Comparison among different wind power systems
-Preparation and fabrications of nanolayers with different methods.\n
-Description of recent achievements related to very important III-V heterostructures.\n
-Descriptions of mechanical, thermal, optoelectronic, photocatalytic, and tribological properties of nanolayered structures.\n
Some environmentally friendly applications are also treated in this book.\nThe presented book provides a description of specific and original results obtained by authors. We hope that the volume will be of interest for a wide range of readers working in the field of material science.",isbn:"978-953-51-3144-1",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3143-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4829-6",doi:"10.5772/65465",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"nanoscaled-films-and-layers",numberOfPages:298,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"f43ea8f3894ee0c3e44b2351bf3447d5",bookSignature:"Laszlo Nanai",publishedDate:"May 24th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5789.jpg",numberOfDownloads:19065,numberOfWosCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:31,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:59,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 26th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 17th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 13th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 13th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 12th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"61978",title:"Prof.",name:"Laszlo",middleName:null,surname:"Nanai",slug:"laszlo-nanai",fullName:"Laszlo Nanai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61978/images/system/61978.png",biography:"Prof. Nanai was born on April 19, 1948, in Csopak (Hungary). He studied physics (MSc) at Saint Petersburg State University (RU), and his PhD degree and habilitation in the field of quantum electronics were obtained at Lebedev Physical Institute, Moscow (RU), and Szeged University (H). \r\n\r\nHe is a specialist in the fields of solid-state physics, laser-matter interaction fabrication and characterization of nanostructures. He has written over 170 scientific publications including about 10 books and chapters in books and conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Szeged",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Szeged",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1169",title:"Condensed Matter Physics",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science-condensed-matter-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"54288",title:"Formation of Nanolayer on Surface of EPD Coatings Based on Poly-Ether-Ether-Ketone",doi:"10.5772/67570",slug:"formation-of-nanolayer-on-surface-of-epd-coatings-based-on-poly-ether-ether-ketone",totalDownloads:1416,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Poly-ether-ether-ketone (PEEK) is a high performance polymer with many intrinsic properties. When it is used in the form of coating, an improvement of some of its functional properties was achieved by forming a surface nanolayer. In this chapter, it will be described how it was possible to obtain this result. Firstly, three kinds of PEEK composite coatings were deposited by electrophoretic deposition, adding alumina particles, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and lignin to PEEK. Then, the composite coatings were thermal treated in a furnace. Therefore, surface nanostructure and chemical composition of these PEEK composite coatings were modified with respect to bulk coatings, due to interaction between PEEK chain and secondary phase, emphasised by the thermal treatment conditions. Experimental evidence of the formation of surface nanolayer was provided by SEM, TEM, GIXRD, ATR-FTIR and XPS characterisations. Functional characterisations demonstrated that wear resistance—in the presence of alumina particles—hydrophobicity—in the presence of PTFE—and corrosion resistance—in the presence of Lignin—were increased with respect to pure PEEK.",signatures:"Maria Federica De Riccardis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54288",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54288",authors:[{id:"77857",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Federica",surname:"De Riccardis",slug:"m.-federica-de-riccardis",fullName:"M. Federica De Riccardis"}],corrections:null},{id:"54678",title:"Electroless Deposition of Nanolayered Metallic Coatings",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68220",slug:"electroless-deposition-of-nanolayered-metallic-coatings",totalDownloads:3414,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Electroless metallic coating is referred as the deposition of a substrate material by the process of chemical or autocatalytic reduction of aqueous metal ions deposited to a substrate material without any external supply of power. Electroless nickel alloys are generally considered synonymous to the word “electroless coating” as ~90% of productions in industries are of this alloy coating. Rest of the electroless metallic coatings includes gold, copper, palladium, cobalt, silver, etc. These electroless metallic coatings (other than electroless nickel coatings) are also one of the vibrant areas in the field of materials properties and surface engineering research. From the year 2000 to till date, nearly 1000 SCI indexed research papers were published on this topic. However, no comprehensive studies about the recent progress on this topic were reported elsewhere so far. In this context, the present chapter aims to give a complete overview on various aspects of the rest of the electroless metallic nanocoatings/layer as a whole. More importance will be on the recent developments of the nanocharacteristics and future scopes.",signatures:"Jothi Sudagar, Rajendraprasad Tamilarasan, Udaykumar Sanjith, Raj\nRajendran and Ravi Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54678",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54678",authors:[{id:"202302",title:"Dr.",name:"Jothi",surname:"Sudagar",slug:"jothi-sudagar",fullName:"Jothi Sudagar"},{id:"203599",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamilarasan",surname:"Tr",slug:"tamilarasan-tr",fullName:"Tamilarasan Tr"},{id:"203600",title:"MSc.",name:"Sanjith",surname:"U",slug:"sanjith-u",fullName:"Sanjith U"},{id:"203601",title:"Prof.",name:"Rajendran",surname:"R",slug:"rajendran-r",fullName:"Rajendran R"},{id:"203602",title:"Prof.",name:"Ravi Kumar",surname:"Nv",slug:"ravi-kumar-nv",fullName:"Ravi Kumar Nv"}],corrections:null},{id:"54328",title:"Laser Prepared Thin Films for Optoelectronic Applications",doi:"10.5772/67659",slug:"laser-prepared-thin-films-for-optoelectronic-applications",totalDownloads:1489,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Laser techniques such as pulsed laser deposition, combinatorial pulsed laser deposition, and matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation were used to deposit thin films for optoelectronic applications. High-quality transparent conductor oxide films ITO, AZO, and IZO were deposited on polyethylene terephthalate by PLD, an important experimental parameter being the target-substrate distance. The TCO films present a high transparency (>95%) and a reduced electrical resistivity (5 × 10−4 Ωcm) characteristics very useful for their integration in the flexible electronics. InxZn1−xO films with a compositional library were obtained by CPLD. These films are featured by a high optical transmission (>95%), the lowest resistivity (8.6 × 10−4 Ωcm) being observed for an indium content of about 44–49 at.%. Organic heterostructures based on arylenevinylene oligomers (P78 and P13) or arylene polymers (AMC16 and AMC22) were obtained by MAPLE. In the case of ITO/P78/Alq3/Al heterostructures, a higher current value is obtained when the film thickness increases. Also, a photovoltaic effect was observed for heterostructures based on AMC16 or AMC22 deposited on ITO covered by a thin layer of PEDOT:PSS. Due to their optical and electrical properties, such organic heterostructures can be interesting for the organic photovoltaic cells (OPV) applications.",signatures:"Marcela Socol, Gabriel Socol, Nicoleta Preda, Anca Stanculescu and\nFlorin Stanculescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54328",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54328",authors:[{id:"21373",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",surname:"Stanculescu",slug:"anca-stanculescu",fullName:"Anca Stanculescu"},{id:"21611",title:"Dr.",name:"Florin",surname:"Stanculescu",slug:"florin-stanculescu",fullName:"Florin Stanculescu"},{id:"178419",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Socol",slug:"gabriel-socol",fullName:"Gabriel Socol"},{id:"184343",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicoleta",surname:"Preda",slug:"nicoleta-preda",fullName:"Nicoleta Preda"},{id:"198589",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcela",surname:"Socol",slug:"marcela-socol",fullName:"Marcela Socol"}],corrections:null},{id:"54765",title:"Heteroepitaxy of III–V Zinc Blende Semiconductors on Nanopatterned Substrates",doi:"10.5772/67572",slug:"heteroepitaxy-of-iii-v-zinc-blende-semiconductors-on-nanopatterned-substrates",totalDownloads:1532,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the last decade, zinc blende structure III–V semiconductors have been increasingly utilized for the realization of high‐performance optoelectronic applications because of their tunable bandgaps, high carrier mobility and the absence of piezoelectric fields. However, the integration of III–V devices on the Si platform commonly used for CMOS electronic circuits still poses a challenge, due to the large densities of mismatch‐related defects in heteroepitaxial III–V layers grown on planar Si substrates. A promising method to obtain thin III–V layers of high crystalline quality is the growth on nanopatterned substrates. In this approach, defects can be effectively eliminated by elastic lattice relaxation in three dimensions or confined close to the substrate interface by using aspect‐ratio trapping masks. As a result, an etch pit density as low as 3.3 × 105 cm−2 and a flat surface of submicron GaAs layers have been accomplished by growth onto a SiO2 nanohole film patterned Si(001) substrate, where the threading defects are trapped at the SiO2 mask sidewalls. An open issue that remains to be resolved is to gain a better understanding of the interplay between mask shape, growth conditions and formation of coalescence defects during mask overgrowth in order to achieve thin device quality III–V layers.",signatures:"Thomas Riedl and Jörg K.N. Lindner",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54765",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54765",authors:[{id:"196852",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Riedl",slug:"thomas-riedl",fullName:"Thomas Riedl"},{id:"197870",title:"Prof.",name:"Jörg K.N.",surname:"Lindner",slug:"jorg-k.n.-lindner",fullName:"Jörg K.N. Lindner"}],corrections:null},{id:"54687",title:"Surface Modification of III-V Compounds Substrates for Processing Technology",doi:"10.5772/67916",slug:"surface-modification-of-iii-v-compounds-substrates-for-processing-technology",totalDownloads:1953,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Semiconductor materials became a part of nowadays life due to useful applications caused by characteristic properties as variable conductivity and sensitivity to light or heat. Electrical properties of a semiconductor can be modified by doping or by the application of electric fields or light; and from this view, devices made from semiconductors can be used for amplification or energy conversion. The compound semiconductor materials from III-V class experienced a qualitative leap from promising potential to nowadays technologic environment. The III-V semiconductor compounds are the material bases for electronic and optoelectronic devices such as high-electron-mobility transistors (HEMT), bipolar heterostructure transistors, IR light-emitting diodes, heterostructure lasers, Gunn diodes, Schottky devices, photodetectors, and heterostructure solar cells for terrestrial and spatial operating conditions. Among III-V semiconductor compounds, gallium arsenide (GaAs) and gallium antimonide (GaSb) are of special interest as a substrate material due to the lattice parameter match to solid solutions (ternary and quaternary) whose band gaps cover a wide spectral range from 0.8 to 4.3 μm in the case of GaSb. The solid/solid interfaces could play a key part in the development of microelectronic device technology. In most of the cases, the initial surface of III-V compounds exposed to laboratory conditions is covered usually with native oxide layers. Various techniques for performing the surface cleaning process are used, e.g., controlled chemical etching, in situ ion sputtering, coupled with controlled annealing in vacuum and often these classic techniques are combined in order to prepare an eligible semiconductor surface to be exposed to a technological device chain. The evolution of surface native oxides in different cleaning procedures and the characteristics of as-prepared semiconductor surface were investigated by modern surface investigation techniques, i.e., X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), atomic force microscopy (AFM), Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS) combined with electrical characterization. Surface preparation of semiconductors in particular for III-V compounds is a necessary requirement in device technology due to the existence of surface impurities and the presence of native oxides. The impurities can affect the adherence of ohmic and Schottky contacts and due to thermal decomposition of native oxides (e.g., GaSb) it also affect the interface metal/semiconductor. The practical experience reveals that the simple preparation of a surface is a nonrealistic expectation, i.e., surface preparation is a result of combined treatments, namely chemical etching and thermal treatment, ion beam sputtering and thermal reconstruction procedure.",signatures:"Rodica V. Ghita, Constantin Logofatu, Constantin-Catalin Negrila,\nLucian Trupina and Costel Cotirlan-Simioniuc",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54687",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54687",authors:[{id:"50919",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodica V.",surname:"Ghita",slug:"rodica-v.-ghita",fullName:"Rodica V. Ghita"},{id:"197743",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucian",surname:"Trupina",slug:"lucian-trupina",fullName:"Lucian Trupina"},{id:"198134",title:"Dr.",name:"Constantin",surname:"Logofatu",slug:"constantin-logofatu",fullName:"Constantin Logofatu"},{id:"198135",title:"Dr.",name:"Constantin-Catalin",surname:"Negrila",slug:"constantin-catalin-negrila",fullName:"Constantin-Catalin Negrila"},{id:"198140",title:"Dr.",name:"Costel",surname:"Cotirlan-Simioniuc",slug:"costel-cotirlan-simioniuc",fullName:"Costel Cotirlan-Simioniuc"}],corrections:null},{id:"54581",title:"Nanoscaled Fluorescent Films and Layers for Detection of Environmental Pollutants",doi:"10.5772/67869",slug:"nanoscaled-fluorescent-films-and-layers-for-detection-of-environmental-pollutants",totalDownloads:1785,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hazardous gas and ion pollutants are the most serious environmental problems around the world. It is of great importance to develop devices for easy detection of these hazardous substances. Fluorescence technology with high resolution and operational simplicity has attracted a lot of attention in recent years. Organic fluorescent dyes absorb/emit lights within a broad wavelength range, which is suitable for various demands. Chromophores, such as perylene, cyanine dyes, spiropyran, and so on, are widely studied as fluorescent probes for gases and ions. The dyes could respond to external stimuli through structural changes of the conjugated chromophore itself or the attached functional groups, leading to detectable spectral changes. Organic dyes are incorporated into nanoscaled films and layers, which are portable and durable for effective sensing in complex environments. In this chapter, preparation and application of fluorescent films and layers (FFL) for gaseous/ionic detection are reviewed. We discuss the response mechanism of fluorescent dyes, the fabrication of nanoscaled FFL, and some examples of FFL for the detection of gas and ion pollutants.",signatures:"Meizhen Yin and Chendong Ji",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54581",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54581",authors:[{id:"197509",title:"Prof.",name:"Meizhen",surname:"Yin",slug:"meizhen-yin",fullName:"Meizhen Yin"},{id:"200372",title:"Mr.",name:"Chendong",surname:"Ji",slug:"chendong-ji",fullName:"Chendong Ji"}],corrections:null},{id:"54290",title:"Mechanical Nanoprocessing and Nanoviscoelasticity of Surface- Modified Polycarbonate",doi:"10.5772/67512",slug:"mechanical-nanoprocessing-and-nanoviscoelasticity-of-surface-modified-polycarbonate",totalDownloads:1260,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To clarify their potential as atomic force microscope (AFM) memory media, the nanometer‐scale mechanical processing properties of untreated and fluorocarbon plasma‐treated polycarbonate samples were determined via the sliding of an AFM tip. The surface energy of the polycarbonate was reduced by the fluorocarbon plasma treatment, as well as the force necessary for processing. Nanometer‐scale precise processing of the polycarbonate was realized after the fluorocarbon plasma treatment, and the interval pitch in the formation of lines, spaces, and nanometer‐scale fine dots was minimized to 60 nm with these samples. The viscoelastic properties of the fluorinated polycarbonate were evaluated using an AFM in force modulation mode. The fluorocarbon plasma treatment reduced the friction force of the polycarbonate sample and improved its wear resistance, which caused the friction durability corresponding to the reliability of data reproduction to be markedly improved. These results show that high‐density recording can be realized by nanometer‐scale processing of fluorocarbon plasma‐treated polycarbonate samples.",signatures:"Shojiro Miyake and Mei Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54290",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54290",authors:[{id:"22097",title:"Dr.",name:"Mei",surname:"Wang",slug:"mei-wang",fullName:"Mei Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"54966",title:"Green Intelligent Nanomaterials by Design (Using Nanoparticulate/2D-Materials Building Blocks) Current Developments and Future Trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68434",slug:"green-intelligent-nanomaterials-by-design-using-nanoparticulate-2d-materials-building-blocks-current",totalDownloads:1491,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Feasibility of designing and synthesizing ‘smart’ and ‘intelligent’ materials using nanostructured building blocks has been examined here based on the current status of the progress made in this context. The added advantages of using 2D layered/nonlayered materials along with phytosomal species derived from natural plants are highlighted with special reference to their better programmability along with minimum toxicity in biomedical applications. The current developments taking place in their upscaled productions are also included while assessing their upcoming industrial usages in diverse fields.",signatures:"Dinesh Kumar and Shamim Ahmad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54966",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54966",authors:[{id:"196523",title:"Dr.",name:"Shamim",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"shamim-ahmad",fullName:"Shamim Ahmad"},{id:"205981",title:"Prof.",name:"Dinesh",surname:"Kumar",slug:"dinesh-kumar",fullName:"Dinesh Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"54751",title:"Molybdenum Disulfide-Based Photocatalysis:Bulk-to-Single Layer Structure and Related Photomechansim for Environmental Applications",doi:"10.5772/67825",slug:"molybdenum-disulfide-based-photocatalysis-bulk-to-single-layer-structure-and-related-photomechansim-",totalDownloads:1990,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bulk-to-single layer molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is widely used as a robust candidate for photodegradation of organic pollutants, hydrogen production, and CO2 reduction. This material features active edge sites and narrow band gap features, which are useful for generating reactive species in aqueous suspensions. However, the high-charge carrier recombination, photocorrosion, unstable sulfide state, and formation of Mo-S-O links during photocatalytic reactions limit its applicability. Thus, research has focused on improving the performance of MoS2 by tailoring its bulk-to-single layer structure and combining it with other semiconductor materials to improve the photocatalytic performance. Different strategies have been successfully applied to enhance the photocatalytic activity of MoS2, including tailoring of the surface morphology, formation of heterojunctions with other semiconductors, doping, and modification with excess sulfur or carbon nanostructures. This review describes the influence of starting precursors, sulfur sources, and synthetic methods to obtain heterostructured morphologies and study their impact on the photocatalytic efficiency. Finally, the relevance of crystal facets and defects in photocatalysis is outlined. Future applications of MoS2 with tailoring and tuning physicochemical properties are highlighted.",signatures:"Surya Veerendra Prabhakar Vattikuti and Chan Byon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54751",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54751",authors:[{id:"196995",title:"Prof.",name:"S V Prabhakar",surname:"Vattikuti",slug:"s-v-prabhakar-vattikuti",fullName:"S V Prabhakar Vattikuti"},{id:"199682",title:"Prof.",name:"Chan",surname:"Byon",slug:"chan-byon",fullName:"Chan Byon"}],corrections:null},{id:"54449",title:"Advance in Tribology Study of Polyelectrolyte Multilayers",doi:"10.5772/67571",slug:"advance-in-tribology-study-of-polyelectrolyte-multilayers",totalDownloads:1380,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This review introduced the preparation and structural characterization of polyelectrolyte multilayers in recent years and also summarized the tribology research progress of the polyelectrolyte multilayers, including tribological properties, surface adhesion characteristics, and wear resistance properties. Statistics analysis indicated that nanoparticles‐doped polyelectrolyte multilayers present better friction and wear performance than pristine polyelectrolyte multilayers. Furthermore, the in situ growth method resulted in improved structural order of nanoparticles composite molecular deposition film. In situ nanoparticles not only reduced the molecular deposition film surface adhesion force and friction force but also significantly improved the life of wear resistance. That was due to the nanoparticles that possessed a good load‐carrying capacity and reduced the mobility of the polymer‐chain segments, which can undergo reversible shear deformation. Based on this, further research direction of in situ nanoparticles molecular deposition film was proposed.",signatures:"Yanbao Guo and Deguo Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54449",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54449",authors:[{id:"196649",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanbao",surname:"Guo",slug:"yanbao-guo",fullName:"Yanbao Guo"},{id:"197584",title:"Prof.",name:"Deguo",surname:"Wang",slug:"deguo-wang",fullName:"Deguo Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"54123",title:"Thermal Radiative Wavelength Selectivity of Nanostructured Layered Media",doi:"10.5772/67395",slug:"thermal-radiative-wavelength-selectivity-of-nanostructured-layered-media",totalDownloads:1356,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Thermal radiative transport yields unique thermal characteristics of microscopic thin films—wavelength selectivity. This chapter focuses on a methodology about adjusting the wavelength selectivity of thin films embedded with nanoparticles in the far‐field and near‐field regimes. For nanostructured layered media doped with nanoparticles, Maxwell‐Garnett‐Mie theory is applied to determine the effective dielectric function for the calculation of radiative thermal transport. The thermal radiative wavelength selectivity can be affected by volume fraction and/or the size of the embedded nanoparticles in thin films. To characterize wavelength selectivity and optical property of nanostructured materials, both real and imaginary parts of effective refractive index need to be analyzed. It has been shown that the nanoparticles made of polar or metallic materials have different influence on thermal radiative wavelength selectivity of microscopic thin films.",signatures:"Yi Zheng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54123",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54123",authors:[{id:"197058",title:"Prof.",name:"Yi",surname:"Zheng",slug:"yi-zheng",fullName:"Yi Zheng"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7194",title:"Methods for Film Synthesis and Coating Procedures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0278e5a9a9d429a23692d1ce9bae2c2c",slug:"methods-for-film-synthesis-and-coating-procedures",bookSignature:"László Nánai, Aneeya Samantara, László Fábián and Satyajit Ratha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7194.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61978",title:"Prof.",name:"Laszlo",surname:"Nanai",slug:"laszlo-nanai",fullName:"Laszlo Nanai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"397",title:"Nanofibers",subtitle:"Production, Properties and Functional Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"934fe33b73b2ecba961c67d5a90021ec",slug:"nanofibers-production-properties-and-functional-applications",bookSignature:"Tong Lin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/397.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49937",title:"Dr.",name:"Tong",surname:"Lin",slug:"tong-lin",fullName:"Tong Lin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1045",title:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"65d477e855685ea85913e5aba0c5217e",slug:"nanocomposites-and-polymers-with-analytical-methods",bookSignature:"John Cuppoletti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1045.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49991",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Cuppoletti",slug:"john-cuppoletti",fullName:"John Cuppoletti"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3200",title:"Nanofibers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"97487143b896780afaf08cfd67cd1eec",slug:"nanofibers",bookSignature:"Ashok Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3200.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7718",title:"Professor",name:"Ashok",surname:"Kumar",slug:"ashok-kumar",fullName:"Ashok Kumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"191",title:"Advances in Nanocomposite Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4dc3407e602cdd348af663727baebe3d",slug:"advances-in-nanocomposite-technology",bookSignature:"Abbass Hashim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/191.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. 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Kosyachenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1289.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6262",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonid A.",surname:"Kosyachenko",slug:"leonid-a.-kosyachenko",fullName:"Leonid A. Kosyachenko"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2154",title:"Energy Storage",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98b5e296523724495675754b80db6245",slug:"energy-storage-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ahmed Faheem Zobaa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2154.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"39249",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed F.",surname:"Zobaa",slug:"ahmed-f.-zobaa",fullName:"Ahmed F. Zobaa"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"48819",title:"Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems",doi:"10.5772/60958",slug:"induction-generator-in-wind-power-systems",body:'
The core component of a modern induction generator wind power system is the turbine nacelle, which generally accommodates the mechanisms, generator, power electronics, and control cabinet. The mechanisms, including yaw systems, shaft, and gear box, etc., facilitate necessary mechanical support to various dynamic behavior of the turbine. The generator is dedicated to the conversion between mechanical energy, which is captured by turbine rotor, and electrical energy. The generated electrical energy then needs to be regulated and conditioned to be connected to the power grid for use. In this section, the wind power system layout and classification are introduced first, which is followed by the outlining of the feasible power electronic converter interface between generators and loads. Lastly, the control scheme is briefly addressed and discussed in detail in section 2.
Figure 1 shows the general layout of a wind turbine nacelle. The generator is either driven (in generation mode) or propelling (in motoring mode) the turbine blades through a shaft. The gearbox can be used to facilitate the speed difference between turbine and generator. The blade stall and pitch mechanisms are also involved to limit the power as well as the turbine plane yawing and tilting. By these means, the blade effective aerofoil cross section and thus the interface with wind pressure can be controlled. The performance coefficients responding to different yaw angle and pitch angle show significant variations [1-3]. In addition, as the most dynamically efficient choice, three blades connected through a hub with flanges is the commonly used topology in the front of the nacelle. The flanges are designed to enable the pitch angle adjustment. In most of the variable-speed wind systems, the high-efficiency operation always relies on the wind speed information. As a result, the anemometer can be used as one of the solutions. The basic function of the tower is to reach a higher position in order to obtain more airstream and wind speed. The tower can be constructed in either soft or stiff ways. A stiff tower has a natural frequency which lies above the blade passing frequency. Soft towers are lighter and cheaper but have to withstand more movement, and thus suffer from higher stress levels [2].
Wind power system nacelle [
There are a number of classifications that group the wind power systems into different categories. According to the loads, grid integrated system and islanded system are employed to feed power grid and isolated load, respectively. According to the generators used, popular options are SCIG wind system, DFIG wind system, and Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG) wind system. Other alternative generator systems are also mentioned in the literature, such as brushless DFIGs (BDFIG) system [5,6], direct-drive synchronous generator (DDSG) system [7,9], switched reluctance generator (SRG) system [10], multiple-stage geared SCIG system [10], and radial/axial/transversal-flux PM generator systems [7,12-14]. These solutions generally require relatively complex operation principle and equipment assembly. According to the presence of the gear box, there are multistage gear box wind system, single-stage gear box wind system, and direct drive wind system (without gear box) in where the Synchronous Generator (SG) qualifies the system to have a simpler and more reliable drive train. However, the lower generator speed, and thus larger torque, requires more poles, larger diameter, and volume, and hence higher cost.
The most promising classifications in induction generator wind systems are fixed-speed, limited-variable-speed, and variable-speed wind systems, according to the operations of induction generator speed. Comparisons between these wind power systems have been intensively conducted, based on different speed variation levels [12,15-19]. A summary of their advantages and disadvantages is presented in Table 1. The fixed-speed concept has been successfully applied in SCIG wind systems. The drive train applies multiple-stage gearbox and a SCIG is directly connected to the grid via a transformer. To support the grid, external reactive power compensation and soft starter are necessary [5,6]. The limited variable-speed system is an improved version of the SCIG type but it uses a wound rotor induction generator instead, which allows the stator to be connected to the grid, and the rotor to have a variable resistance controlled by a power converter. Through the control of rotor resistance, the slip of the generator is varied. The variable-speed system is a concept commonly used in large power rating applications (>1.5 MW). Different combinations among DFIG, SCIG, partial or full converters would lead to variable-speed operation systems. The control system maintains the optimal generator speed, thus the optimal output power, through controlling the generator currents and voltages. Due to the high efficiency and capability of Faults Ride Through (FRT), this type of wind power system dominates the high-capacity power market nowadays.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Fixed-speed system | \n\t\t\ta. Simple construction and robust b. Low cost and maintenance c. Easy control | \n\t\t\ta. Not optimal operation, thus low efficiency b. Easy power fluctuation caused by wind speed and tower pressure c. External reactive power compensation is needed d. Weak capability of FRT | \n\t\t
Limited-speed system | \n\t\t\ta. Limited speed variation is implemented b. The slip ring may be replaced by optical coupling | \n\t\t\ta. Speed variation range depends on the size of the variable rotor resistance (<10%) b. The controlled rotor power must be dissipated by heat in the resistor c. Still need reactive power compensation and cannot support the grid alone | \n\t\t
Variable-speed system | \n\t\t\ta. Large range of speed variation b. Appropriate control enables optimal operation for maximum power extraction c. No external power compensation is needed and is able to support the grid d. High FRT capability e. Suitable and commonly used for large-scale wind farms | \n\t\t\ta. Relatively complicated control system b. Higher converters and control costs c. May need a multistage gearbox and slip ring in DFIG system d. May need expensive PM material and large diameter design in direct drive | \n\t\t
Comparison among different wind power systems
Power electronics is the key element enabling the regulation and conditioning of the power, voltage, and frequency with high efficiency and flexibility. In addition, more involvement of distributed power systems nowadays emphasizes the crucial role of power electronics interface among energy generation, storage, and transmission.
Due to the developments in semiconductor switches and microprocessors, many power electronics techniques have been developed during the past decades [20,21]. Besides the diode converters, line-commutated thyristor converters and self-commutated IGBT/MOSFET converters are found applicable to wind power systems. The line-commutated converters are generally used in high-power applications but they are incapable of controlling the reactive power. The self-commutated converters are able to transfer and control power bidirectionally because of the capability of controllable switch turning-off. Nowadays, wind power systems, especially the variable-speed wind power system, primarily rely on the converters that implement full power control. Different converter topologies and combinations have been successfully employed in this field, as shown in Figure 2.
Commonly used power electronics converter topologies for wind power system ((a) diode and line-commutated converter, combined with reactive power compensation; (b) diode and PWM VSI converter; (c) diode and DC/DC chopper and PWM VSI converter; (d) back-to-back PWM VSI converter; (e) matrix converter)
Due to the employment of diode rectifier, the topology in Figure 2(a) is uncontrolled and a thyristor inverter is used to regulate the generator speed through dc-link voltage to obtain firing angle commands. Obviously, this scheme is simple for control and costs less than self-commutated converter. More importantly, it is suitable for high power rating applications. However, the weakness is that extra reactive power compensation is required, which contains a voltage source converter (VSC). The grid voltage may be regulated to obtain reference current for the compensator and the control signal comes from the regulation of the compensator current [22,23]. To remove the compensator, a self-commutated converter could be used to take the place of thyristor inverter, as shown in Figure 2(b). Again, the regulation of dc-link voltage can provide current reference, which is controlled to generate control signals for the PWM inverter [24]. Two self-commutated converters connected through a dc-link, as shown in Figure 2(d), enable bidirectional power flow, which is the key to ensuring high efficiency in motoring operation of generator. The FOC is applied on both sides of converters based on
The high-efficiency energy conversion and full control of power exclusively rely on the power electronic converter and the control scheme applied on. Consequently, the broadly accepted total wind power system topologies subject to above power electronics are reviewed as follows. Since the high-efficiency variable speed systems are the primary focus, Figure 3 summarizes the feasible variable-speed system topologies, for induction generator systems as well as synchronous generator systems for systematized purpose. Due to the low demand on the converter power rating of approximately 30% of the total power rating, the DFIG with partial converter, shown in Figure 3(a), is a widespread topology for wind power systems. Also, due to the presence of a rotor-side converter, the rotor power is fed back to the grid without dissipation in the resistor. Instead of a partial converter, PMSG or SCIG can be connected to a full rating converter, as shown Figure 3(b). This topology has better grid FRT ability because the generator-side is totally independent of the grid-side. However, the converter rating and loss are high. Figure 3(c) shows the direct drive system, which is aimed at removing the gearbox and associated loss [16]. The generator rotor is connected to the turbine shaft directly and runs at the same very slow speed. Therefore, a high torque and a large machine radius are required to transfer the same amount of power. Fewer components enable less loss and thus more reliable performance in this type of system. To compromise between machine size and spinning speed, the single-stage gearbox, shown in Figure 3(d), is applied [15]. Figure 3(e) shows the electrically excited synchronous generator (EESG) system, which has a rotor-side converter to provide DC excitation while the stator is connected to a full converter like the case in Figure 3(c). Although there is an increase in cost due to the extra winding for excitation and it also requires more maintenance, the EESG could minimize the loss through controlling the flux via rotor converter [7,11,12].
Commonly used wind power system topologies ((a) DFIG with partial/matrix converter; (b) PMSG/SCIG with full converter; (c) direct drive; (d) PMSG with full converter and less stage gearbox; (e) EESG direct drive)
SCIG and DFIG are used almost exclusively in the energy conversion stage of the induction generator wind power system. The most commonly used system topologies are SCIG directly connected into the power grid and DFIG fed by back-to-back converter (Figure 3(a) and\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 3(d)). The first topology implies a constant frequency and voltage of the SCIG that establishes a fixed-speed operation. In such system, the SCIG relies on the grid (or capacitor bank) to provide reactive power which is necessary to build electromagnetic excitation for rotary field. The generating mode of SCIG is triggered by driven torque which acts opposite to the generator speed within the super-synchronous speed operation region. Due to the absence of the power electronics interface, such system can only serve the grid support applications, wherein just limited control (pitch angle control) can be applied.
The DFIG system, on the other hand, enables the flexible and efficient operations with FOC applied on the rotor-winding-side power electronics interface. The FOC is an instantaneous control that effectively manipulates the position-dependent variables, such as torque and power, in induction generator wind power systems. By aligning a particular space variable with
The following section examines the detailed modeling and control strategies of both systems.
As a typical kinetic energy, wind energy is extracted through wind turbine blades and then transferred by the gearbox and rotor hub to mechanical energy in shaft. The shaft drives the generator to convert the mechanical energy to electrical energy. According to Newton’s law, the kinetic energy for the wind with particular wind speed
where
where
where
where, c1=0.5, c2=116/λi, c3=0.4, c4=0, c5=5, c6=21/λi and
With the dependence on the
Power versus generator speed curve for wind turbine [
As a fixed-speed wind power system, SCIG is directly connected to the grid through transformer and thus operates at almost constant speed without controlling from power electronics interface. It was commonly used in Denmark during 1980s and 1990s and thus is also called “Danish Concept” system. The robust and simple configuration qualifies such system for many applications where the cost is a higher priority concern than efficiency. Figure 6 shows the schematics of entire SCIG wind system including the wind turbine, pitch control, and reactive power compensator. The entire system includes three stages for delivering the energy from wind turbine to the power grid. The first one is wind farm stage which handles with low-voltage
SCIG wind power system configuration
It is clear from Figure 5 that at a particular wind speed, the output active power is also a fixed value in the case of fixed generator speed. Thus, the output power is exclusively wind speed dependent until the nominal power is reached. The wind speed at nominal power is called nominal wind speed. Beyond this wind speed, the pitch angle system will prevent the output power from exceeding the nominal value. The pitch angle is determined by an open-loop control of regulated output active power and, as shown in Figure 7. Due to the huge size of blade and thus the huge inertia, pitch angle has to change at a slow rate and within a reasonable range. It is also worth noting that without reactive power source, the SCIG system tends to a voltage droop in distribution line which will cause overload problem.
Pitch angle control
Simulation in [23] illustrates the operation of a 0.855MW SCIG system. From Figure 8, the initial generator speed is set at slip s = -0.01 p.u. with respect to synchronous speed and then response to the wind speed input disturbance. Since the power is lower than the nominal value (0.855 MW) before t = 10 s, pitch angle control is not online. Since that moment, the wind speed increases and so do the generator speed and power until the wind speed exceeds the nominal value (11 m/s) at where the pitch control is triggered to block the further increase of output power. In this way, the output power persists at nominal value thereafter.
It is noted that the generator speed can only vary in very small range around 1 p.u. and thus it is impossible to attain the optimal output power. Also, without independent control ability, SCIG system consumes reactive power of 0.41 Mvar at the steady state, which will lead to line voltage droop. To provide necessary reactive power, a Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) is applied in distribution line. As in Figure 9, distribution line voltage can drop by approximately 0.055 p.u. in SCIG system without STATCOM, which will be a potential induction of overload in system. In contrast, SCIG system with STATCOM can hold distribution voltage at 0.99 p.u., which is favorable to grid system stability. The compensated reactive power from STATCOM is shown in Figure 10 and is equal to 0.3 Mvar at the steady state. Although STACOM provides impressive help to a constant distribution line voltage, DFIG wind system presents more attractive attributes.
Pitch angle control for SCIG system [
Grid voltages comparison between SCIG w/o. STACOM, SCIG w. STACOM and DFIG [
Compensated reactive power from STATCOM [
Traditionally, the dynamic slip control is employed to fulfill the variable-speed operation in induction generator wind system, in which the rotor windings are connected with variable resistor and control the slip by varied resistance [3,11]. This type of system attains limited variations of generator speed but external reactive power source is still necessary. In order to completely remove the reactive power compensation and control both active and reactive power independently, DFIG wind power system is one of most popular methods in wind energy applications [1,3,7]. The DFIG wind power system with associated back-to-back converter is a typical variable speed system as shown in Figure 11, which complies with the topologies in Figures 3(a) and 2(d). The generator stator windings are connected directly to grid (with fixed voltage and frequency of grid) while the rotor windings are fed by an AC/DC/AC IGBT-based PWM converter (back-to-back converter with capacitor dc-link), at variable frequency through slip rings and brushes. Although such system needs the gearbox and slip rings to function, many advantages enable DFIG system to dominate most wind market nowadays. It facilitates variation of a wide speed range (±30% around synchronous speed), the lower rating requirement on power converters (30% of generator power), and thus lower cost. Also, it has high efficiency induced by bidirectional power flow, and the ability to perform reactive power compensation and smooth grid integration. In this configuration, the back-to-back converter consists of two parts: the stator/grid-side converter and the rotor-side converter. Both are voltage source converters while a capacitor bank between two converters acts as a dc voltage interface.
In this section, the modeling of DFIG is introduced first and followed by the consequent FOC algorithm which is divided into two parts: stator-side converter control and rotor-side converter control. The SVM method and islanded operation control are also addressed.
DFIG wind power system configuration
The modeling is conducted under the
And similarly, the
Because the flux linkage along
The reorganized DFIG stator voltages in
And the DFIG rotor voltages in
The generator electromagnetic torque is correspondingly given as:
where
Equivalent circuit of DFIG ((a)
The control of DFIG modeled above is applied on back-to-back converter and is therefore also divided into rotor-side control and stator-side control.
First, the rotor-side converter is studied. To
By substituting the
Because it is directly connected to the grid, the stator voltage shares constant magnitude and frequency of grid voltage. One could make the
Equation (15) implies that the
Stator voltage FOC reference frame
The
where subscript rc denotes the rotor-side converter. After the conversion of
Current regulation part of
If only steady-state is considered, the derivative parts in Equation (10) are neglected and one can obtain stator flux as:
According to Equations (8), (10), and (12), the rotor-side converter reference current is derived as:
where
where
Similarly, the
where the derivative of stator flux in Equation (21b) is considered as zero at steady-state. Also, the current regulation part is illustrated in Figure 15. If the stator-side converter’s reactive power is controlled to be zero, the output reactive power is stator reactive output power. Then, one has:
Thus, the regulation of reactive power can lead to
Current regulation part of
Involving the deviations of rotor voltage and reference currents in both
Total rotor-side converter control scheme
The stator-side converter is controlled based on relationship between voltage, flux, and current of stator and choke, which is modeled by a cross-coupling model, as described in Figure 17. It is seen that the grid (stator) voltage is equal to the sum of stator-side converter voltage and choke occupied voltage. By KVL:
The flux linkage follows:
Thus, the reorganized stator-side converter voltage in
where the subscripts sc and ch denote the variables of stator-side converter and choke, respectively.
Equivalent circuit of stator-side converter choke [
Based on the model in Equation (26a, b), the current regulation part of choke voltage in
Current regulation part of choke voltage ((a)
The cross-coupling part of choke voltage
The current reference
Total stator-side converter control scheme [
With both rotor- and stator-side converter controls, the simulation results [23] in Figure 20 present a stable and controllable dynamic response to a gusty wind speed. Also, an FRT capability is verified by a voltage droop happening within a constant wind speed. Figure 21 shows twice oscillations at two dynamic moments and the control system effectively recovers the system-regulated outputs in short amount of time.
Gusty wind responses ((a) DC-link voltage
Dynamic responses to grid voltage droop ((a) DC-link voltage
The purpose of both rotor- and stator-side converter controls is to obtain the reference voltages which are expected to be produced by the converter. The next step is obviously to generate the corresponding PWM gate signals for the converter. To a 2-level three-phase voltage source inverter, there are six switches of three legs in inverter controlling the phase voltage and thus the current of induction generator. By defining the “ON” and "OFF" states of upper switch by “1” and “0,” respectively, for one leg, there exist up to eight different states for inverter outputs. They are summarized in Table 2 as well as the resulted phase voltage in
Eight inverter voltage space vectors
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t√(2/3) | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t-2 | \n\t\t\t√(1/6) | \n\t\t\t√(1/2) | \n\t\t
0 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t-√(1/6) | \n\t\t\t√(1/2) | \n\t\t
0 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t-2 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t-√(2/3) | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t-√(1/6) | \n\t\t\t-√(1/2) | \n\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t-2 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t√(1/6) | \n\t\t\t-√(1/2) | \n\t\t
0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
Space vector states (L1–L3 represent inverter leg1–leg3)
Once the reference space vector voltage in
where
Duty cycles of vectors for reference space vector voltage
Three-phase duty cycles using MLSVPWM (simulation results [
Phase duty cycles and phase-to-phase duty cycle using MLSVPWM (experiment results [
Compared to the grid integration DFIG wind system, the isolated DFIG wind system operating at regulated voltage (magnitude and frequency) is also found applicable and valuable to some independent power subgrid or distributed power systems. One of the application examples – DFIG-Synchronous machine system configuration – is shown in Figure 26. Modified FOC for power generation in Figure 27 is used and the line voltage magnitude and frequency are stabilized by extra variable load and synchronous machine. The line frequency is held by compensating the resistive load, while the line voltage is held by feeding controlled field voltage of synchronous machine. The proposed controller scheme in [34] is employed for synchronous machine field voltage controller. As shown in Figure 28(a, b), the line frequency is regulated at 60Hz with limited error while the line voltage is regulated at 1 p.u. The constant frequency and magnitude in transmission line voltage is the basic requirement for a controllable power delivery. Based on the regulations of frequency and line voltage, the active power and reactive power are also under controlled respectively [25]. The dc-link voltage is kept at nominal value, while the generator speed is controlled at optimal 0.95 p.u., as shown in Figure 29.
Islanded DFIG-Synchronous machine wind power system
DFIG-Synchronous machine system control scheme
Line voltage and frequency in islanded DFIG system ((a) line frequency; (b) line voltage)
Simulation results for islanded operation ((a) dc-link voltage
The key to performing FOC is to follow the position angle of the
where
and
It is seen that if
PLL scheme for grid voltage angle estimation
PLL scheme with regulation of Vq
The introduced PLL algorithm is simulated and shown in Figure 32, as well as zoom-in image in Figure 33 [33], where 0 radian grid voltage position coincides with the zero-crossing of phase voltage Van and the frequency can be detected to be 60Hz after short transient (the initial grid frequency is assumed as 55Hz). These results indicate a successful “locking” of grid frequency and position angle, with which the FOC (Figures 16 and 19) are conducted on back-to-back converter in a real-time manner and can thus continuously “match” the generated voltage with the grid voltage.
PLL results of grid voltage angle and frequency for grid integration operation ((a) phase A voltage Van; (b) grid voltage angular position; (c) grid voltage frequency)
Zoom-in image of
Efficiency always plays an important role in induction generator wind systems. While the SCIG system loses precise control of power due to the fixed-speed operation, to achieve high efficiency in wind power conversion systems, the MPPT in variable-speed DFIG system has been intensively investigated. Basically, the studied techniques in MPPT include three strategies: (1) the methods relying on wind speed, (2) the methods relying on output power measurement and calculation, and (3) the methods relying on reference power curve.
An overall picture of induction generator wind system operation versus wind speed is depicted in Figure 34, where the output power must be “truncated” after reaching certain level. Pitch angle control, as investigated in section 2.2, is used not only in SCIG system but also in DFIG system for this purpose. It is seen that the capability of pitch angle control in response to the increase of wind speed, on limiting the power output, is primarily dependent on turbine blade physical structure. Therefore, the system needs to be shut down by brake system in the case of wind speed cutoff. Figure 34 also emphasizes the augmented power output of MPPT operation over fixed-speed operation and this inspires the investigation of advanced variable-speed wind systems, where the induction generator speed can always be controlled in a large range to capture desired output power by combining the previously discussed FOC with MPPT strategies.
Wind power system operations
Most DFIG wind power systems are dependent of wind speed measurement [2,4]. In these systems, anemometers are applied to measure the wind speed and thus the systems suffer from additional cost of sensors and complexity. In order to solve this problem, wind speed estimation methods have been reported [25, 35-36]. Relying on the complex algorithms, the accurate wind speed can be captured for controlling the optimal tip speed ratio so that the MPPT can be performed accordingly, as shown in Figure 35. However, the wind speed information and associated efforts on software/hardware are still necessary and significant. To eliminate the dependence on wind speed, some sensorless control strategies have been developed [31,37-38]. These methods are in test for small-scale stand-alone systems and the complicated estimation algorithms remain, which will result in weakening of accuracy and control speed in real operating environment where the wind speed changes rapidly.
Estimated wind speed and real measured wind speed [
Tracking the maximum power can also be accomplished through measuring the output power directly [39-42]. The idea of this method is through checking the variation rate of the output power with respect to that of generator speed (dP/dω), the power operation point location can be determined and be accordingly controlled thereafter. Theoretically, the maximum power operating point can be reached when dP/dω = 0, as shown in Figure 36. A flowchart of the algorithm is shown in Figure 37, where the operation point (ωm (k), P(k)) is measured and compared with (ωm(k-1), P(k-1)) under wind speed Vw(i), where i is the index of wind speed; k is given as the test step index under particular wind speed Vw(i). Among all the tested points, only one point holds the truth that dP/dω = 0 and it is the optimal operation point (ωmopt(i), Popt(i)) that will be returned and saved. This procedure is required in a means of real-time for different wind speed (i=1,2,...,). According to the information from the optimal points, either the generator speed or the duty cycle of converter can be tuned.
MPPT based on output power varying rate [
Flow chart of power variation rate testing algorithm
Besides the above strategies, MPPT can be carried out by means of tracking the reference (optimal) power curve, which is the fitting curve going through all the maximum power points of all wind speeds [43-45]. A generalized reference power curve is given as:
To determine the optimal degree of the polynomial, comparison is conducted for a 2.678 MW DFIG wind system [33]. Under a particular wind speed, four reference curves lead to four different operation points and the 3rd-order polynomial in Equation (35) leads to the most accurate reference curve along optimal operation points, as shown in Figure 38.
Comparison of reference power curve fittings
This method has been widely used due to its simple concept and absence of extra wind measurement costs. The optimal reference power curve is constructed according to the experimental tests and programmed in a microcontroller memory, to be used as a lookup table. The algorithm diagram is illustrated in Figure 39. Either the generator speed is measured to obtain power reference for power regulation, or the wind speed is measured to obtain generator speed reference for generator speed regulation. The former method produces more accurate output power, while the latter has faster control speed [25]. Some research works simply apply a cube function of generator speed as reference power or a square function of generator speed as reference torque. Despite these feasible solutions, the accurate maximum power and corresponding optimal generator speed are undervalued. Such approximation will obviously lead to harmed power generation efficiency. More importantly, analysis is necessary to verify the stability of the method in terms of varying wind speed and output power.
MPPT based on reference power curve [
An evolved solution was proposed in [47] to effectively minimize the drawback of the above method. The real-time tuning of reference power curve coefficients is conducted and followed by updating the reference power curve. First, instead of disturbing output power directly, the most significant coefficient is incrementally disturbed by constant. This change of reference power curve induces the variation of the output power, which is measured and compared with previous step power. When the difference in output power between two consecutive steps approaches a small enough value, the disturbed coefficient is returned to update the reference power curve. The resulting reference power curve is the accurate optimal reference power curve. Due to the existence of reference power curve, such tuning calculation does not need to be conducted continuously with high frequency. In addition, without disturbing output power directly, this method can conduct updating and perturbation faster. Moreover, any deviation of system model will not give rise to deviation of optimal power generation because of the real-time tuning. Thus, the method is robust. As depicted in Figure 40, power variation is checked to capture the optimal coefficient and the reference power curve is updated accordingly to lead the system running in MPPT mode. The whole procedure is described in the simulation results in Figures 41 and 42, where the perturbation of coefficient b3, the generator speed, and generated power halt after reaching the optimal values. No more perturbation and updating are needed, thus saving the calculation cost. Despite the oscillations at each b3 perturbation step, the dc-link voltage and the reactive power remain at desired values while the output power and generator speed are updated, step by step, toward the optimal values. The generator speed and output power are generally measured with much higher frequency than that of perturbation. It is also worth noting that the bandwidth of b3 updating must ensure that both generator speed and output power are able to reach their steady-states.
Novel MPPT algorithm proposed in [
DFIG system operation applying the novel MPPT (simulation results)
DFIG speed variation induced by the novel MPPT (experiment result)
Wind power systems have been widely studied and applied for years. By virtue of many advantages, induction generators are found to be suitable in this area. This chapter introduced and studied two popular types of induction generators – SCIG and DFIG. An overview of the generators, power electronics, and control strategies was presented first, followed by detailed modeling of entire wind system. Most importantly, the control algorithms were illustrated, ranging from FOC, SVM, PLL, to MPPT. Especially, different MPPT strategies were investigated and compared.
The contents of this chapter are the result of work at the Power Electronics Research Lab at the University of Akron, where my research was funded by Dr. Yilmaz Sozer; and work at the Renewable Energy Lab at Saginaw Valley State University, where my research was funded by the Faculty Research Grant.
I highly appreciate Dr. Yilmaz Sozer and Dr. Malik Elbuluk at the University of Akron for supervising my research work as well as guiding my progress in a peaceful and productive direction. I highly appreciate the support from Saginaw Valley State University that granted my start-up lab platform for long-term research commitment.
I am also very grateful to my wife, parents, and mother-in-law for their support. They established the foundation on which rests every success of my career.
Water is most essential for sustaining life and enhancing the quality of life, but it can transmit diseases. When adequate access to clean, safe water is lacking, incidences of waterborne diseases become rampant [1, 2]. Unsafe drinking water is one of the major causes of diarrhoeal diseases, which are known to be a leading cause of mortality globally especially in children aged five and below [3]. The 2015 WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) update reports that 69% of Nigeria’s population use improved drinking water sources, which are presumed to be safe [4]. However, due to non-functionality, unsustainability, and lack of proper maintenance of most improved water sources, they are often of non-satisfactory quality [1, 5]. Therefore, the reality is that a lesser percentage of Nigerians than presented actually have access to safe drinking water. Furthermore, even where there is access to safe water, because most of these water sources are not located on premises or piped directly into the houses, there is the risk of contamination in the process of collection, transportation, and storage, thereby leaving the initially safe water unsafe at the point of consumption [2, 6]. It is therefore essential to ensure water is safe for drinking at the point of consumption. Point-of-use water treatment implies any water treatment system that purifies water at the point of consumption and it involves effective treatment and safe storage. It has been identified as an important public health intervention which serves to reduce the faecal-oral transmission of diarrhoeal diseases [7].
Recent studies on point-of-use household water treatment systems, suggest that ceramic water filters are the most sustainable and lowest cost options for water purification in developing countries [8]. The essential raw materials, basically clay and combustible bio-wastes, required to make this technology available and accessible in Nigeria are locally available in large quantities. However, there is a wide knowledge gap in the exploration and development of the technology of manufacturing ceramic water filters in the country. As much as there exists a need for household water treatment method such as the ceramic water filters, not many manufacturers engage in the production of ceramic filters. The springing forth of many peri-urban settlements in many Nigerian cities like Akure leaves the nation fraught with an urgent need to explore innovative solutions to put an end in sight to the prevalent water-related health challenges.
While household water treatment and safe storage systems have been considered as effective, low-cost alternatives and a reliable means of achieving safe water at point of use, having shown to significantly reduce diarrhoeal prevalence [6, 7, 9]; very few potters engage in the making of the ceramic water filters. In Nigeria, there are two factories that currently produce ceramic water filters, although production is fraught with many challenges such as understanding the technology behind the working of the filtration system. The major challenge however, to the establishment of a ceramic water filter production facility is the acquisition of the filter press machine.
The ceramic filter press machine is the priority piece of equipment required in the production process of ceramic water filters [10, 11]. The filter press machine, which is mostly hydraulic operated, is used to form the filters into its shape by the application of pressure to the clay mixture in-between a set of moulds. This method of forming is most suitable for making ceramic water filters because a non-plastic material mix is desired and therefore can be only formed successfully by semi-dry pressing techniques. This all-important equipment for the production of ceramic water filters is quite expensive to purchase, with very high shipping and importation costs and tariffs.
Personal communications in a pilot study with operators of ceramic water filter factories in Nigeria reveals that the cost of acquisition of a piece of filter press machine with its corresponding aluminium moulds ranged from $3000 to $3500 (USD). This is also confirmed by other researchers [10], stating that the cost of this press is estimated at over $3000 and therefore is considered a fundamental limiting factor to production of ceramic water filters to meet demands in areas where it is needed. While the Resource Development International - Cambodia (RDIC) approximated the cost at $2300, excluding shipping and handling costs [12]. This is too high an investment cost for a start-up ceramic/pottery business to bear considering the economic conditions in the country. Therefore the only feasible option to the making of ceramic water filters in Nigeria, to improve access to safe drinking water at the point-of-use, is to resort to the design and fabrication of a filter press machine using locally available materials.
The Potters Without borders (PWB) is one of the organizations that have carried out research on ceramic water filters and design of hydraulic filter press machine [10]. The PWB filter press machine design was adopted for this study, whose objective was to design and fabricate a hydraulic filter press unit using locally sourced materials with a view to promote the affordability and availability of this technology for the manufacture of ceramic water filters, consequently increasing access to safe drinking water in Nigeria.
At its inception by Fernando Mazariegos, the ceramic pot water filter was shaped by hand on the potters’ wheel. But in the 1980s, the Central American Institute of Industrial Research and Technology (ICAITI) introduced the use of hydraulic presses in the shaping of ceramic water filters resulting in more efficient ceramic water filter production and performance [10]. However, other literature [13] reports that the first press and the first set of moulds were developed to standardize the shape of the ceramic water filter (see Figure 1).
Ron Rivera working on the first ceramic filter press [
While the Potters Without Borders (PWB) press design is the most commonly used, other attempts have been made to explore different press designs to improve the workings and efficiency of the presses in the production of ceramic water filters and to meet the specific socio-economic needs of varying localities. The PWB filter press design operates with a 20-ton hydraulic jack and a hand lever for lifting and lowering the H-slide to which the male mould is attached. It produces the flat-bottomed ceramic water filters, using a set of aluminium moulds.
A recent study [14] on a multi-component water treatment, reported that they created a simple plastic press mould to shape the ceramic component of their water filtration system with the aim to improve efficiency and allow for easy replication. (see Figure 2).
Modelled diagram of the press mould and product [
Another study [10] designed a low-cost filter press with the goal of less than $200 in cost, less manpower requirement and shorter manufacture time. Their work concentrated on designing and prototyping a low-cost, filter press using locally-sourced materials. They attempted to achieve a lower filter formation pressure as a key requirement to reducing the cost, considering that using a 2-ton car jack instead of the 20-ton hydraulic jack used by PWB would greatly reduce cost. The press was designed for the round-bottom filters and adopted an inverted design in which the car jack was mounted to the frame headstock and the female mould was suspended on the underside of the jack elevator while the male mould sat on the base [10]. For the moulds, they improvised with the use of inexpensive aluminium bowls (see Figure 3).
A low-cost filter press prototype [
A group of researchers [11] in their study described the use of a 30-ton manually operated hydraulic press developed and manufactured by MEC Ltd., India. The press makes use of a screw system to lower and lift the male mould which is attached to the die screw connector plate, while the female mould sits on a base plate which is attached to the hydraulic jack (see Figure 4). This press produces the flat-bottomed, frustum shaped filters of 23 cm height with 25.5 cm base diameter.
Filter press operated with screw and hydraulic system [
The Ceramic Filter Manufacturing Manual [15] developed by Pure Home Water, reported two types of press designs for shaping ceramic water filters; the Potters for Peace (PfP) press and the Mani press. The PfP press design as described in the text is a portable press that uses a 20-ton hydraulic jack with a removable female mould while the male mould is attached to a moveable shaft on the frame. It operates a crankshaft system which allows for the lifting and lowering of the shaft that holds the male mould. The hydraulic jack is positioned above the male mould after it has been lowered into the female mould which contains the clay (see Figure 5).
Operating the portable PfP press with crank system [
The Mani press has both its male and female moulds attached; while the male mould is attached to an extendable table, the female mould is attached to the press frame. It uses an 8-ton hydraulic jack and works with a pulley system that operates with a hand crank for lifting and lowering the female mould (see Figure 6).
The Mani press [
The mould in the PfP press described in the Ceramic Filter Manufacturing Manual [15] is made of nylon while the material used to make the Mani press moulds was not stated in their report but can be made of concrete or metal. It, however, concluded that the Mani press delivered greater advantage and ease in use than the portable PfP press. The RDIC manual [12] describes a fully automated hydraulic system-operated ceramic water filter press. It uses a set of metal moulds, most likely aluminium. The male mould is attached to the frame headstock while the female mould is attached to a moveable shaft which is controlled by the hydraulic system which works with the use of an electric motor (see Figure 7). This action controls the press and the release of the clay filter mix in between the moulds.
An electric motor driven hydraulic press [
The features of the various designs of ceramic water filter presses reviewed in the course of this study are presented in Table 1.
Ref. no | Description | Type of filters | Position of moulds | Mould material | Mould moving mechanism | Mode of operation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
14 | Hand press mould | Ceramic filter component | — | Plastic | — | Hand/manual |
10 | Low-cost filter press | Round bottom | Inverted; female above | Aluminium bowls | — | 2-ton hydraulic car jack |
11 | MEC India manufactured press | Flat bottom | Upright; male above | — | Hand-operated screw system | 30-ton hydraulic jack |
15 | PfP portable press | Flat bottom | Upright; removable female mould positioned below | Nylon | Hand-operated crank system | 20-ton hydraulic jack |
15 | Mani press | Round bottom | Inverted; male attached to extendable surface | — | Crank-operated pulley system | 8-ton hydraulic jack |
12 | RDI-C | Flat bottom | Upright; male above | Metal | — | Automated hydraulic system |
10 | PWB | Flat bottom | Upright; male above | Aluminium | Hand-operated lever | 20-ton hydraulic jack |
Features of the various types of ceramic water filter presses reviewed in this study.
After a review of the designs of ceramic water filter presses as discussed hitherto, the PWB ceramic water filter press design was adopted based on the following considerations:
A non-electrically operated press was desired to overcome the challenge of poor electricity supply within the country;
The use of a fully manual system was also not desirable because it will increase the time taken to press one filter; therefore a hydraulic press mechanism was desired;
A lever was preferred for the lowering and lifting of the moulds, to the crank (as in the portable PfP press [15]) and the screw (as in [11]) because it makes the filter pressing more cumbersome and time consuming;
The moulds were preferred fitted to the press frame to overcome the challenge of misalignment of moulds, possible in removable moulds, and as well, the inconvenience and health hazard of lifting heavy moulds in each process of filter pressing (as in the portable PfP press [15]).
Based on these specific requirements, the Potters Without Borders (PWB) ceramic water filter press design was adapted for manufacture in Akure, Nigeria. The PWB ceramic water filter press is said to have several benefits with respect to design and operation. Its high-strength (20-ton) design allows the pressing of flat-bottom filters [10] while creating stability and preventing deformation in the shaped filters. The flat-bottom filters are said to provide more surface area and therefore higher flow rates [10]. Some of the adjustments made to the PWB filter press design, included the replacement of the hydraulic car jack with a locally fabricated industrial hydraulic jack, as well as the design and manufacture of the press mould to fit locally available wide-rimmed plastic containers to meet the water needs in larger households.
Flow chart of steps taken in fabricating the ceramic water filter press.
It became expedient to fabricate a hydraulic press machine to facilitate the shaping of the ceramic water filters by the press cast method. This is the most suitable method of forming the ceramic filters because the mix is highly non-plastic and hence cannot withstand other ceramic forming techniques besides slip casting which is not very feasible at the desired dimensions of ceramic water filters.
For this study to ensure the economic feasibility, sustainability and hence the scalability of the manufacture of the ceramic water filter press in Nigeria, it was important to set a cost limit for fabricating the press; and this was set at 350000 naira (approximately $1000). This was done considering the issue of low access to capital for start-ups, which is common in the country. This study, however, intends to encourage local potters to venture into the production of ceramic water filters by alleviating some of the cost-related challenges of setting up a filter production unit.
All the materials and manpower used in fabricating this press were sourced from within the country. The hydraulic press machine typically consists of two parts; the moulds and the frame which holds the moulds and the hydraulic component. The procedures engaged in the making of both parts are discussed further.
The mould for the filter press machine was designed and made using aluminium as material, which was shaped using the sand casting method. The processes involved in the making of the filter mould include; generating a CAD drawing (see Figure 8), detailing the dimensions of the moulds; and the making of a wooden mould patterns (see Figures 9 and 10) from which sand moulds were derived.
CAD drawing for moulds (material: Aluminium).
Wooden patterns for the mould.
Top view of wooden patterns for the mould.
The mould design was generated during the course of the study using dimensions which were estimated by the researcher to produce a ceramic water filter that would fit into commonly available wide-rimmed large plastic containers. The size of the container was used as mark up for the determination of the dimensions of the moulds. The core and drag mould components were designed to give a pressed ceramic filter product of 30 mm thickness all round; this is to accommodate the high shrinkage possible in most plastic ball clays available for use in South West Nigeria; as well as to allow for longer contact time with silver for the inactivation of pathogens in water and greater possibility of trapping the pathogens as they travel through the filter walls. With this design sketch, a wooden pattern made of cut out pieces of 2-inch plywood held together with resin bond, was derived. The pattern is highly essential to the process because the sand moulds which was used for casting the metal form is taken from it. So it is important to ensure correctness of dimensions and form in the wooden pattern.
The process of making of the sand moulds included filling up firmly, a square-shaped wooden frame in which the wooden pattern has been placed with fine sand (see Figure 11); after which the pattern is taken out and the sand is smoothened out using a metal spoon (see Figures 12–14). The metal cast was then taken from the prepared sand mould.
Filling the frame with sand.
Pattern taken out.
Smoothening the sand mould.
Finished sand mould.
Pieces of waste aluminium collected from the local scrap market were charged into the rotary furnace and melted (see Figure 15) at temperatures between 600 and 700°C. The crucible bearing the molten aluminium was removed from the furnace using a pair of furnace tongs (see Figure 16) and the crucible holding the molten metal was set in a 2-man carrier rod (see Figure 17).
Process of melting the scrap aluminium in a rotary furnace.
Removing molten aluminium from the furnace using a pair of tongs.
Crucible set in the carrier rod in readiness for casting.
It is important to remove dross and check for unmolten particles of other metals before casting (see Figure 18). The molten metal is then poured into the sand moulds by means of crucible tongs and carrier rod (see Figures 19 and 20).
Stoking the molten metal to remove dross and other particles.
Pouring in the molten metal into the sand mould using furnace tongs.
Casting process using the crucible carrier.
In the process of pouring in the molten material, it is important to poke at it using a metal rod to aid the removal of any air bubbles that may have been trapped in while pouring (see Figure 21). The metal cast is afterwards left to cool for about 24 hours before it is removed from the mould (see Figure 22). The surface finish of the cast aluminium mould is mostly dull, lacks lustre and sometimes presents tiny holes as seen in Figure 23. Polishing the metal is therefore important to give a more usable finish to the cast aluminium moulds (see Figure 24).
Poking the poured-in metal to remove trapped air.
Cooling.
Cast aluminium moulds.
Polished aluminium mould.
The last phase in the making of the mould was the machining and polishing of the cast. Aluminium was the material used to make the moulds in this study. This is because aluminium is a non-rust metal and it is more affordable than stainless steel and can easily be machined because it is a relatively soft metal. Aluminium is also a very available material in most scrap markets across the country, and hence easy to access for this purpose. The machining or polishing of the moulds was carried out using a horizontal lathe machine in a privately-owned engineering workshop.
The frame of the hydraulic press machine was made from cast iron and steel parts. The design for the frame was adapted from the Potters Without borders (PWB) ceramic water filter press design (see Figure 25). The PWB filter press design incorporates the use of a removable car jack as its hydraulic mechanism. The design for this study has incorporated a hydraulic controller system which is comprised of a box, an industrial jack to drive the pressing mechanism which is expected to be more durable than the car jack over time and continued use; and a pressure gauge to measure the pressure applied in the pressing of each filter to enhance consistency in production.
PWB design of press machine [
The metal parts for the frame were sourced from Akure and Ibadan in South-west Nigeria. Cast iron was the major material from which the parts of the frame were made. Some parts were also of made of steel. The long metal parts were cut into dimensions (see Figures 26 and 27) and holes were drilled through them to enable assembly of the frame using nuts and bolts. Bolting was preferred to welding in the assembly of the machine parts, to allow room for adjustments and for easy movement and transportation of the machine. The cutting and welding of the frame was followed by the mounting of the moulds. The male component of the mould was bolted onto a metal plate which is welded to the headstock of the frame, and the female component was fitted via bolting onto the moveable H-slide (see Figure 28). The lever system which is used to control the lifting of the H-slide bearing the female mould during pressing and release of the moulds, was subsequently fixed in place (see Figure 29) and test run to assess the mould alignment (see Figure 30). The hydraulic jack was thereafter installed and tested in operation with the lever as shown in Figure 31. Finally, the hydraulic control box was installed and connected to the jack and the entire frame was sprayed with paint to improve its aesthetic and prevent rusting (see Figure 32). The making of the frame and the hydraulic control box, as well as the assembly of the moulds was done at Danzaki Engineering Services, a privately-owned mechanical engineering workshop in Akure, Nigeria.
Cut out metal parts for the frame.
Metal parts of frame in mock assembly.
Press frame with moulds mounted.
Installation of the lever mechanism.
Testing the installed lever and jack.
Press with hydraulic system installed.
Finished ceramic water filter press.
The outcome of the study showed the local availability of the required skills and material resources to locally manufacture a ceramic water filter hydraulic press machine in Nigeria. The total cost of the local production of the press though slightly above the set target, is approximated at $1000 USD and is about one-thirds of the cost of acquiring a press of similar specifications of foreign origin without the attending shipping and clearing costs.
The manufactured ceramic water filter press was effective in the shaping of ceramic water filters as indicated in the evenness in form and thickness of the filters pressed during a test run of the filter press (see Figure 33).
Freshly pressed ceramic water filter using the fabricated press.
The technical specifications of the ceramic water filters produced from the manufactured filter press are outlined as having an inner height of 15 cm and inner diameter of 28.5 cm; with an estimated volume capacity of 12 L. This is specified to fit into a 30-L capacity bucket with a rim diameter of 30 cm. Shrinkage allowance of 10% was estimated and factored into the design to ensure the resulting filters fit onto the desired bucket.
However, there were a few limitations to the study as outlined thus: At the size required for the set of moulds, it was difficult to find a lathe machine of a size that could hold the cast moulds for machining. Therefore, alternative materials may be explored besides aluminium, especially such materials as would not require machining/polishing. Also, there were issues surrounding the dimensions presented in the CAD sketch as generated by a draughtsman, this resulted in error in the moulds cast. This was, however, corrected by altering the dimensions of the mould during the process of machining in order to achieve even thickness around the product; and this action reduced the size of the mould and hence the resulting filter is shorter than other filters available.
This book chapter documents the procedure and results obtained in a study carried out to explore the local manufacturing of a ceramic filter press in order to prove the viability and cost efficiency of producing it locally as compared with the cost of acquiring the imported presses. This is in a view to encourage the set-up of more ceramic water filter producing factories in Nigeria, thereby bringing closer home the technology that would make clean, safe water more accessible and available to communities and households across the country.
The study indicates that ceramic water filter presses with hydraulic components as well as its corresponding set of moulds can be successfully and inexpensively manufactured in Nigeria, using all materials and skills sourced locally from within the country.
The authors would like to acknowledge the Management of the Federal University of Technology, Akure and TETFund for providing funding for this work under the IBR grant with reference number, VCPU/TETFund/155.
We appreciate Engr. A. Smart and Engr. Idowu of EMDI, Akure, for analyzing the possible designs for the hydraulic press system with us at the commencement of this study; Mr. Yekin Obe and staff of Foundry Department, FIIRO, Lagos, for their assistance with the casting of the filter moulds; and Mr. J. O. Oke and Mr. M. Familusi of the Industrial Design Department, FUTA for their assistance in the entire course of the study and specifically for test running the equipment after its manufacture. Our appreciation also goes to Robert Pillers for reviewing the filter press in progress and making useful inputs that led to some adjustments.
We would like to declare that there is no conflict of interest.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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However, the remarkable properties of this technique and variety of possible applications make it an area of interest for researchers, and offers potential for many future developments.",book:{id:"5211",slug:"chemical-vapor-deposition-recent-advances-and-applications-in-optical-solar-cells-and-solid-state-devices",title:"Chemical Vapor Deposition",fullTitle:"Chemical Vapor Deposition - Recent Advances and Applications in Optical, Solar Cells and Solid State Devices"},signatures:"Yasaman Hamedani, Prathyushakrishna Macha, Timothy J. Bunning,\nRajesh R. Naik and Milana C. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). 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His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. 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Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. 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He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"23",type:"subseries",title:"Computational Neuroscience",keywords:"Single-Neuron Modeling, Sensory Processing, Motor Control, Memory and Synaptic Pasticity, Attention, Identification, Categorization, Discrimination, Learning, Development, Axonal Patterning and Guidance, Neural Architecture, Behaviours and Dynamics of Networks, Cognition and the Neuroscientific Basis of Consciousness",scope:"Computational neuroscience focuses on biologically realistic abstractions and models validated and solved through computational simulations to understand principles for the development, structure, physiology, and ability of the nervous system. This topic is dedicated to biologically plausible descriptions and computational models - at various abstraction levels - of neurons and neural systems. This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. 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