Permissible limit of heavy metal ions in water [21].
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6591",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Proctological Diseases in Surgical Practice",title:"Proctological Diseases in Surgical Practice",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'The prevalence of anorectal disorders in the general population is probably much higher than that seen in clinical practice. Anorectal diseases have for a long time been considered of little interest, with their treatment considered of little prestige despite the social impact they cause to patients. Proctology was initiated late and developed slowly over the years. However, in the last 20 years, a renewed interest has begun, and today, we can say that proctology is a specialized branch of general surgery. This book "Proctological Diseases in Surgical Practice" provides a practical introduction to proctology, with a particular attention to the topics that have not yet been investigated. This book may be useful for the general physician as well as for the specialist.',isbn:"978-1-78923-635-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-634-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-575-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71454",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"proctological-diseases-in-surgical-practice",numberOfPages:170,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"df22314ee5125fe03618cc962080552f",bookSignature:"Pasquale Cianci",publishedDate:"August 29th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6591.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8163,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:11,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 14th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 11th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 5th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 24th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 23rd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"196218",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasquale",middleName:null,surname:"Cianci",slug:"pasquale-cianci",fullName:"Pasquale Cianci",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196218/images/system/196218.png",biography:"General Surgeon at 'Lorenzo Bonomo” Hospital-Department of Surgery and Traumatology-ASL BAT-Andria-Puglia (Italy), and Ph.D. at the Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Foggia (Italy), Fellow of American College of Surgeons (FACS). Contract Professor in General and Emergency Surgery, Gastroenterology and Human Physiology, Faculty of Medicine - Nursing Science and Physiotherapy Courses. Professor in surgical anatomy at the specialty school in general surgery. Contract Professor of I Level Masters: Intestinal stoma care nurse, Operating room nurse and Emergency medicine and critical area. Member of some of the most important Italian Scientific Surgical Societies: EAES, SICE, ACOI, SPIGC, SIUCP, ACS. Author of 70 national and international scientific papers, books and book chapters which are well appreciated in the health community. Editorial Board member of Frontiers in Surgical Oncology, BMC Surgery, Annals of Medicine, WJSP, Asian Journal of Research and Reports in Endocrinology, IntechOpen Edition. Reviewer of major international scientific journals such as Medicina, the Turkish Journal of Gastroenterology, Medical Principles and Practice, IntechOpen Edition, World Journal of Surgical Procedures, Oxford Medical Case Reports, BMJ Case Reports, Austin Pancreat Disord, World Journal of Gastroenterology, Case Studies in Surgery, World Journal of Surgical Oncology, Journal of Cancer and Tumor International, Journal of Basic and Applied Research International, International Journal of Medical and Pharmaceutical Case Reports, British Journal of Medicine and Medical Research, Faculty and Speaker at numerous national and international Surgical Congresses. Special interest in laparoscopic surgery, robotic surgery, endocrine surgery and coloproctology.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Foggia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1142",title:"Colorectal Surgery",slug:"surgery-colorectal-surgery"}],chapters:[{id:"62658",title:"Introductory Chapter: A Surgical Point of View on Proctology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79661",slug:"introductory-chapter-a-surgical-point-of-view-on-proctology",totalDownloads:664,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Pasquale Cianci",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62658",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62658",authors:[{id:"196218",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasquale",surname:"Cianci",slug:"pasquale-cianci",fullName:"Pasquale Cianci"}],corrections:null},{id:"61779",title:"Applications of Anorectal Ultrasound in Anorectal Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78326",slug:"applications-of-anorectal-ultrasound-in-anorectal-disorders",totalDownloads:1001,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Endoanal ultrasound (EAUS) and endorectal ultrasound (ERUS) have been introduced to clinical use since the 1980s. The techniques have been used to assess various anorectal disorders and conditions, including anorectal abscess and fistula, fecal incontinence, anorectal tumor, anorectal pain and occasionally evaluation of adjacent pelvic pathology. Information acquired includes anatomical location of disease, extent of disease, involvement of anal sphincter by disease and the status of anal sphincter. This information is valuable for treatment planning, prevention of disease recurrence, prevention and/or correction of sphincter defect and follow-up evaluation. The technique is cheap, simple, well tolerated, and repeatable with acceptable accuracy. Although the interpretation is operator-dependent, technology has developed to improved image quality such as 3D-reconstruction, peroxide-enhanced technique and volume render mode. This chapter reviews the current application of anorectal ultrasound in the common anorectal disorders.",signatures:"Kasaya Tantiphlachiva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61779",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61779",authors:[{id:"200234",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kasaya",surname:"Tantiphlachiva",slug:"kasaya-tantiphlachiva",fullName:"Kasaya Tantiphlachiva"}],corrections:null},{id:"61031",title:"The Role of Three-Dimensional Endoanal Ultrasound in Preoperative Evaluation of Anorectal Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76620",slug:"the-role-of-three-dimensional-endoanal-ultrasound-in-preoperative-evaluation-of-anorectal-diseases",totalDownloads:941,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Three-dimensional endoanal ultrasound (3D EAUS) has increased its application in coloproctology, both in pre- or in post-operative settings, since it provides more detailed information about anorectal anatomy and function. Perianal fistula complex, internal opening location and fistula tract relation with anal canal muscles are easily viewed on 3D EAUS. Moreover, hemorrhoidectomy, sphincterotomy and transanal rectal excisions hold potential in damaging anal sphincters and should be taken into account by the surgeon. Likewise, 3D EAUS has also a significant role in staging locoregional anal and rectal tumors with comparable accuracy to pelvic magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), particularly in regard to T staging in early lesions and tumor response after neoadjuvant therapy. Finally, patients with pelvic floor dysfunction or pelvic organ prolapse (POP) may benefit from 3D EAUS dynamic evaluation in order to rule out an occult sphincter defect or to unveil unsuspected anatomical multi-compartment dysfunction. Therefore, this review will address the current role of 3D EAUS as a valuable tool in modern colorectal surgical practice, highlighting its application in evaluating benign anorectal diseases, anal canal and rectal tumors and evacuation disorders, namely echodefecography.",signatures:"Marcelo de Melo Andrade Coura",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61031",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61031",authors:[{id:"239783",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Marcelo",surname:"Coura",slug:"marcelo-coura",fullName:"Marcelo Coura"}],corrections:null},{id:"62112",title:"Challenges in the Surgical Treatment of Rectal Prolapse",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78059",slug:"challenges-in-the-surgical-treatment-of-rectal-prolapse",totalDownloads:1204,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The approach to a patient with overt rectal prolapse remains controversial since the choice of the most appropriate technical option may be a difficult task. The different approaches are based upon patients’ age, comorbidities, sex, size of prolapse, associated incontinence, constipation, and urinary and genital disturbances. However, analysis of the literature failed to detect a significant evidence favoring one among the large number of those different surgical techniques proposed for the treatment of rectal prolapse. In fact, many randomized prospective controlled trials, comparing perineal and abdominal operations, rectopexy alone, resection alone and/or resection plus rectopexy could not find significant differences in terms of morbidity, mortality, improvement of incontinence or constipation, quality of life and recurrence. Therefore, without a clear-cut support by the literature, a pragmatic approach is necessary, applying common sense, experience and considering the availability of resources as well. Nevertheless, we may expect that definitive answers to many open questions about surgery of rectal prolapse may come from larger studies and longer follow-up.",signatures:"Renato Pietroletti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62112",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62112",authors:[{id:"239943",title:"Prof.",name:"Renato",surname:"Pietroletti",slug:"renato-pietroletti",fullName:"Renato Pietroletti"}],corrections:null},{id:"61753",title:"Fissure-In-ANO",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76887",slug:"fissure-in-ano",totalDownloads:1575,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter provides a summary of the aetiology, diagnosis, investigation and management of anal fissure. It gives an overview of clinical anatomy and pathophysiology related to anal fissure. Focusing on anal sphincter hypertonia as the key factor for anal fissure progression, the chapter draws attention to perpetuating factors that contribute to a vicious cycle of fissure non-healing and addresses management options for these factors. This chapter also looks at the way how different treatment options for anal fissure emerged over time and uses evidence-based medicine to compare these options. “Fissure-in-ANO” concludes with summarising the treatment options and suggesting an algorithm for management of acute and chronic anal fissures.",signatures:"Muhammad Fahadullah and Colin Peirce",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61753",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61753",authors:[{id:"242625",title:"Mr.",name:"Colin",surname:"Peirce",slug:"colin-peirce",fullName:"Colin Peirce"},{id:"242627",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Fahad Ullah",slug:"muhammad-fahad-ullah",fullName:"Muhammad Fahad Ullah"}],corrections:null},{id:"62503",title:"Radiation Proctitis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76200",slug:"radiation-proctitis",totalDownloads:987,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pelvic radiotherapy (RT) has become a vital component of curative treatment for various pelvic malignancies. The fixed anatomical position of the rectum in the pelvis and the close proximity to the prostate, cervix, and uterus, makes the rectum especially vulnerable to secondary radiation injury resulting in chronic radiation proctitis (CRP). Clinical symptoms associated with CRP are commonly classified by the EORTC/RTOG late radiation morbidity scoring system. Rectal bleeding is the most frequent symptom of CRP occurring in 29–89.6% of patients. Endoscopy is essential to determine the extent and severity of CRP as well as to exclude other possible causes of inflammation or malignant disease. Typical endoscopic findings of rectal mucosal damage in the course of radiation-induced proctitis include friable mucosa, rectal mucosal hypervascularity, and telangiectases. There is no consensus available for the treatment of CRP, and different modalities present a recurrence rate varying from 10 to 30%. CRP can be managed conservatively, and also includes ablation (formalin enemas, radiofrequency ablation, YAG laser or argon plasma coagulation) as well as some patients require surgery. Although modifications of radiation techniques and doses are continually being studied to decrease the incidence of CRP, trials investigating preventive methods have been disappointing to date.",signatures:"Radzislaw Trzcinski, Michal Mik, Lukasz Dziki and Adam Dziki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62503",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62503",authors:[{id:"242403",title:"Prof.",name:"Adam",surname:"Dziki",slug:"adam-dziki",fullName:"Adam Dziki"},{id:"243198",title:"Dr.",name:"Radzislaw",surname:"Trzcinski",slug:"radzislaw-trzcinski",fullName:"Radzislaw Trzcinski"}],corrections:null},{id:"61729",title:"Faecal Incontinence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77393",slug:"faecal-incontinence",totalDownloads:899,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fecal incontinence (FI) is an extremely common condition, whose true prevalence is difficult to assess. It was defined as the uncontrolled passage of fecal material recurring for >3 months. Fecal incontinence is related to many etiologic factors, but one of the most frequent causes is secondary to pelvic and/or anal and rectal surgery, childbirth-related damage, or other pelvic trauma. Fecal incontinence after surgery may be elicited by many pelvic, rectal, and anal surgical/obstetric procedures, which contribute through different mechanisms to incontinence. After accurate evaluation, the first line approach with medical and behavioral treatments often fails in treating FI. Rehabilitative therapy and less invasive procedures are preferred before performing standard surgical intervention, while invasive procedures are to be discouraged.",signatures:"Filippo La Torre and Diego Coletta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61729",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61729",authors:[{id:"230542",title:"Prof.",name:"Filippo",surname:"La Torre",slug:"filippo-la-torre",fullName:"Filippo La Torre"},{id:"249161",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",surname:"Coletta",slug:"diego-coletta",fullName:"Diego Coletta"}],corrections:null},{id:"62209",title:"Clinical Pathway Evaluation for Left and Sigmoid Colectomy in Abdominal Surgery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78588",slug:"clinical-pathway-evaluation-for-left-and-sigmoid-colectomy-in-abdominal-surgery",totalDownloads:892,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"At the end of 2008, a new left colon clinical pathway was implemented in our hospital and set up by a multidisciplinary team, monitored by a clinical pathway coordinator. Our aim was to evaluate the quality of left and sigmoid colectomy management, to simplify the clinical pathway and to assess its impact on the patient, the medical and nursing staffs. A sample of 290 patients with benign or malignant disease requiring a laparoscopic of laparotomy left colon resection (mainly sigmoid) was included in this clinical pathway during the years 2009–2017. Our analysis focused particularly on the compliance with the protocol, the pain felt, the suture leak rate, the hospital stay, the re-hospitalization rate and redo surgery within 30 days. Our work leads to the conclusion that the introduction of a clinical pathway, when it is well prepared and brings together all the implicated persons with the same goal, is feasible with convincing results. 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Of all osteoporotic fractures, hip fracture has the highest morbidity and mortality rate [22]. Approximately 50% of patients have permanent functional disability greater than that before fracture [23, 24]. The incidence of hip fracture appears to be increasing in many countries [10], and the total number of hip fractures is estimated to be more than five million by 2050 [25]. Socioeconomic impacts of hip fracture are twofold. On the one hand, hip fracture increases the morbidity and mortality in the elderly [26, 27, 28]; on the other hand, it is a substantial source of healthcare expenditure [29, 30]. Therefore, there is an urgent need to accurately assess hip fracture risk and then develop preventive and protective measures. In this chapter, hip anatomy is first reviewed, and hip fractures are classified by anatomic location. Then, prevalence of hip fracture is presented, followed by a description of the significance of accurately assessing hip fracture risk.
\nHip fracture is a medical condition in which there is a break in the continuity of the femoral bone. Hip fracture is generally affected by hip anatomy [31], the applied forces to the hip [32], and bone mechanical properties [33]. In this section, hip anatomy is explained to show why the hip is likely to experience fracture in a fall.
\nThe hip joint is one of the most important joints in the human body. It is also one of the most flexible joints allowing a great range of motions. To better understand hip fracture, it helps to know the anatomy of the hip joint. The hip is a joint formed by the ball-shaped head of the femur and the socket of the pelvis. The femurs are the longest and the strongest bones in the human body, extending from the hip to the knee. Important geometric features of femur bones include the head, neck, and greater and lesser trochanters, as shown in Figure 1(a). A femur is composed of two types of bones, cortical and cancellous. The cortical bone forms the outer layer of the femur and withstands most of the forces and moments. Cancellous bone is mostly enclosed by the cortical bone and mainly absorbs the shock energy produced in walking and running [34]. The hip joint is a stable ball-and-socket joint, much more stable than the shoulder joint. The stability in the hip mainly attributes to the deep socket, i.e., the acetabulum. Additional stability is provided by the strong joint capsule and its surrounding muscles and ligaments. The high level of stability of the hip joint is required to support the upper body [34].
\n(a) Anatomic structure of the hip [
More than 90% of all hip fractures occur in falls [36] as the femur is subjected to a high-level impact force. As shown in Figure 1(b), in a sideways fall, the greater trochanter and the femoral head are subjected to the impact and the joint force, respectively, from the ground and the acetabulum. The forces produce a moment at the intersection of the neck-shaft axes. Muscles that are attached to the femur also produce forces during the fall. As it is shown in Figure 1(b), the applied forces in a fall are mainly on the proximal femur, and it may explain why the majority of fall-induced hip fractures occur at the proximal femur [37]. A hip fracture refers to any fracture of the proximal femur down to a level of approximately 5 cm below the lower border of the lesser trochanter [38]. The extent of the break depends on the forces that are involved.
\nHip fracture is usually caused by an applied force that exceeds the strength of the femur bone [39]. Therefore, any situation that either induces a high level of force on the femur bone or decreases the bone strength should be considered as a hip fracture cause.
\nThe main cause of hip fracture is falling (90–92%) [36, 40, 41, 42], in particular falling in sideways direction (63–69% in fall-related fractures) [8, 43], as it induces a high level of force on the femur. Parameters that increase the risk of fall and apply a high level of force on the femur, especially in the elderly, are:
Mental impairment and confusion
Impaired vision
Impaired muscle reactions
Slow reflex response
Inability to effectively use the arms to reduce the energy of the fall
Impaired neuromuscular coordination and neurological diseases (e.g., hemiplegia, Parkinson’s disease)
In the elderly, most fractures occur after a low-trauma fall, which would not cause any severe injury to a healthy individual. Therefore, low bone strength is another main cause of hip fracture. Osteoporosis as a progressive bone disease, which is characterized by decreases in bone mass and density, has been identified as one of the main contributors of hip fracture [46, 47]. Osteoporosis advances when bone resorption exceeds bone formation, and therefore it is more common among the elderly [48]. Approximately three to four out of ten women over the age of 50, and one in eight men, suffer osteoporotic fracture in their lifetime [49].
\nApart from osteoporosis, several other causes may reduce the strength of the bone such as bone cancer and medical side effects [38]. Other factors associated with reduction in bone strength include [38]:
Genetic and family history
Sedentary lifestyle
Impaired nutrition
Smoking
Excess alcohol
Medications (including tranquilizers, hypnotics, anticonvulsant drugs, and steroids)
Osteomalacia from vitamin D deficiency, malabsorption, and liver or renal disease
Cardiovascular disease and cardiac arrhythmias
Underlying bone disease (e.g., Paget’s disease, bone tumors, and secondary bone tumors)
Endocrine abnormalities: hyperthyroidism, hyperparathyroidism, or hypercortisolism
In addition to the mentioned causes, high-trauma falls and accidents such as car and motorcycle accidents can lead to hip fracture [50]. But they are not studied in this dissertation. Figure 2 shows how different factors contribute to the hip fracture [6, 38].
\nConceptual model of the fall-induced hip fracture procedure and associated effective factors [
Hip fractures are associated with significant morbidity, mortality, loss of independence, and financial burden [3, 9, 25, 42, 51, 52, 53]. It has been reported that approximately 20% of hip fracture patients died within 1 year of the fracture [54]. Generally, the first year after hip fracture appears to be the most critical time. A recent meta-analysis revealed that women sustaining a hip fracture had a fivefold increase and men almost an eightfold increase in relative likelihood of death within the first 3 months compared with age- and sex-matched controls [29]. The relative death risk decreases substantially over the second year but still much higher than that of the controls [55]. Many lose their ability to walk mainly due to the pain caused by the hip fracture. In fact, only 40–79% of patients regain their previous ambulatory function a year after the fracture, and less than half return to their pre-fracture status of daily activities [56].
\nIn addition to functional impairments, hip fracture can have a negative impact on self-esteem, body image, and mood [57], which may lead to psychological problems [58]. Individuals who suffer fractures may be immobilized by a fear of falling again and suffering more fractures. They may feel isolated and helpless. The National Osteoporosis Foundation conducted a survey [59] among 1000 women with osteoporotic fracture in the United States to investigate the psychological effects of the fracture on the patients. Eighty-nine percent of said they feared breaking another bone; 80% were afraid that they would be less able to perform their daily activities and lose their independence; 73% worried that they would have to reduce activities with family and friends; and 68% were concerned that another fracture would result in their having to enter a nursing home [59]. If not addressed, fear about the future and a sense of helplessness can produce significant anxiety and depression. These problems may be compounded by an inability to fulfill occupational, domestic, or social duties, thus leading to further social isolation.
\nThe disability, reduced functional status, and poor mental health caused by hip fracture can have a profound impact on the quality of the individual’s life. Survivors of hip fracture reported a 52% reduction in the quality of life in the first 12 months and a 21% reduction after 2 years [60].
\nAlso, hip fracture is a major cause of the need for long-term nursing home care and a major contributor to healthcare costs [30, 61, 62]. There are approximately 23,000 cases of hip fracture every year in Canada with associated treatment costs of about $1 billion [63]. In the United States, 310,000 hip fractures occurred in 2003, and the total Medicare cost was estimated between $10.3 and $15.2 billion, including acute medical care and nursing home services [53, 64, 65]. As the population of the elderly is still continuously increasing, the number of hip fractures is expected to rise dramatically, and it will put more burdens on the community healthcare system [2, 66].
\nIn general, there are three types of hip fractures, depending on what region of the proximal femur is involved [67]:
Femoral neck fractures occur in the narrow section of the proximal femur that lies between the femoral head and the intertrochanteric cross section. Most femoral neck fractures occur within the capsule surrounding the hip joint and are, therefore, termed intracapsular fracture. The blood supply to the femoral head is carried by a number of arteries that pass through the femoral neck region. Therefore, femoral neck fractures may disrupt the blood supply to the femoral head, causing death of the femoral head bone tissues, called osteonecrosis or avascular necrosis. Femoral neck fractures are further grouped into nondisplaced and displaced fractures by the alignment of the fractured segments in relation to the original anatomic position of the femur [68].
Intertrochanteric fractures occur at a lower location than femoral neck fractures, in the area between the greater and lesser trochanters. The trochanters are bony projections where major hip muscles are attached. Intertrochanteric hip fractures occur outside of the joint capsule and are therefore also called extracapsular fracture in the literature. Intertrochanteric fractures are complicated by the pull of the hip muscles on the bony muscle attachments, which can exert competing forces against fractured bone segments and pull them out of alignment. Thus, healing of the fracture in a misaligned position is considered as a complication for intertrochanteric fractures. Intertrochanteric fractures may be further grouped into stable and unstable fractures, depending on the location, number, and size of the fractured bony segments [68].
Subtrochanteric fractures occur in the zone about 5 \n
In more complicated cases, the fracture of the bone can involve more than one of these zones. Figure 3 shows different types of proximal femur fracture.
\nThree main types of hip fractures: femoral neck fracture (subcapital and transcervical fractures), intertrochanteric fracture, and subtrochanteric fracture [
A variety of studies have examined hip fracture rates in different regions of the world [10, 51, 52, 70]. Greater than tenfold differences have been found on the basis of studies undertaken at a regional or national level for different calendar years. The studies show that the main demographic risk factors for hip fractures include increased age and female gender [10, 25]. The geographic distribution by fracture risk is shown for men and women combined in Figure 4. Heterogeneity in hip fracture risk in countries can be seen in this figure. Based on statistical results [10], for women, the lowest annual incidences are found in Nigeria (2/100,000), South Africa (20), Tunisia (58), and Ecuador (73). The highest rates were observed in Denmark (574/100,000), Norway (563), Sweden (539), and Austria (501). The incidence of hip fracture in men is approximately half of that noted in women. The highest annual incidence in men has been found in Denmark (290/100,000) and the lowest in Ecuador (35/100,000) [10].
\nHip fracture rates (men and women combined) in different countries of the world categorized by risk. Where estimates are available, countries are color-coded red (annual incidence >250/100,000), orange (150–250/100,000), or green (<150/100,000) [
As it is shown in Figure 4, the high-risk countries are Iceland, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway in Northwestern Europe; Belgium, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Italy in Central Europe; Greece, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Slovenia in southwestern Europe; Lebanon, Oman, Iran, Hong Kong, Singapore, Malta, and Taiwan in Asia; and Argentina in South America. Regions of moderate risk include North America, Oceania, the Russian Federation, and southern countries of Latin America. Low-risk regions include the northern regions of Latin America, Africa, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, India, China, Indonesia, and the Philippines. It is notable that in Europe, the majority of countries are categorized as high or moderate risk. Low risk is identified only in Croatia and Romania [10].
\nHip fracture incidence rates are known to increase exponentially with age in both men and women for the most regions of the world [71, 72, 73, 74]. The increasing rate of hip fracture in the elderly is mainly associated with their slower reflex response and the inability to effectively use their arms to reduce the energy of the fall and low bone density of the proximal femur [44, 45].
\nEpidemiological studies show that the number of hip fractures will rise from 1.66 million in 1990 to 4.5–21.3 million by 2050 (Figure 5) depending on the underlying assumptions about age- and gender-specific incidence trends [9, 25, 51, 75].
\nEstimated number of hip fractures by sex in the year 1990 and the number expected in 2025 and 2050 by region assuming no increase in age- and sex-specific rates, a 1% annual increase worldwide, or no increase in North America and northern Europe but an increase in age- and sex-specific incidence elsewhere of 2, 3, or 4%. (ROW is rest of world) [
The aim of accurately assessing hip fracture risk is to identify patients at high risk of hip fracture and to start intime prevention and protection measures to reduce the number of hip fractures. These measures are accepted by the patients only after they are accurately diagnosed with the high fracture risk. Also, accurate assessment of hip fracture risk is the prerequisite step before starting a therapy. For example, during the process of osteoporosis treatment, it is required to monitor the change of fracture risk and subsequently track the effectiveness of the therapy. By knowing the risk of fracture, people can improve their bone health and change their environment to reduce the likelihood of the fall.
\nPatients diagnosed with high fracture risk may consider the following prevention measurements:
Individualized exercise programs:
Management of visual impairment:
Examination of basic neurological function, including mental status, muscle strength, lower extremity peripheral nerves, and reflexes [79]
Using mobility assisting devices (e.g., walking stick, frames)
Implementing surveillance and observation strategies
Protection measurements must be provided to patients with high fracture risk, for example:
Remembering that sideways falling is more likely to result in a hip fracture than falling in other directions [8]:
Trying to fall forward or backward not from sides
Taking steps to reduce the potential energy and subsequently decrease the risk of fracture [80]
Landing with the aid of hands or rea`chable objects around to break the fall [81]
Environmental modification (e.g., flooring) [31]
Medication and nutritional improvement:
Consuming a calcium-rich diet that provides about 1000 mg (milligrams) daily for men and women up to age 50 [88]. Women over age 50 and men over age 70 should increase their intake to 1200 mg daily from a combination of foods and supplements.
Obtaining 600
5–15 min’ exposure to sunlight 4–6 times per week [89].
From biomechanics point of view, assessment of hip fracture under stance loading or lateral impact force has been performed using three criteria: factor of safety (FOS) [90], risk factor (RF) [70], and fracture risk index (FRI) [91]. In this section, a review is performed on previously adopted bone fracture criteria in both 2D and 3D FE models.
\nKeyak et al. [90] assessed FOS under two loading conditions: one representing loading during the stance phase of gait and the other simulating the impact from a fall. Their study was based on a 3D FE model generated from CT data of the patient. They calculated FOS to compare the actual element strength with the applied von Mises stress.
\nSchileo et al. [92] applied maximum principle strain, von Mises stress, and maximum principle stress criteria to calculate risk factor and to predict fracture location of the femur. RF compares the applied stress/strain with the yield one to predict the bone fracture. Lotz et al. [93, 94] also used von Mises stress yield criterion for the cortical bone and crushing-cracking stress criterion for the trabecular bone. The performance of nine stress- and strain-based failure theories in assessment of hip fracture is investigated by Keyak and Rossi [95]. They evaluated the distortion energy (DE), maximum normal stress, maximum normal strain, maximum shear strain, maximum shear stress, Coulomb-Mohr, modified Mohr, Hoffman, and strain-based Hoffman failure theories, using CT-based FE models of the femur [95].
\nThe abovementioned fracture risk measurements are all derived from CT images. The most recent DXA-based fracture risk criterion is proposed by Luo et al. [91]. They calculated the averaged FRI as a ratio between the effective stress (von Mises stress) by applied forces and the allowable stress (yield stress) of the bone over a region of interest (ROI). FRI is a local fracture risk measurement, while FOS and RF are global ones.
\nThis chapter is concluded from a research that was supported by Dr. Yunhua Luo, and therefore, he is gratefully acknowledged.
\nMasoud Nasiri Sarvi declares that he has no conflict of interest.
Expeditious expansion and industrial development near the rivers have led to more stress on the river, and with increased stress, the water becomes polluted, and worsening environmental health is observed [1]. The water-soil interface and the water-atmosphere interface are the medium through which the heavy metals travel [2, 3]. Both anthropogenic activities and geochemical processes are responsible for heavy metal contamination in ecosystems [4]. Elements that have high density and are less noxious are known as heavy metals. Examples of heavy metals are lead, iron, mercury, cadmium, zinc, arsenic, copper, and chromium and the actual volume of these heavy metals is more than 6 g/m3 [5]. Heavy metals have the property of environmental persistence and bioaccumulation, and these heavy metals enter the aquatic system through various routes. These heavy metals not only impair the quality of the aquatic ecosystem but also human health [6, 7]. These heavy metals can be found on the layer of earth in their regular form. These heavy metals are so dangerous that they cannot be degraded or decomposed and they have the arability to bioaccumulate [8]. These heavy metals once get into the ecosystem through the air, via drinkable water, or multiple chemicals and products that are manmade. The route of administration of these heavy metals is via inhalation, ingestion, and skin absorption. These heavy metals get into the biosphere via human activities, which include industrial production, mining, agriculture, and transportation [9]. Some methods are fossil fuel burning, smelting of different, waste from the municipality, fertilizers, pesticides, and sewage these all are considered to be the primary sources of metal pollution [10, 11, 12, 13]. The toxicity of these heavy metals in the human body reduces energy levels; disrupts brain functioning; disturbs the functioning of various other organs such as the brain, lungs, liver, and kidney; and also hinders blood composition. If the contact with heavy metals continues, then it can hinder the physical, neurological, and muscular functioning. And due to these diseases like multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease and muscular dystrophy, and Alzheimer’s disease. Chronic exposure to some of the heavy metals and their compounds may even cause cancer [14]. Pollution of these heavy metals into the river may cause distressing effects on the ecological balance of the aquatic environment, and with the extent of contamination, the diversity of aquatic organisms becomes limited [15]. The fish in the aquatic ecosystem can be used for examining the well-being of biota. Due to pollutants in the food chain of organisms, harmful effects can be seen and the aquaculture can become dead [16]. These heavy metals are neurotoxins for the fish living in the aquatic environment. When these heavy metals enter the fish body, they interact with them to generate biochemical reaction inside the fish, which makes it difficult for fish to communicate with their surroundings [17]. The presence of these heavy metals leads to diseases like Minamata, which is organic mercury poisoning. When these heavy metals get bioaccumulated, they become a threat to both the human population and animals who uses that water [18]. Modeling of risk assessment is divided into four stages, i.e., exposure assessment, toxicity (dose-response) assessment, hazard identification, and risk characterization. There are three pathways through which humans get exposed to traced metals, which include directly ingesting, inhaling through the mouth or nose, and via skin absorption when it gets exposed. From the water, the heavy metals usually enter through ingestion and dermal absorption. To assess exposure, the average daily dose is measured for pollutants through different identified paths. In a dose-response assessment for no carcinogens, reference doses (RfD) are calculated, and for carcinogens, slope factors (SF) are obtained by the United States Environment Protection Agency (USEPA) Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) database. With the help of the facts which are discussed above, there was a study done with an aim to evaluate the water quality of the Subarnarekha River relating to metals, their temporal classification, source of identification, and assessment of human health risk when that water was ingested or the contaminate when absorbed through the skin. Through this, it is possible to know the contamination level and accordingly, the strategies were planned (Table 1) [19, 20].
Heavy metal ions | WHO’s permissible limit (mg L−1) |
---|---|
Se | 0.02 |
Hg | 0.001 |
Mn | 0.02 |
Ag | 0.1 |
Cd | 0.05 |
Cr | 0.003 |
Pb | 0.01 |
Zn | 3.00 |
Fe | 0.30 |
Cu | 0.02 |
As | 0.01 |
Permissible limit of heavy metal ions in water [21].
The presence of these heavy metals on the surface of the water can be due to natural or anthropogenic activities. In natural activities, weathering of rocks that contain metals, an eruption from volcanos, fires in the forest, and naturally occurring processes of weathering can be included. From these activities, metal enters the different sections of the environment. Heavy metals can be found in the forms of sulfates, hydroxides, oxides, sulfides, phosphates, and silicates [12, 22]. A huge amount of accumulation of heavy metals into the water is mainly due to anthropogenic and natural activities. Some more examples of natural source through which heavy metals contaminates water are, wet and dry deposition of atmospheric salts, water-rock interaction, or water interaction with the soil. While the sudden increase in urbanization and industrialization are an example of anthropogenic sources through which water get contaminated (Table 2; Figure 1) [23].
Heavy metal ion | Common sources |
---|---|
Copper (Cu) | Fertilizers, tanning, and photovoltaic cells |
Zinc (Zn) | Soldering, cosmetics, and pigments |
Silver (Ag) | Refining of copper, gold, nickel, zinc, jewelry, and electroplating industries |
Chromium (Cr) | Leather industry, tanning, and chrome plating industries |
Arsenic (As) | Wooden electricity poles that are treated with arsenic-based preservatives, pesticides, fertilizers, the release of untreated effluents, oxidation of pyrite (FeS) and arsenopyrite (FeAsS) |
Mercury (Hg) | Combustion of coal, municipal solid waste incineration, and volcanic emissions |
Cadmium (Cd) | Paints, pigments, electroplated parts, batteries, plastics, synthetic rubber, photographic and engraving process, photoconductors, and photovoltaic cells |
Lead (Pb) | PVC pipes in sanitation, agriculture, recycled PVC lead paints, jewelry, lead batteries, lunch boxes, etc. |
Major sources of some heavy metal ions in water [24].
Contamination of water through different sources.
Trace metals are found in excess levels in the environment, they are formed by geographical processes such as volcanic eruptions, weathering of rocks, and leaching into rivers, lakes, and oceans due to the action of water [25]. The presence of heavy metals in water depends on the local geology, hydrogeology, and geochemical characteristics of the aquifer [26]. One of the main sources of pollution is weathering. The weathering of the sedimentary rocks such as limestone or dolomite or shale makes the water contaminated or polluted. When there is an interaction of water with rock element, it also leads addition of these elements into the water; thus, contamination occurs. Examples of such elements are granite, syenite, basalt, gabbro, nepheline, and andesite. Due to the particular ore or the minerals, the element level increases. Elements examples are magnetite, hematite, goethite, siderite, calcite, cuprite, malachite, azurite, chromite, kaolinite, montmorillonite, arsenic trioxide, orpiment, arsenopyrite, calamine, smithsonite, pyrolusite, and rhodochrosite [27, 28, 29, 30]. The sulfide deposition also increases as it is associated with the mineralization of the gold and hydrous iron oxide ores [31].
Anthropogenic events, in which human settlement replaced the natural forest and agricultural activities have increased the environmental impacts. Such activities have contaminated the aquatic ecosystems, which include spring waters from the river like the Amala and Nyangores, tributaries of Mara River, Indonesia in Mau Complex. The maximum of forest land is converted into human settlement and agriculture. People who live near the Mara River Basin use that spring water for the purpose of animal and agricultural purposes [21]. The water carrying capacity has decreased with the rapid increase in industrialization and urbanization. Hg concentration in water has increased with agriculture activities and human activities. Activities like domestic sewage into the water, solid waste burning, coal and oil combustions, and pyrometallurgical processes and mining are the main reason for this. Water, by either snow or rain, brings the contaminated soil with Hg into the adjacent water areas [32, 33]. The source of Ni is the corroded metal pipes and containers [34]. The major source of lead in water majorly comes from additives of paints and petrol and aerosol precipitation, which is formed due to the high temperature used in industrial processes for the purpose of coal combustion, smelting, and cement production [35], and chloralkali, batteries, fluorescent lamps, thermometers, and electronic switches production. Chemical industries are some industrial activities through which Hg pollutes the water system and these activities are the largest contributor to Hg contamination in the environment [36].
Huge amount of untreated sewage from domestic is thrown into the river. This untreated waste from domestic has the presence of toxins. These toxins are due to the presence of solid waste or from the litter of plastic, or the contamination of bacteria due to the presence of these the water can get polluted. Domestic untreated water is thrown directly into the water resource and this majorly causes pollution inside the water and harms the ecosystem [37]. These pollutants majorly depend upon what kind of industry has thrown those pollutants. When these toxic metals get inside the water, they decrease the quality of the water [38]. Around 25% of pollution inside the water is caused only by these industries [39]. When the water gets contaminated, the water gets enriched by the nitrogen and phosphorous elements. With the presence of these nutrients, the growth rate of algae gets multiplied, and then it competed with the surrounding aquatic biota for the dissolved oxygen in water [40]. The presence of nitrite and nitrate anions leads to a major threat to the exposed organisms; examples of such threats are methemoglobinemia. It is more common in small children, and the symptoms caused by this are cyanotic color in the skin due to blood alterations [41]. Water sources that get deposited by this sewage also become anions rich, due to the presence of chlorine in urine, and NaCl is used in the human diet. On the side of the sea, there is the presence of chloride in high concentrations due to the leakage of salt into the sewerage system. It also may be increased by industrial processes [42].
Contamination of heavy metals in the aquatic environment is very harmful since these elements cannot be degraded and they get accumulated inside the living organisms [43]. Residue from the industry is the major source through which these heavy metals get into the aquatic ecosystems, and their accumulation in water varies with the type of wastewater treatment used [44]. Effects known as deleterious can be observed when the metal particles are introduced into the water system [45, 46]. Different metals from the Amazon River (Brazil) and the Yukon River (Alaska) were analyzed in the solid-state only. Plants have the presence of these metals in water. In tissue, the concentration of several metals is slow, and their concentration should be kept in less range only as more concentration can be harmful to the biological development of the pant [47]. Through the food chain, fish contaminants can reach man [48]. Effluent from industries, water tank leakages, dumping beside marines, and due to radioactive waste and atmospheric deposition, are some sources of water contamination. Disposed of heavy metals and waste from industries they get accumulated in rivers and lakes thus causing harmful impacts on animals and humans. For suppression of the immune, reproductive failure and acute poisoning toxins are responsible [49]. Then there is direct damage to plant or animal nutrition at that time human health is affected. The pollutants that are polluting the water are killing marine organisms such as mollusks, marine birds, fishes, and other organisms that live in the sea [50].
With an increase in the population has created many issues and one of the issues is the pollution of water [38]. An increase in the population leads automatically leads to more generations of solid waste [51]. Both solid waste and liquid waste are deposited into the water without any treatment. Human excreta also contaminate the water. Thus, contaminated water leads to a generation of a large number of bacteria, which is a threat to human well-being [39]. Government is unable to supply vital requirements to the People because of the increase in the number of people. Facility for sanitization is more in urban areas as compared to rural areas. Plastic bag and waste are a major contribution to pollution. People throw the waste in plastic bags into water sources [24]. From the research, it was found that around three crore people of the population defecate in the open, while 77% population use flush and around 8% use the pit latrines. Urbanization can cause many infectious diseases. Overpopulation, unhealthy conditions, and dangerous drinkable water are these major health problems in urban areas. One-third of urban people are vulnerable to disease [37].
The population in rural areas is less but the use of fertilizers, pesticides, and eroded soil contaminates the water. When it rains the water from the surface runoff and that rainwater enters the nearby water resource and thus pollutes the existing water [52]. Agricultural runoff cases freshwater bodies’ eutrophication. Half of the lakes in the US are eutrophic. Phosphate has one of the major contributions to eutrophication. And the high concentration of phosphates promotes cyanobacteria and algae growth, which leads to the excessive use of the biologically dissolved oxygen inside the water [53]. Fertilizers that are too enriched with nitrogen decrease the dissolved oxygen in rivers and coastal zones thus bringing hazardous effects to the biota. Since 2006, the nitrogen in fertilizers is being controlled in America and Northwest Europe [54]. Like pesticides, which are used as pest control, these pesticides leach into groundwater, thus polluting groundwater. The pesticides that are water-soluble leach more and the sandy soil favors the process of leaching [55].
Small pollutants particles which are present in the air, get into the water stream through the rain, when it rains these particles come down and then with the flow of water enters into the sea, thus polluting the water there. These pollutants that are present in the air usually get from the burning of fossil fuels e.g. is CO2, which combines with water and produces sulfuric acid. Sulfur dioxide, which is formed via volcanic eruption and from industries, also gets attached to a water molecule to form the sulfuric acid. When coal is combusted then also sulfuric dioxide is produced and it is also produced from petroleum products. Just like this nitrogen dioxide also combines with the water and forms the nitric acid. And with the help of rainwater, they enter the water resources (Figure 2) [52, 56, 57, 58, 59].
Circulation of contaminants between environmental sources under the effect of atmospheric sources.
Heavy metals are present on the earth and thus they can enter the water system through various pathways and one of them is through mining sources. When it rains or through flowing water, it leaches heavy metals out from their geological formation. These processes get disturbed when manmade economic activities such as mining are done. Through these processes, the area that is already mined out gets exposed to water and air and this leads to the acid mine drainage (AMD). The low pH conditions associated with AMD mobilize heavy metals, including radionuclides where these are present [60].
Soil gets polluted with the presence of heavy metal on surface and underground water and the pollution rises when mined ores are discarded on the ground surface for manual dressing [61]. Due to the dumping over the surface, the metals get exposed to air and rain thereby generating huge AMD. If soil is polluted at that time, it gets into the plant tissue and gets accumulated there. And when those plants are grazed by animals and water is used for the drink from polluted waters, through there these heavy metals enter the body. Also, marine lives, which reproduce in contaminated water, also have the presence of heavy metals inside their body tissues, if they are lactating then inside their milk. As an overview, all organisms within a given ecosystem are contaminated via these pollutants through their food chains [62]. When nutrition from these contaminated vegetables is taken, the presence of heavy metals in those vegetables can lead to different chronic diseases. Toxic effects due to these heavy metals usually depend on the amount of concentration and the oxidative state of the particular heavy metals [63]. Heavy metals have a very dangerous impact as they are non-biodegradable in nature, have long biological half-lives, and have the potential to accumulate inside the body. Also, there are some heavy metals that are extremely toxic only because of their solubility. Fewer concentrations of heavy metals inside the food chain also show severe effects as there is no particular procedure through which these heavy metals pollutants can be extracted from the body of an organism. Nowadays presence of these toxic heavy metals is everywhere because of their extreme use in industries. In case of the wastewater, it contains a huge concentration of heavy metals, which create various health-related problems [64, 65].
Water from estuaries and freshwater is not polluted till now to some extent, but that water is also at threat of being polluted in the long term due to metal deposition because of human past activities [66]. The water in the river and lakes can be highly polluted depending on the volume of flow and proximity to the point sources. Due to the human civilization, the element content in water is raised. Such elements are cadmium, lead, mercury, zinc, and chromium. Unlike organic chemicals, there are some metals that cannot be converted into compounds with lesser toxicity, and one of its characteristics is the loss of biodegradability. Once the heavy metals enter the water system it gets redistributed throughout the column and gets accumulated in the sediments [67]. The sediments constitute a partial contribution to polluting the natural phenomena due to their activity and metal remobilization processes. Metal residues that are present in the contaminated surroundings have the flexibility to get bioaccumulated into the aquatic environment [68]. Growth in fish larvae and juveniles is rapid. But when these heavy metals enter they might inhibit the growth rate. The fish grows in length and bulk when given the right conditions, such as a specific temperature and an acceptable amount of food. Fish growth, on the other hand, may be impeded in water contaminated with toxicants, such as heavy metals. One of the most noticeable signs of metal toxicity in fish larvae is growth inhibition. As a result, the length and bulk of fish are indications of environmental conditions [69]. Heavy metals are introduced in liquid form and surface water constituents (carbonate, sulfate, organic substances humic, fulvic, and amino acids) cause the formation of non-soluble salts or complexes. Aquatic species are not expected to be harmed by these salts and compounds. Some of them sink and collect in the sediments at the bottom. A decrease in pH of water either due to acid rain or any other acidic incidents, due to the heavy metal’s deposition into the water column, causes aquatic biota to become poisonous. Low levels of heavy metals can also make chronic stress, through fish might not get dead but can cause them to lose weight and become smaller, reducing their capacity to compete for food and habitat [70]. Pollution poses a hazard to both freshwater and marine habitats. Heavy metal poisoning of water is a significant environmental hazard that has detrimental consequences for organisms who are exposed to it be that plant-animal or humans. Fish from freshwater are majorly exposed to various heavy metals, which are added into the water bodies through the different-different sources. Contamination of these heavy metals into aquaculture has intensified global issues because it shows a risk to fish and has harmful impacts on fish buyers [71]. There are three different modes through which heavy metals enter the fish. These methods are either through the gills of fish, by the body of the fish, or by the digestive tract of the fish. Heavy metals immediately enter the fish body through the gills, while the body surface takes time for uptaking of these heavy metals through this mode [72]. Mostly the metals get accumulated in the liver, kidney, and gills. In fishes, the muscles have most of the metals present there as compared to the other body parts of the fish. Too much accumulation of these heavy metals inside the fish organ can cause lesions and operative disturbances [73]. These heavy metals also interfered with the embryo’s shape and the metabolic processes of the fishes. Structural and functional defects throughout the development of the embryo resulted in fewer larvae hatching. Several freshly born larvae die shortly after hatching owing to lead and copper absorption [74, 75]. Heavy metals get into the fish through three routes: the first is via the fish gills, the second is through the digestive tract of the fish and the last one is through the body of the fish. The gills of fish are the area that is known for the primary metal intake from the contaminated water. On the fish gills, zinc accumulates. It suggests a depressing influence on tissue respiration, which leads to hypoxia and mortality. Zinc pollution also causes alterations in the structure of the lungs and heart [76]. Humans and fish are both affected by mercury. Brain damage, with postnatal and fetal problems, leads to abortions, congenital deformity, and development differences in young fry due to Monomethyl. Minamata illness and Hg poisoning (via methyl Hg) both showed considerable neurotoxicity [77]. Nickel is necessary for tiny amounts for the formation of RBC, but when its concentration gets increased, at that time, it becomes harmful or poisonous. Cd has been linked to an increase in blood pressure and cardiac illness in fish. Blood vessels damage, hemorrhages, and depletion of blood cell count of a fish are induced by Hg, from previous research. Anemia, eosinophilia, lymphocytosis, bronchial, and renal injuries can affect chromium levels in the blood [18]. Malformations in fish are caused by cadmium, nickel, mercury, chromium, lead, and arsenic. The accumulation of these heavy metals in excessive amounts causes a variety of physiological effects. Fin loss, gill underdevelopment, liver dysfunction, and fin function in fingerlings were all prevalent findings in the studies [78]. The harmful effects of heavy metals have the greatest impact on the death rate, reproduction, individual development rates, and physiological capacity of fish. There have been effects on physical functioning and chemical parameters in the tissues and blood of fish living in water that is polluted via metals. It has been reported that fish exposed to metals developed immune system defects, making them more susceptible to infectious infections and increasing their chances of dying (Figure 3) [79].
Harmful effects on the aquatic environment.
For the growth of plants, few HMs like As, Cd, Hg, Pb, and Se are not important as they do not perform any known physiological function in them. Others, such as Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, and Zn, are key elements that are required for regular plant development and metabolism, but their amounts can quickly exceed the appropriate levels, resulting in poisoning [80, 81]. Heavy metal concentrations in plants vary by plant species, and the efficiency with which various plants absorb metals is measured by plant absorption or metal transfer factors from soil to plant. An increased amount of Pb in agricultural soil decreases the productivity rate of the soil, and a less lead amount may hinder some important processes of plant, dark green leaves, withering of older leaves, stunted foliage, and brown short roots are poisonous indicators of photosynthesis, mitosis, and water absorption [82]. Heavy metals are poisonous and phytotoxic to plants, resulting in diseases such as chlorosis, poor plant development, and yield depression, as well as decreased nutrient absorption, plant metabolic problems, and a reduced capacity to fix molecular nitrogen in leguminous plants. Seed germination was gradually reduced in the presence of increasing levels of lead, it may be due to exposure to lead for a longer duration, some methods, such as leaching, chelation, metal binding, or microbe accumulation, have resulted in the neutralization of lead’s harmful effects [83]. Heavy metals such as Cd, Pb, and Ni even their small concentration in plants can be hazardous to them. Poisoning due to this heavy metal will result in the complex interplay between the primary unpleasant ions and additional necessary or non-essential ions. Metals affect the activity of enzymes by swapping metal ions from metal enzymes, as well as preventing plant growth [84]. Some exceptional metals are vital for plants, as they reveal their roles in the catabolism of plants and biosynthesis, together as cofactors for enzymes and as metabolic yields. For example, Zn, Fe, Cu, Cr, and Co are the important nutrients but when their amounts are increased, they become toxic. Comparatively, Pb and Cd have no effect, which is favorable to the plant and is solely lethal [85]. The most abundant hazardous elements in the soil are lead. Pb poisoning in the soil is caused by municipal sewage sludge discharge, mining and smelting operations, Pb-containing paints, paper and pulp, gasoline, and explosives. They do not have any role in the shape of the plant or their growth and photosynthetic process of the plant. Pb poisoning also inhibits enzyme action, creates an imbalance of the water, alters membrane permeability, and disrupts mineral feeding [86].
One of the main sources of contamination of the water is heavy metals, as it overwhelms the important species indirectly through biological chains or directly via chemical modifications in water. Three potential ways are there, through which heavy metals get into the fish body: though fish gills, through the body of the fish, and through the fish digestive tract. Gills are responsible for the immediate absorption of metals from the water, whereas the body surface is thought to have a smaller role in the intake of these elements in fish [87]. By altering the normal activities of numerous enzymes and metabolites, the accumulation of these heavy metals in the tissues causes significant biochemical, physiological, and histological changes in fish and other freshwater fauna. Fish are one of the most widely dispersed creatures in the aquatic ecosystem, and their susceptibility to metal poisoning may indicate the extent of metal pollution’s biological impact [88]. Heavy metals, such as As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Fe, Pb, Mn, Hg, Ni, Zn, and tin (Sn), are major contaminants that cause serious toxicity in fish. Due to the heavy metals, the physiological and biochemical functions both in tissues and in blood Carpi can be altered. The compounds of As and inorganic As, Cd, Ni, silica in its crystal form, beryllium, and its compounds are considered to be chemical carcinogens, which results in the development of cancer inside the fishes. The drop in hematological parameters indicated that the exposed fishes had become anemic as a result of Cr exposure. This dangerous heavy metal was released into the aquatic ecosystem via trash, causing severe anemia and changes in hematological parameters in the
Water pollution is a global problem, and the world’s population is suffering the consequences of tainted water. Living organisms are also affected by the polluted water very much and it is very harmful to the environment. Acute and choric illnesses are caused by heavy metal concentrations in drinking water that exceed the permissible limits set by several national and international organizations. These can range from nonfatal, such as muscle and physical weakness, to fatal, such as brain, nervous system, and even cancer. Water quality testing is necessary for the protection of human health and the environment.
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Almeida, Julianeli Tolentino de Lima, Luciano Augusto de Araújo Ribeiro, Lucindo José Quintans Júnior and José Maria Barbosa Filho",authors:[{id:"68388",title:"Dr.",name:"Xirley",middleName:null,surname:"Nunes",slug:"xirley-nunes",fullName:"Xirley Nunes"},{id:"70159",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucindo",middleName:null,surname:"Quintans-Júnior",slug:"lucindo-quintans-junior",fullName:"Lucindo Quintans-Júnior"},{id:"72113",title:"Prof.",name:"Jackson",middleName:"Roberto Guedes Da Silva",surname:"Almeida",slug:"jackson-almeida",fullName:"Jackson Almeida"},{id:"72114",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianeli",middleName:"Tolentino",surname:"Lima",slug:"julianeli-lima",fullName:"Julianeli Lima"},{id:"73341",title:"Prof.",name:"José Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Barbosa-Filho",slug:"jose-maria-barbosa-filho",fullName:"José Maria Barbosa-Filho"},{id:"76185",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciano",middleName:null,surname:"Ribeiro",slug:"luciano-ribeiro",fullName:"Luciano Ribeiro"},{id:"76187",title:"MSc.",name:"Fabrício",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",slug:"fabricio-silva",fullName:"Fabrício Silva"}]},{id:"32903",doi:"10.5772/30459",title:"Potato Peel as a Source of Important Phytochemical Antioxidant Nutraceuticals and Their Role in Human Health - A Review",slug:"potato-peel-as-a-source-of-important-phytochemical-antioxidant-nutraceuticals-and-their-role-in-huma",totalDownloads:8551,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"1958",slug:"phytochemicals-as-nutraceuticals-global-approaches-to-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",title:"Phytochemicals as Nutraceuticals",fullTitle:"Phytochemicals as Nutraceuticals - Global Approaches to Their Role in Nutrition and Health"},signatures:"A. Al-Weshahy and V.A. Rao",authors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"},{id:"150485",title:"Dr.",name:"Amir",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Weshahy",slug:"amir-al-weshahy",fullName:"Amir Al-Weshahy"}]},{id:"69956",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88829",title:"Biostimulants and Their Role in Improving Plant Growth under Abiotic Stresses",slug:"biostimulants-and-their-role-in-improving-plant-growth-under-abiotic-stresses",totalDownloads:2658,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Biostimulants are products that reduce the need for fertilizers and increase plant growth, resistance to water and abiotic stresses. In small concentrations, these substances are efficient, favoring the good performance of the plant’s vital processes, and allowing high yields and good quality products. In addition, biostimulants applied to plants enhance nutrition efficiency, abiotic stress tolerance and/or plant quality traits, regardless of its nutrient contents. Several researches have been developed in order to evaluate the biostimulants in improving plant development subjected to stresses, saline environment, and development of seedlings, among others. Furthermore, various raw materials have been used in biostimulant compositions, such as humic acids, hormones, algae extracts, and plant growth-promoting bacteria. In this sense, this chapter aims to approach the use of biostimulants in plant growth according to the raw material used in their compositions as well as their effects on plants subjected to abiotic stresses.",book:{id:"8954",slug:"biostimulants-in-plant-science",title:"Biostimulants in Plant Science",fullTitle:"Biostimulants in Plant Science"},signatures:"Ana Carolina Feitosa de Vasconcelos and Lúcia Helena Garófalo Chaves",authors:null},{id:"32894",doi:"10.5772/27308",title:"Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activities of Some Plant Extracts",slug:"antimicrobial-and-antioxidant-activities-of-some-plant-extracts",totalDownloads:7083,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:null,book:{id:"1958",slug:"phytochemicals-as-nutraceuticals-global-approaches-to-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",title:"Phytochemicals as Nutraceuticals",fullTitle:"Phytochemicals as Nutraceuticals - Global Approaches to Their Role in Nutrition and Health"},signatures:"Elita Scio, Renata F. Mendes, Erick V.S. Motta, Paula M.Q. Bellozi, Danielle M.O. Aragão, Josiane Mello, Rodrigo L. Fabri, Jussara R. Moreira, Isabel V.L. de Assis and Maria Lúcia M. Bouzada",authors:[{id:"69660",title:"Dr.",name:"Elita",middleName:null,surname:"Scio",slug:"elita-scio",fullName:"Elita Scio"},{id:"76248",title:"MSc.",name:"Rodrigo",middleName:null,surname:"Fabri",slug:"rodrigo-fabri",fullName:"Rodrigo Fabri"},{id:"76251",title:"MSc.",name:"Danielle",middleName:null,surname:"Aragão",slug:"danielle-aragao",fullName:"Danielle Aragão"},{id:"76253",title:"Ms.",name:"Renata",middleName:null,surname:"Mendes",slug:"renata-mendes",fullName:"Renata Mendes"},{id:"76256",title:"Mr.",name:"Erick",middleName:null,surname:"Motta",slug:"erick-motta",fullName:"Erick Motta"},{id:"76259",title:"Ms.",name:"Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Assis",slug:"isabel-assis",fullName:"Isabel Assis"},{id:"76261",title:"Ms.",name:"Jussara",middleName:null,surname:"Moreira",slug:"jussara-moreira",fullName:"Jussara Moreira"},{id:"76262",title:"MSc.",name:"Maria Lucia",middleName:null,surname:"Bouzada",slug:"maria-lucia-bouzada",fullName:"Maria Lucia Bouzada"},{id:"76264",title:"Ms.",name:"Paula",middleName:null,surname:"Bellozi",slug:"paula-bellozi",fullName:"Paula Bellozi"},{id:"76266",title:"MSc.",name:"Josiane",middleName:null,surname:"Mello",slug:"josiane-mello",fullName:"Josiane Mello"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69956",title:"Biostimulants and Their Role in Improving Plant Growth under Abiotic Stresses",slug:"biostimulants-and-their-role-in-improving-plant-growth-under-abiotic-stresses",totalDownloads:2664,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Biostimulants are products that reduce the need for fertilizers and increase plant growth, resistance to water and abiotic stresses. In small concentrations, these substances are efficient, favoring the good performance of the plant’s vital processes, and allowing high yields and good quality products. In addition, biostimulants applied to plants enhance nutrition efficiency, abiotic stress tolerance and/or plant quality traits, regardless of its nutrient contents. Several researches have been developed in order to evaluate the biostimulants in improving plant development subjected to stresses, saline environment, and development of seedlings, among others. Furthermore, various raw materials have been used in biostimulant compositions, such as humic acids, hormones, algae extracts, and plant growth-promoting bacteria. In this sense, this chapter aims to approach the use of biostimulants in plant growth according to the raw material used in their compositions as well as their effects on plants subjected to abiotic stresses.",book:{id:"8954",slug:"biostimulants-in-plant-science",title:"Biostimulants in Plant Science",fullTitle:"Biostimulants in Plant Science"},signatures:"Ana Carolina Feitosa de Vasconcelos and Lúcia Helena Garófalo Chaves",authors:null},{id:"69577",title:"Role of Fungi in Agriculture",slug:"role-of-fungi-in-agriculture",totalDownloads:1648,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Fungi are a group of eukaryotic organisms and source of food, organic acids, alcohol, antibiotics, growth-promoting substances, enzymes, and amino acids. They include microorganisms like molds, yeasts, and mushrooms. They live on dead or living plants or animals’ tissue. Fungi are very different from other living organisms; they are the primary decomposers of substances in the ecological system. Fungi are tremendous decomposer of organic waste material and most readily attack cellulose, lignins, gums, and other organic complex substances. Fungi can act also under a wide range of soil reaction from acidic to alkaline soil reactions. Fungi conjointly play a basic role in different physiological processes as well as mineral and water uptake, chemical change, stomatal movement, and biosynthesis of compounds termed biostimulants, auxins, lignan, and ethylene to enhance the flexibility of plants to ascertain and cope environmental stresses like drought, salinity, heat, cold, and significant metals.",book:{id:"8954",slug:"biostimulants-in-plant-science",title:"Biostimulants in Plant Science",fullTitle:"Biostimulants in Plant Science"},signatures:"Muthuraman Yuvaraj and Murugaragavan Ramasamy",authors:[{id:"280193",title:"Dr.",name:"Muthuraman",middleName:null,surname:"Yuvaraj",slug:"muthuraman-yuvaraj",fullName:"Muthuraman Yuvaraj"},{id:"289410",title:"Dr.",name:"Murugaragavan",middleName:null,surname:"Ramasamy",slug:"murugaragavan-ramasamy",fullName:"Murugaragavan Ramasamy"}]},{id:"62653",title:"Phytochemical Composition: Antioxidant Potential and Biological Activities of Corn",slug:"phytochemical-composition-antioxidant-potential-and-biological-activities-of-corn",totalDownloads:2214,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Corn seeds are used as a nutritional source for humans, and the stem and leaves are utilized as fodder for cattle throughout the world. Corn silk and corn cob are usually discarded as waste. This chapter highlights the nutritional as well as medicinal importance of various parts of corn plant. All parts of corn plant are good source of a variety of bioactive phytochemical compounds which possess antioxidant potential. The principal phytochemicals present in corn seed and corn silk include polyphenols, phenolic acids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, glycosides, carotenoids, and polysaccharides of biological importance, reducing compounds and some water-soluble vitamins. The presence of these phytochemicals makes corn a medicinal plant which shows various biological activities particularly the antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, anti-obesity, antiproliferative, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, and renal-protective activities. On the account of its high antioxidant potential, all parts of corn plant can be used for the management of oxidative stress and the treatment of various diseases.",book:{id:"7206",slug:"corn-production-and-human-health-in-changing-climate",title:"Corn",fullTitle:"Corn - Production and Human Health in Changing Climate"},signatures:"Haq Nawaz, Saima Muzaffar, Momna Aslam and Shakeel Ahmad",authors:[{id:"230900",title:"Mr.",name:"Haq",middleName:null,surname:"Nawaz",slug:"haq-nawaz",fullName:"Haq Nawaz"},{id:"244066",title:"Prof.",name:"Saima",middleName:null,surname:"Muzaffar",slug:"saima-muzaffar",fullName:"Saima Muzaffar"},{id:"263041",title:"Ms.",name:"Momna",middleName:null,surname:"Aslam",slug:"momna-aslam",fullName:"Momna Aslam"},{id:"263042",title:"Dr.",name:"Shakeel",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"shakeel-ahmad",fullName:"Shakeel Ahmad"}]},{id:"70950",title:"Role of Biofertilizers in Plant Growth and Soil Health",slug:"role-of-biofertilizers-in-plant-growth-and-soil-health",totalDownloads:1436,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Biofertilizers nowadays have been realised for shifting fortunes in agriculture. It has been proven successful technology in many developed countries while in developing countries exploitation of bioinoculants is hampered by several factors. Scientific knowledge on bioinoculants and its usage will pave way for its effective usage. At the same time overlooking the significance of ensuring and maintaining a high quality standard of the product will have negative impact. Hence a proper knowledge of bioinoculants and its functioning will pave way to tape the resources in a better way. Thus the chapter provide overview knowledge about different bacterial, fungal and algal biofertilizers, its associations with plants and transformations of nutrients in soil. Adopting a rational approach to the use and management of microbial fertilizers in sustainable agriculture thrive vast potential for the future.",book:{id:"8004",slug:"nitrogen-fixation",title:"Nitrogen Fixation",fullTitle:"Nitrogen Fixation"},signatures:"Murugaragavan Ramasamy, T. Geetha and M. Yuvaraj",authors:[{id:"289410",title:"Dr.",name:"Murugaragavan",middleName:null,surname:"Ramasamy",slug:"murugaragavan-ramasamy",fullName:"Murugaragavan Ramasamy"}]},{id:"67454",title:"Nitrogen Fertilization I: Impact on Crop, Soil, and Environment",slug:"nitrogen-fertilization-i-impact-on-crop-soil-and-environment",totalDownloads:1620,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Nitrogen (N) is a major limiting nutrient to sustain crop yields and quality. As a result, N fertilizer is usually applied in large quantity to increase crop production throughout the world. Application of N fertilizers has increased crop yields and resulted in achievement of self-sufficiency in food production in many developing countries. Excessive application of N fertilizers beyond crops’ demand, however, has resulted in undesirable consequences of degradation in soil, water, and air quality. These include soil acidification, N leaching in groundwater, and emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O), a potent greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming. Long-term application of ammonia-based N fertilizers, such as urea, has increased soil acidity which rendered to soil infertility where crops fail to respond with further application of N fertilizers. Another problem is the groundwater contamination of nitrate-N (NO3-N) which can be a health hazard to human and livestock if its concentration goes above 10 mg L−1 in drinking water. The third problem is emissions of N2O gas which is 300 times more powerful than carbon dioxide in terms of global warming potential. This chapter examines the effect of N fertilization on soil and environmental quality and crop yields.",book:{id:"8004",slug:"nitrogen-fixation",title:"Nitrogen Fixation",fullTitle:"Nitrogen Fixation"},signatures:"Upendra M. Sainju, Rajan Ghimire and Gautam P. Pradhan",authors:[{id:"214367",title:"Dr.",name:"Upendra",middleName:null,surname:"Sainju",slug:"upendra-sainju",fullName:"Upendra Sainju"},{id:"266570",title:"Prof.",name:"Rajan",middleName:null,surname:"Ghimire",slug:"rajan-ghimire",fullName:"Rajan Ghimire"},{id:"266571",title:"Prof.",name:"Gautam",middleName:null,surname:"Pradhan",slug:"gautam-pradhan",fullName:"Gautam Pradhan"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"349",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:125,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",institution:null},{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. K. Kantharaju has received Bachelor of science (PCM), master of science (Organic Chemistry) and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry from Bangalore University. He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. 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