production is climate-smart and reduces emissions by 38%, the emission from the eight livestock subcategories (Table 3) is less 16,929,022 tCO2e and 24,583,413 tCO2e than conventional livestock production in 2011 and 2020 respectively. The Ethiopian Climate-Resilient Green Economy strategy states that, in agriculture, higher livestock productivity has the potential to reduce 45 x 106 tonnes of CO2e emissions a year in 2030 [28]. Grazing lands are considered an important carbon sink-storing 10–30% of the global soil organic carbon. Improved grazing management on rangeland, such as species management, irrigation, rotational grazing, and fertilization, is expected to capture a significant amount of carbon. Studies indicated that there are potential soil carbon sequestration rates of 0.6 - 1.3 tCO2e ha−1yr−1 from these improved managements [57].
Global non-CO2 emission from the livestock sector (Ethiopia’s contribution Ethiopia is 0.065 Gt CO2-eq) (Source: [
Livestock categories | Default IPCC Emission factor (KgCH4/head/yr) for Ethiopia [55, 56] | Number of livestock in Ethiopia [50] | Methane emission/year( Tonnes) | Emission CO2e /year(tonnes) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Enteric fermentation | Manure management | Enteric fermentation | Manure management | Total | |||
a | B | c | d = ac/1000 | e = bc/1000 | f = d+e | g = 21*f | |
Donkeys | 10 | 0.9 | 6,209,665 | 62,097 | 5,589 | 67,685 | 1,421,392 |
Camels | 46 | 1.92 | 1,102,119 | 50,697 | 2,116 | 52,814 | 1,109,084 |
Cattle | 31 | 1 | 53,382,194 | 1,654,848 | 53,382 | 1,708,230 | 35,872,834 |
Goats | 5 | 0.17 | 22,786,946 | 113,935 | 3,874 | 117,809 | 2,473,979 |
Mules | 10 | 0.9 | 385,374 | 3,854 | 347 | 4,201 | 88,212 |
Sheep | 5 | 0.15 | 25,509,004 | 127,545 | 3,826 | 131,371 | 2,758,799 |
Horse | 18 | 0.9 | 2,028,233 | 36,508 | 1,825 | 38,334 | 805,006 |
Poultry | 0 | 0.02 | 49,286,932 | 0 | 986 | 986 | 20,701 |
Donkeys | 10 | 0.9 | 9,987,762 | 99,878 | 8,989 | 108,867 | 2,286,199 |
camels | 46 | 1.92 | 7,702,493 | 354,315 | 14,789 | 369,103 | 7,751,173 |
cattle | 31 | 1 | 65,354,090 | 2,025,977 | 65,354 | 2,091,331 | 43,917,948 |
Goats | 5 | 0.17 | 50,501,672 | 252,508 | 8,585 | 261,094 | 5,482,967 |
Mules | 10 | 0.9 | 357,603 | 3,576 | 322 | 3,898 | 81,855 |
Sheep | 5 | 0.15 | 39,894,394 | 199,472 | 5,984 | 205,456 | 4,314,579 |
Horse | 18 | 0.9 | 2,111,134 | 38,000 | 1,900 | 39,900 | 837,909 |
Poultry | 0 | 0.02 | 48,955,675 | 0 | 979 | 979 | 20,561 |
Methane emission in Ethiopia’s livestock sector.
Water and desertification are the most optimizing factors to foster economic, social and environmental development in the drylands and that the sustainable utilization of water resources is a priority at regional and national scales [58]. Climate change will have enormous effects on the hydrological cycles in drylands with less total rainfall, drier soils but with increased risks of floods from increased frequency and intensity of storm events [4]. There should be a need to enhance physical and economic water productivity. The former is defined as the ratio of the amount of agricultural output to the amount of water used and the latter is defined as the value derived per unit of water used [13].
The drylands of Ethiopia are characterized by scarce and unreliable rainfall. Due to this, within the context of dryland development, the Federal Constitution of Ethiopia in article 52(2d) provides legal provisions (“to administer land and other natural resources in accordance with Federal laws”) which provide a basis for regional governments to take an active role in formulating and implementing appropriate policies and programmes for water development in dryland areas (Figure 5). Rainwater harvesting is a centuries old practice by the Ethiopian pastoralists and it has continued to be implemented in the current Government’s efforts in soil and water conservation programmes to improve food security ([60], Tolossa
Impact matrix of water development in dry lands (Adapted from [
Adoption of improved approaches and good practices to water development can strengthen the contribution of dry lands to national economies, and reduce their drain on resources by enhancing resilience and reducing the need for food and other cash interventions during emergencies brought on by climate extremes such as floods and droughts. Improving water development and management, particularly through ecosystem-based approaches, enhances the productivity and sustainability of soil, water and vegetation resources so as to make dryland agricultural development initiatives as sustainable as possible. This improves the resilience of both human communities and ecosystems to climate change in the drylands [59, 61, 62].
Conservation agriculture (CA) is a concept for resource-saving agricultural crop production that strives to achieve acceptable profits together with high and sustained production levels while concurrently conserving the environment. CA is based on enhancing natural biological processes above and below the ground. Interventions such as mechanical soil tillage are reduced to an absolute minimum, and the use of external inputs such as agrochemicals and nutrients of mineral or organic origin is applied at an optimum level and in a way and quantity that does not interfere with, or disrupt, the biological processes. CA is characterized by three principles (Figure 6) which are linked to each other, namely: continuous minimum mechanical soil disturbance; permanent organic soil cover; and diversified crop rotations in the case of annual crops or plant associations in the case of perennial crops [64, 65, 66].
The three pillars of conservation agriculture (Source: [
Conventional tillage exposes the soil by deep cultivation and this in turn enhances CO2 emissions from the soil. More than 97% of the world’s food supply is produced on land that emits GHGs when intensively tilled, fertilized, and/or grazed by animals [67]. Conversion of 76% of the croplands in the USA, for example, to conservation tillage could sequester as much as 286–468 million metric tonnes (MMTs) CO2e over 30 years showing that conservation agriculture could become a net sink for carbon [68] and play an important mitigation and adaptation role in climate change effects [69, 70].
A global estimate of carbon sequestration from the conversion of conventional tillage to conservation tillage will be as high as 4900 MMT CO2e by 2020. Combining economics of fuel cost reductions and environmental benefits of conversion to conservation tillage are a positive first step for agriculture toward decreasing carbon emissions into the atmosphere [71]. In the same token, it was also calculated that, if 15% of the carbon in crop residues is converted to passive soil organic carbon (SOC), it may lead to a carbon sequestration rate of 200 MMT CO2e yr−1 when it is used with less intensive tillage. A change from conventional tillage to no-tillage has been found to sequester 4300–7100 kg of carbon ha−1yr−1 [72]. A traditional agricultural conservation practice in northern Ethiopia has been found to be effective for in-situ soil and water conservation, reducing runoff on average by 11% and soil loss by 36% [73]. This in turn could reduce GHG emissions from agricultural lands.
Agriculture can contribute to the mitigation of climate change by adopting practices that promote the stashing of CO2 as carbon in soil, crop biomass and trees, and by displacing the use of fossil fuels required for tillage, chemical manufacture, equipment manufacture, and grain handling operations [74, 75, 76]. In the Ethiopian case too, agricultural development as business as usual and contributing the largest share of Emission (Figure 7), without consideration of climate risks and opportunities, will lead to maladaptive practices weakening national resilience to climate change [78]. This is also emphasized with the Cancún Agreements that developing nations are, for the first time, officially encouraged to develop low-carbon development strategies.
All GHGs emission trend of Ethiopia by sector (Source: [
Plants are central in carbon, water and nitrogen cycles thereby necessitating the need for sustainable utilization of these resources with a view to contributing towards reducing the impact of climate change and variability. The ways in which these resources are used and managed, determine the future direction of climate change impacts in drylands [79]. Enhancing awareness on the importance of plant biodiversity and sustainable livelihoods in response to climate change and variability is vital in the fragile dryland ecosystem where there is direct dependence on natural resources for livelihood [80]. Adopting practices of adaptation and mitigation such as proper fire management, improved forest management, reforestation, reducing deforestation and forest degradation will enhance carbon sinks and help to minimize impacts of climate change. In addition to high temperature and changing rainfall patterns, the major threats affecting vegetation resources in drylands are the coping strategies put in place, such as firewood and charcoal sale, by community members during times of drought. These livelihood activities provide households with an alternative income source when livestock and crop production fail. But these activities become unsustainable as droughts become more frequent, leading to substantial deforestation and forest degradation. With expected future climate change and increasing drought risk (Figure 8), pressures on vegetation resources are likely to intensify, unless more sustainable alternative sources of fuel and income generating options are provided or put in place. Otherwise, the resulting deforestation and forest degradation will go on to diminish development efforts of local communities and make them vulnerable to climate change shocks [81, 82].
Repercussions of vegetation degradation and drought in drylands of Ethiopia and how to reverse it by managing the resources and use of technology.
Climate change is a global concern whereby developing countries are the most affected by its impacts. Every ecosystem is affected by climate change impacts and in particular drylands are more vulnerable. Dryland agriculture in Ethiopia is more susceptible to the impacts of climate change as the system is already fragile, degraded and unstable with low, erratic and unevenly distributed rainfall patterns. To optimize the productivity of dryland agriculture and enhance food security for the growing population, the practices of agriculture should be climate compatible which encompasses sustainable development, adaptation and mitigation strategies. To this end GHG emissions are reduced or sequestration enhanced while maintaining and even increasing food supply to attain food security. Indeed, there is a need to reduce forest degradation and deforestation, improve rangeland management, improve livestock feeds and rare drought resistant breeds, use drought resistant and short maturing crop varieties, improve soil and water management (including water harvesting and conservation agriculture).
Achieving success in dryland agriculture by overcoming the challenges of climate change requires a comprehensive approach of technical, institutional and financial innovations, so that both adaptation and mitigation strategies are consistent with efforts to safeguard food security, maintain ecosystem services, provide carbon sequestration and reduce emissions. The dryland agriculture in Ethiopia needs reform to attain much greater harmony with the natural and human environment and follow the principles of green economy and making synergies with other sectors. At the end of the day, it is possible to create climate-smart dryland agriculture that maintains livestock and crop productivity as well as reduces GHGs emissions and lessens the impact of climate change. Therefore, productive and ecologically sustainable agriculture with strongly reduced GHGs emissions is fundamental so as to reduce trade-offs in dryland agricultural development to fulfil food security, mitigate climate change and improve ecosystem degradation.
The author declares there are no conflicts of interest.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. 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DeRosa",authors:[{id:"47354",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"DeRosa",slug:"maria-derosa",fullName:"Maria DeRosa"}]},{id:"66031",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84139",title:"Biosensors for Determination of Heavy Metals in Waters",slug:"biosensors-for-determination-of-heavy-metals-in-waters",totalDownloads:2722,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Biosensors are nowadays a powerful alternative to conventional analytical techniques for controlling the quality of not only natural water but also process water used by the food industry during the production process, as well as wastewater prior to release into natural watercourses. The goal is to provide the required quality and safety of water from the standpoint of heavy metal contamination. The basic and most important characteristics of biosensors are high sensitivity, short response time, specificity, and relatively low production cost. Biosensors can detect the presence and measure the content of various toxic substances (pesticides, heavy metals, etc.) not only in water but also in food. Detection of contaminants, primarily heavy metals in water used in food production processes, is a potential area of biosensor application in the food industry. Biosensors can be adapted for direct and continuous (online) monitoring by measuring certain analytes that can affect the quality and safety of water. This chapter will give an overview of the development and application of biosensors in order to control the quality and safety of water from the standpoint of the presence of heavy metals.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Amra Odobašić, Indira Šestan and Sabina Begić",authors:null},{id:"16445",doi:"10.5772/20154",title:"Biosensor for Environmental Applications",slug:"biosensor-for-environmental-applications",totalDownloads:11267,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"413",slug:"environmental-biosensors",title:"Environmental Biosensors",fullTitle:"Environmental Biosensors"},signatures:"Andrea Medeiros Salgado, Lívia Maria Silva and Ariana Farias Melo",authors:[{id:"37632",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Medeiros Salgado",slug:"andrea-medeiros-salgado",fullName:"Andrea Medeiros Salgado"},{id:"37653",title:"Dr.",name:"Lívia Maria",middleName:"da Costa",surname:"Silva",slug:"livia-maria-silva",fullName:"Lívia Maria Silva"},{id:"37654",title:"Mr.",name:"Ariana",middleName:null,surname:"Farias Melo",slug:"ariana-farias-melo",fullName:"Ariana Farias Melo"}]},{id:"65873",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84220",title:"Electrochemical Biosensors Containing Pure Enzymes or Crude Extracts as Enzyme Sources for Pesticides and Phenolic Compounds with Pharmacological Property Detection and Quantification",slug:"electrochemical-biosensors-containing-pure-enzymes-or-crude-extracts-as-enzyme-sources-for-pesticide",totalDownloads:1093,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Biosensors are chemical sensors in which the recognition system is based on a biochemical mechanism. They perform the specific component detection in a sample through an appropriate analytical signal. Enzyme-based biosensors are the most prominent biosensors because of their high specificity and selectivity; besides being an alternative to the common immunosensors, they are more expensive and present a limited binding capacity with the antigen depending on assay conditions. This chapter approaches the use of enzymes modified electrodes in amperometric biosensing application to detect and quantify pesticides and phenolic compounds with pharmacological properties, as they have been a promising analytical tool in environmental monitoring. These biosensors may be prepared from pure enzymes or their crude extracts. Pure enzyme-based biosensors present advantages as higher substrate specificity and selectivity when compared to crude extract enzymatic biosensors; nevertheless, the enzyme high costs are their drawbacks. Enzymatic crude extract biosensors show lower specificity due to the fact that they may contain more than one type of enzyme, but they may be obtained from low-cost fabrication methods. In addition, they can contain enzyme cofactors besides using the enzyme in its natural conformation.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Flavio Colmati, Lívia Flório Sgobbi, Guilhermina Ferreira Teixeira, Ramon Silva Vilela, Tatiana Duque Martins and Giovanna Oliveira Figueiredo",authors:null},{id:"16449",doi:"10.5772/16250",title:"Biosensors Applications on Assessment of Reactive Oxygen Species and Antioxidants",slug:"biosensors-applications-on-assessment-of-reactive-oxygen-species-and-antioxidants",totalDownloads:2768,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"413",slug:"environmental-biosensors",title:"Environmental Biosensors",fullTitle:"Environmental Biosensors"},signatures:"Simona Carmen Litescu, Sandra A.V. 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The goal is to provide the required quality and safety of water from the standpoint of heavy metal contamination. The basic and most important characteristics of biosensors are high sensitivity, short response time, specificity, and relatively low production cost. Biosensors can detect the presence and measure the content of various toxic substances (pesticides, heavy metals, etc.) not only in water but also in food. Detection of contaminants, primarily heavy metals in water used in food production processes, is a potential area of biosensor application in the food industry. Biosensors can be adapted for direct and continuous (online) monitoring by measuring certain analytes that can affect the quality and safety of water. This chapter will give an overview of the development and application of biosensors in order to control the quality and safety of water from the standpoint of the presence of heavy metals.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Amra Odobašić, Indira Šestan and Sabina Begić",authors:null},{id:"68700",title:"Principle and Development of Phage-Based Biosensors",slug:"principle-and-development-of-phage-based-biosensors",totalDownloads:1413,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Detection and identification of pathogenic bacteria is important in the field of public health, medicine, food safety, environmental monitoring and security. Worldwide, the common cause of mortality and morbidity is bacterial infection often due to misdiagnosis or delay in diagnosis. Existing bacterial detection methods rely on conventional culture or microscopic techniques and molecular methods that often time consuming, laborious and expensive, or need trained users. In recent years, biosensor remained an interesting topic for bacterial detection and many biosensors involving different bio-probes have been reported. Compared to antibodies, nucleic acids and enzymes etc., based biosensors, bacteriophages can be cheaply produced and are relatively much stable to elevated temperature, extreme pH, and diverse ionic strength. Therefore, there is an urgent need for phage-based biosensor for bacterial pathogen detection. Furthermore, bearing high affinity and specificity, bacteriophages are perfect bio-recognition probes in biosensor development for bacterial detection. In this regard, active and oriented phages immobilization is the key step toward phage-based biosensor development. This chapter compares different bacterial detection techniques, and introduces the basic of biosensor and different bio-probes involved in biosensor development. Further we highlight the involvement and importance of phages in biosensor and finally we briefed different phage immobilization approaches used in development of phage-based biosensors.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Umer Farooq, Qiaoli Yang, Muhammad Wajid Ullah and Shenqi Wang",authors:null},{id:"69216",title:"Challenges and Applications of Impedance-Based Biosensors in Water Analysis",slug:"challenges-and-applications-of-impedance-based-biosensors-in-water-analysis",totalDownloads:1201,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Monitoring of the environment is a global priority due to the close connection between the environmental pollution and human health. Many analytical techniques using various methods have been developed to detect and monitor the levels of pollutants (pesticides, toxins, bacteria, drug residues, etc.) in natural water bodies. The latest trend in modern analysis is to measure pollutants in real-time in the field. For this purpose, biosensors have been employed as cost-effective and fast analytical techniques. Among biosensors, impedance biosensors have significant potential for use as simple and portable devices. These sensors involve application of a small amplitude AC voltage to the sensor electrode and measurement of the in-/out-of-phase current response as a function of frequency integrated with some biorecognition element on the sensing electrodes that can bind to the target, modifying the sensor electrical parameters. However, there are some drawbacks concerning their selectivity, stability, and reproducibility. The aim of this paper is to give a critical overview of literature published during the last decade based on the development issues of impedimetric biosensors and their applicability in water analysis.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Kairi Kivirand, Mart Min and Toonika Rinken",authors:[{id:"24687",title:"Dr.",name:"Toonika",middleName:null,surname:"Rinken",slug:"toonika-rinken",fullName:"Toonika Rinken"},{id:"62780",title:"Prof.",name:"Mart",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"mart-min",fullName:"Mart Min"},{id:"174179",title:"Dr.",name:"Kairi",middleName:null,surname:"Kivirand",slug:"kairi-kivirand",fullName:"Kairi Kivirand"}]},{id:"63693",title:"The Modeling, Design, Fabrication, and Application of Biosensor Based on Electric Cell-Substrate Impedance Sensing (ECIS) Technique in Environmental Monitoring",slug:"the-modeling-design-fabrication-and-application-of-biosensor-based-on-electric-cell-substrate-impeda",totalDownloads:1111,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In this research, the modeling, design, fabrication, and application of ECIS sensors in environmental monitoring are studied. The ECIS sensors are able to qualify the water toxicity through measuring the cell impedance. A novel mathematical model is proposed to analyze the distribution of electric potential and current of ECIS. This mathematical model is validated by experimental data and can be used to optimize the dimension of ECIS electrodes in order to satisfy environmental monitors. The detection sensitivity of ECIS sensors is analyzed by the mathematical model and experimental data. The simulated and experimental results show that ECIS sensors with smaller radius of working electrodes yield higher impedance values, which improves signal-to-noise ratio, which is more suitable in measuring the cell morphology change influenced by environments. Several ECIS sensors are used to detect the toxicant including, phenol, ammonia, nicotine, and aldicarb, and the decreasing cell impedance indicates the toxic effect. The gradient of measured impedance qualitatively indicates the concentration of toxicants in water.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Xudong Zhang, William Wang and Sunghoon Jang",authors:null},{id:"65873",title:"Electrochemical Biosensors Containing Pure Enzymes or Crude Extracts as Enzyme Sources for Pesticides and Phenolic Compounds with Pharmacological Property Detection and Quantification",slug:"electrochemical-biosensors-containing-pure-enzymes-or-crude-extracts-as-enzyme-sources-for-pesticide",totalDownloads:1095,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Biosensors are chemical sensors in which the recognition system is based on a biochemical mechanism. They perform the specific component detection in a sample through an appropriate analytical signal. Enzyme-based biosensors are the most prominent biosensors because of their high specificity and selectivity; besides being an alternative to the common immunosensors, they are more expensive and present a limited binding capacity with the antigen depending on assay conditions. This chapter approaches the use of enzymes modified electrodes in amperometric biosensing application to detect and quantify pesticides and phenolic compounds with pharmacological properties, as they have been a promising analytical tool in environmental monitoring. These biosensors may be prepared from pure enzymes or their crude extracts. Pure enzyme-based biosensors present advantages as higher substrate specificity and selectivity when compared to crude extract enzymatic biosensors; nevertheless, the enzyme high costs are their drawbacks. Enzymatic crude extract biosensors show lower specificity due to the fact that they may contain more than one type of enzyme, but they may be obtained from low-cost fabrication methods. In addition, they can contain enzyme cofactors besides using the enzyme in its natural conformation.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Flavio Colmati, Lívia Flório Sgobbi, Guilhermina Ferreira Teixeira, Ramon Silva Vilela, Tatiana Duque Martins and Giovanna Oliveira Figueiredo",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"873",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:36,paginationItems:[{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:32,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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