\r\n\tAlthough the microorganism was later described by several other researchers with multiple synonyms, Escherich was recognized as the first, establishing the definitive name of the microbe as Escherichia coli in 1954.
\r\n\tIn 1933, Alfred Adam showed that certain serotypes of "dyspepsia Koli" (as he called the diarrheagenic E. coli strains) were implicated in epidemics of pediatric diarrhoea. In 1944, Kauffman proposed a classification scheme that is still in use today for the purpose of differentiating commensal types from pathogens and subclassifying them.
\r\n\tEscherichia coli, in its natural habitat, lives in the intestines of most healthy mammals. It is the main facultative anaerobic organism of the digestive system. In healthy individuals, that is, if the bacterium does not acquire genetic elements that encode virulent factors, the bacterium acts as a commensal forming part of the intestinal microbiota and thus helping the absorption of nutrients.
\r\n\tIn humans, E. coli colonizes the gastrointestinal tract of a neonate by adhering to the mucus of the large intestine within a few hours of birth. Since then, it remains in a relationship of mutual benefit. However, these commensal strains can cause infections in immunosuppressed patients.
\r\n\r\n\tPathogenic strains of E. coli, on the other hand, as soon as they colonize a healthy host, can cause infections of varying severity in the intestine, urinary tract, meningitis, and sepsis, among other infections.
\r\n\tDiarrhea caused by pathogenic strains of E. coli is an important cause of death in children under 5 years of age, especially in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, where it is one of the four most important causes of moderate and severe diarrhea, potentially lethal An increase in mortality is associated with enteropathogenic strains.
\r\n\tUrinary tract infections are more common in women because of the short length of the urethra (25 to 50 mm) compared to men (about 15 cm). Among the elderly, urinary infections tend to be of the same proportion between men and women.
\r\n\tBecause the bacteria invariably enter the urinary tract through the urethra (an ascending infection), poor hygiene habits can predispose to infection; however, other factors become important, such as pregnancy, benign or malignant hypertrophy of the prostate, and in In many cases, the initiating event of the infection is unknown. Although ascending infections are the cause of lower urinary tract infections and cystitis, this is not necessarily the cause of upper infections such as pyelonephritis, which may have a hematogenous origin.
The dilute magnetic semiconductor quantum dots (DMSQDs) are basically the combination of semiconducting quantum dots, where transition metals are introduced as impurity or dopants. They are symbolically represented by A1−xMxB or A(M)B or AB(M), where A is often a non-magnetic cation, A and B can be from Group II-VI, Group III-V and Group IV-IV elements. These nanoscale materials play an important role in microelectronics and magnetic storage devices [1, 2, 3]. Additionally, these materials have the quality to exist in both Curie temperatures (Tc) as well as in room temperature (RT) with high saturation of magnetization (Ms) [4, 5, 6]. These quantum confined materials has unique magneto-optical and optically controlled magnetism properties, which make them essentially important in today’s research on materials for spintronics (spin-based electronics) [7, 8] device making. The device making includes miniaturization of electronic devices, magnetic fluids and high density data storage systems [9, 10, 11]. The semiconducting quantum dots which are being in research are from the Group II-VI and the dopants are transition metals. The individual potentiality of these materials, generated by coupling of diluted magnetic semiconductor (DMS) and quantum dots (QDs), is expected to be a path breaking one in the future field of optoelectronics and magneto-optoelectronic devices. To understand better, we will first look into the concept of DMS and QDs separately.
\nMagnetic semiconductors are the semiconducting materials, which can exhibit ferromagnetism. Doping of the transition metals in these materials are said to be dilute magnetic semiconductors (DMS). The DMS are therefore semi-magnetic due to the introduction of magnetic elements in their lattices. Basically, the spintronics property of these materials has attracted the present day research for possible technological applications. By definition, spintronics is a combination of electrons’ spin and their associated electronic charge and magnetic moment.
\nThe first generation spintronics devices are derived from passive magnetoresistive sensors [12], but the second generations devices are expectedly achieved with the active spin-based devices, which are manipulated in the host semiconductor with spin-polarized electrons [13, 14]. The thought behind a spintronics device is the presence of spin-polarized electrons which travels through the host. Although the introduction of the ferromagnetic material in the semiconductor material through doping is extensively studied, yet the electronic spin is difficult to preserve throughout the material interface due to the difference in electrical conductivity in both the doped as well as the host material [15]. Hence, to present these materials as expected material, better than both ferromagnetic and semiconductor individually, research is very much crucial and warranted in spin electronic carrier device industries. DMS is next concept to meet the vital applicative operation to establish the spintronics carrier devices, an efficient one. In DMS, the host is non-magnetic semiconductor, whereas, the magnetic material is from transition metal series. These are powerful integrated devices having highly spin-polarized capacity.
\nOne of the most extensively studied DMS is alloys of AII1−xMnxBVI (
Among the oxide base DMS materials, Cobalt (Co) intruded Titanium dioxide (TiO2) system is one of the most consistently researched
TiO2 is a wide direct forbidden band gap (3.03 eV) material, used for optoelectronic devices and solar cell applications [25, 26, 27]. Its crystal symmetry is found to be in tetragonal and rhombohedral orientations [28]. Therefore the thin films of Co-doped TiO2 can be accommodated in the applicative DMS devices. The first observation of RT ferromagnetism in the Co-doped TiO2 system was reported at Anatase phase Ti1−xCoxO2 films (0 ≤ x ≤ 0.08), on LaAlO3 and SrTiO3 substrates, using laser molecular beam epitaxy, at substrate growth temperatures between 680 and 720°C [29]. Same research group also found the satisfactory results with the thin films of rutile phase TiO2 with a composition of Ti1−xCoxO2 (0 ≤ x ≤ 0.05) onto α-Al2O3 substrates, using the same deposition technique [30]. After this achievement, a good number work on this composition was done with various thin film deposition techniques, viz., pulsed laser deposition (PLD) [31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36], laser molecular beam epitaxy (LMBE) [37, 38, 39], metal–organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) [40], reactive co-sputtering, oxygen-plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy (OPA-MBE) [41] and sol–gel [42] method. Researchers observed that the pressure of Oxygen applied during the thin film deposition is also a very important factor and suggested that at PO2 ≥ 1.3 × 10−5 mbar, we can have clear streaky RHEED patterns, which suggest two-dimensional smooth surfaces [32].
\nThe ferromagnetism in Co-doped TiO2 is a topic of interest for the research accompanying spintronics devices. The oxide base DMS materials have extrinsic or intrinsic effect, which is the root of their device driven capability, is still a matter of discussion. The extrinsic effect may be attributed to the interaction of local magnetic moments with magnetic impurities. The intrinsic magnetism may be due to the exchange coupling between the spin of carriers and local magnetic moments. Since, spintronics takes place only in polarized charge carriers, which is possible only when the ferromagnetism is intrinsic. The issue is of great concern because the experimental evidence is not yet available behind the actual reason of magnetism of DMS in TiO2. Anomalous Hall effect (AHE) and electric field induced modulation by magnetization suggests, for rutile phased Co-doped TiO2 system, the carrier-mediated ferromagnetism with a value of 13.5% [43, 44].
\nRecent theoretical studies propose the creation and distribution of oxygen vacancies in Co-doped TiO2 is responsible for the ferromagnetism in these systems. The ferromagnetism is suppressed when the oxygen content is increased in the unit cell [45]. In a nutshell, for the TiO2 crystal, in the event of an oxygen vacancy, Ti atoms will give away their electrons to oxygen and hence they will be in the scarcity of electrons to get bind with the oxygen vacancy sites by their own atoms and therefore a situation of hydrogen-like orbital occurs, hence constitutes a Polaron. This phenomenon is supported by a percolation model named bond magnetic polaron (BMP), which was used to study the magnetically doped oxides [46].
\nIn the interaction of the magnetic cations with the hydrogenic electrons in the impurity band, the donors tend to form BMPs, coupling the 3d moments of the ions within their orbits. Depending on whether the cation 3d orbital is less than half filled, or half filled or more, the coupling between the cation and the donor electron is ferromagnetic or anti-ferromagnetic, respectively. Either way, the coupling between two similar impurities within the same donor orbital is ferromagnetic. The polaron radius is a function of the host material’s dielectric constant and electron effective mass. If the polaron concentration in the material is large enough to achieve percolation, an entire network of polarons and magnetic cations become interconnected and we observe macroscopic ferromagnetic behavior [47].
\nThus, the incorporation of impurities/dopants in the semiconducting lattices have been realized as an important primary means of controlling the magnetic and electrical conductivities, besides having an immense effect on magnetic, magneto-optical and other physical properties of semiconductors.
\nQuantum dots (QDs) of semiconducting materials have attracted the research community due to their potential application in various fields of humanity, viz., optoelectronics, solar cell, bioimaging and biosensors, cosmetics, space science, photocatalytic activity, etc. [48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54]. The QDs can be defined with respect to their size, which is supposed to be less than excitons Bohr radius. The material specific Bohr radius also leads to the property of that material. The size factor is supported by differently shaped particles. The size of the QDs leads to the significant change in band gap of the semiconductors than the bulk. The enhanced band energy of the particles is due to the fact of their atom like structures. These particles in this confinement have 10–1000 numbers of atoms within one particle. Therefore, the energy levels of each particle have the merging levels of only some of the atoms in comparison to their bulk entity, where millions of atoms coincide. Because of this fact, very less energy levels can merge with each other in a QD and hence the band gap energy increases drastically. The QDs have another specific property of showing blunt and broad absorption peak. The primary cause behind the phenomenon resides in their size effect. At the atomic level, the slight change in the size of a particle (viz., 0.5 nm) can change their HOMO-LUMO gap drastically. Therefore, whenever there is a solution of QDs, the particle size is never homogeneously uniform in the solution. Hence, for every particle the band gap energy will be different and therefore the absorption maximum shifts accordingly. As a consequence of the presence of differently sized particles in the solution, togetherness of these absorption maxima can be observed and hence a broad peak. Therefore, by tuning the size, we can meet the desired application with these particles. Apart from the size factor, shape phenomenon also plays a significant role in deciding the characteristic features in the field of quantum dot physics. The electrons, which are the driving force behind every electronic transition in a physical matter, have received different orientations in terms of surface of the particle. In the quantum range of physics, the QDs are forced to adapt the required application by modifying their surface. The reason behind such observation is the attachment of the surface electrons for differently shaped particles is different, which is again as an outcome of releasing surface energy of the particle to make it stable. The introduction of capping agents (the ligands) is also having a capability of taming the particle according to their preferred shape. This phenomenon is addressed as surface functionalization. The surface modification can lead us to the fabrication of the particles with better efficacy in different applicative devices.
\nThe property of showing high luminescence by these QD metamaterials is one of the most aspired properties. The generation of double excitons leads the materials toward more promising luminescent material. This extraordinary property blesses these materials to show higher emission range than the traditional dyes and hence they become more appropriate with the fact of getting more emission with the excitation of only one electron. The size and, of course the shape, both have an important role in making them suitable for these applications. Most of the time the tunable size property of these quantum dots is mentioned, due to which one can access the whole light spectrum. The devices such as LEDs and solar cell require these nano dots in such a manner that they have the ability to absorb the whole visible and UV region and emit the same in higher wavelength. Therefore, the luminescence property of these fluorescent dots has to have the tenability to perform in the whole region. Fortunately, researchers found that for different semiconducting quantum dots, we can achieve the luminescence as per our requirement. Another interesting concept of wastage of the solar energy as thermal energy during the absorption of sun light by a photovoltaic cell comes into play, in the present day photo voltaic research. It is observed that a photovoltaic material, such as, QDs (although being the most promising one), cannot absorb the whole sun light as conversion efficiency of the cell becomes less. The reason behind this is the material, that we are using, can absorb the light in the desired range but cannot emit the same in the desired wavelength. To tackle this difficulty, the concept of large stock shift quantum dots has come up. This large stock shift materials can absorb the sun light in short wavelength and emit the same in the long wavelength, which make these functionalized quantum dots more efficient toward these kind of applications [55].
\nDiscussions on DMS and QDs have made it easier to understand the concept of DMSQDs. They are quantum dots of semiconducting materials doped with transition metals having magnetic behavior. Due to specific significance of QDs, researchers are tremendously focusing on the ferromagnetic material doped QDs. Since, semiconductors do not possess high magnetism in any level of their atomic growth, it becomes essential to incorporate the magnetic nature of DMS in nanoscale so as to improve its efficiency in the various fields of spintronics applications. It has been observed that the effectiveness of interaction of
The synthesis procedures are very much similar to those for the synthesis of QDs. The only exception is to incorporate the metallic materials as impurity during the reaction process. Among a vast number of procedures, the chemical route to synthesis DMSQDs is the most commonly use deficient method. The size and shape of such QDs can be easily tailored through this method. Unwanted oxidation can also be prevented during the adopted during the synthesis process. Fe, Co, Ni and Mn are the main doping elements used for the preparation of DMSQDs of semiconductors of Group II-VI [56].
\nClustering and surface doping are two main issues that are faced during the synthetic process for obtaining uniformed DMSQDs. To eliminate these key issues, one has to overcome self-purification [57] of the materials and understand the reactivity between the host-guest materials [58, 59]. The self-purification is a process where host molecule expels the guest molecule from the surface to attain a thermodynamically stable state by reducing its defect energy. Self-purification can be resolved by making the magnetic core at first, followed by coating with the semiconducting material and then annealing at higher temperature for a longer time to diffuse the dopant inside the host properly before it get expelled by the host. The reactivity issue can be sorted out by two ways: a) Nucleation doping and b) Growth doping. Successive ionic layer adsorption reaction (SILAR) method was used to dope Fe in CdS in one of the methods of its preparation. This was attained at high temperature. This method showed excellent result with the homogeneous diffusion of Fe in CdS shell. It was also reported that the oxidation state of Fe was reduced to 2 from 2.44 due to the presence of reducing reagent and replaced the Cd site with substitutional doping.
\nDMSQDs possess unique properties which make them suitable for wide range of applications. Their properties are primarily divided into magnetic and magneto-optical as well as magneto-electrical properties. These properties are attributed to the exchanged interaction of
One of the most advantageous finding on DMSQDs shows an exceptionally different nature of magnetism. It is the co-doping of ZnO with Cu and Fe [62]. Interestingly, ZnO individually doped with Fe or Cu showed an anti-ferromagnetic behavior without a trace of ferromagnetism. Whereas, the co-doping of both the transition metals in ZnO showed high quality ferromagnetism with magnetic moment as high as 600 memu/g. This work has proved the anti-ferromagnetism of Cu doped ZnO with the help of
The chapter analyzes the sources of computer visualization metaphors and human-machine interaction. The metaphor essence consists of interpretation and experience of the phenomena of one sort in terms of the phenomena of other sort.
A metaphor is the main idea of forming the types of visualization views, interfaces, and scenarios of visualization output and interaction with it.
Metaphor sources are objects of the surrounding world, scientific ideas, ideas derived from literature, folklore, sci-fi cinema, computer games, etc.
Metaphorization is based on interaction structures of source and target domains. In the process of metaphorization, some objects of target domain are structured on an example of objects of target domain, and there is a metaphorical mapping (projection) of one domain onto another. That is how the metaphor can be understood as a map from source domain onto target domain, and this map is strictly structured [1]. Metaphor ideas are often based on real life as well as on abstract scientific ideas. Worth mentioning are such examples of pre-computer era visualization as cartography, engineering graphics, and Cartesian coordinates, which played a crucial role in the development of modern civilization. Cartesian coordinates were the basis for the idea of computer graphics during the first period of its development. The use of new ideas is connected with developing the means for human-computer interaction. It is in this field that such metaphors as a light button and light button menu appeared. The most well-known and still popular desktop metaphor is also connected with interfaces intended to provide interaction in office work computerization. The desktop metaphor is almost entirely based on office work realities. However, there is a double-click, which can be called a magic feature and is unparalleled in real life. Further, such magic features were added in a whole range of metaphors used in computer visualization systems. The emergence of virtual reality as an environment for computer visualization made the use of metaphors relevant. Conditions inherent to virtual reality are somewhat similar to magic and science fiction. That is why fairy tales and sci-fi in literature and cinema may become an interesting source of new metaphors.
Below we shall discuss the main ideas of pre-computer visualization, the potentials of metaphors based on real-life phenomena and on scientific ideas. Then we shall analyze the potentials of fairy tales as sources of metaphors. We shall also provide several examples of metaphors based on science fiction and discuss the evolution of visualization from a comic book to immersive cinema.
The concept of metaphors is popular in publications on computer visualization and human-computer interaction. One may reveal the following two cases of using this concept:
A
A
The following hierarchy of computer metaphors is considered:
Global metaphors of design
Basic visualization and interface metaphors
Local metaphors
Global metaphors map the main design idea. For example, considering the world as a “super office.” (
Let us consider global visualization metaphors. These ideas depend on global events and changes in society, art, and science. We are interested in global metaphors that have a visual (“pre-computer” and computer) representation. These ideas formed the basics of cartography, engineering drawings, and function graphs on the Cartesian plane.
We review the interference of metaphorical ideas and the challenges facing economy, science, and education in the past and now.
Modern cartography is the result of geography development and a prerequisite for the Age of Exploration. The use of the Mercator projection and the grid of parallels and meridians in the modern age is a great achievement in the visualization of geographical and navigation data.
Variations of geographical metaphors are used now in data visualization and software visualization systems.
Engineering drawing is the product of the Industrial Revolution, its prerequisite and an important tool. Multiple views and projections, a set of rules depicting product features, compile a certain explicit code.
Engineering drawing in the form of CAD systems is an integral part of computer tools of modern engineers.
One of the most powerful visualization ideas of the modern age is the idea to draw function graphs in Cartesian coordinates. The idea of function reflects rather abstract concepts, but due to graph drawings, even very young students may become familiar with them.
2D and 3D graph drawings are the bases of modern scientific visualization and an important part of data and software visualization [2].
For a start, let us revise the way things were in the field of human-computer interface before the emergence of visual metaphors. In those times software engineers (who comprised the basic quota of users all over the world) still remembered working with bulky computer consoles. Command-line interface prevailed in interactive systems. For instance, text editing commands included operation indication, the number of source line (sometimes the number of a symbol in the line as well), and (if necessary) the new text for correction or pasting. Such an interface, although it required from the user to keep in mind a continuously changing text, and despite occasional mishaps with saving the changes, was tolerable enough for professionals. Graphic displays gave a new impetus to human-computer interaction. Along with the tools of data visualization, program interface tools came into use. Based on that, light buttons (an output primitive used to emulate a functional key) and light button menu came into exploitation. With their help one could easily interact both with the program’s system and with the user’s program.
The mass arrival of personal computers simply could not have happened without the emergence of visual interaction tools, new devices, and brand-new concepts of interface organization with the user, for example, the concept of direct manipulation.
The concept of direct manipulation was suggested in the early 1980s by Professor B. Shneiderman, a famous expert in the field of computational sciences, who combined and analyzed new trends in organizing the interface. Currently, this concept prevails in interface design.
B. Shneiderman determined the following features of an interface created on the basis of the direct manipulation concept:
Continuous depiction of the object of interest
Physical actions (manipulations with the mouse, joystick, touch screen, etc.) or using a functional keyboard instead of commands with complex syntax
Quick operations, divisible into steps and allowing resets, with an instantly visible effect on the object of interest
The essence of this approach to interface creation is in making the user perceive their activity as direct manipulation with the objects displayed on the screen, rather than as a dialog with the computer regarding these objects. Instead of using command language to describe operations with objects, the user manipulates visible perceptions of these objects on the screen.
The interface metaphor is considered as the basic idea of convergence and similarity between model objects of an applied field and interactive objects. The role of an interface metaphor is to facilitate better understanding of interaction semantics, as well as to provide a visual idea of dialog objects and define the set of user manipulations with them.
The interface metaphor in this respect is seen as the basis of the semiotic system, which in turn underlies the interactive language. With the help of this language, the user forms their task and achieves the solution by means of a computer. The interface metaphor does not only help describe abstractions but also structures the understanding of a new applied field and defines objects of the interactive [visual] language [3].
The most recent global metaphor is the basis of modern computerization. For a variety of economic and social reasons, people at the end of the twentieth century understood the world around them not as a workshop where employees work but as an office where clerks and managers spend their time. The cornerstone of a desktop metaphor success is tightly linked with this change in the awareness of the world. Results of modern computerization (and the desktop metaphor) reflect global ideas of modern “postindustrial” world. However, “office” interfaces generate office activity techniques in such “non-office” domains as medicine or education. This often involves non grata effects.
Originally, this metaphor was offered for office automation systems, but then its use was expanded for operating systems interfaces.
The desktop metaphor became the most frequent practice in the 1990s. This metaphor is in many respects the basis of modern visual interfaces. The success of a desktop metaphor, undoubtedly, is connected not only (and not so much) with the natural figurativeness of icons that are [not always] clear to users but with logicality and systematic nature of all activities within visual environments based on this metaphor.
The formula of a desktop metaphor is described in [1]. Apart from borrowing office work realities, this metaphor has a “magic” idea: all actions within the system are made by means of double-clicking on icons.
Significantly, desktop metaphor extensions toward an office desk metaphor, office space metaphor, and a filing cabinet metaphor were not very successful, despite interesting solutions and the use of several magic features.
By providing calculation results, visualization ensures interpretation and analysis of the acquired data. The following subfields of computer visualization can be distinguished: scientific visualization, software visualization, and information visualization.
Typically, scientific visualization uses traditional (pre-computer) methods of displaying mathematical, physical, chemical, biological, and other models (e.g., two-dimensional and three-dimensional function graphs). Sometimes the imagery natural and/or typical for a given application is also used, for example, molecule presentations in modeling chemical processes. Traditional imagery, sometimes borrowed from the pre-computer static graphics, is also used in information visualization. One may conclude that the use of metaphors in scientific and information visualization is limited.
Computer metaphors became most widely used in software visualization systems. These metaphors are based on objects and phenomena of the real world or on models derived from specific branches of science. Among these metaphors the most popular are spatial metaphors: the city metaphor or the landscape metaphor and their variations in particular. Spatial (three-dimensional) metaphors are actively applied in developing presentation views in visualization systems used for monitoring, testing, and debugging parallel and distributed programs, as well as programs for processing events and providing reactions to them. These metaphors are widely used in the systems based on virtual reality [4, 5, 6, 7].
Using a city metaphor presupposes structuring the input data by means of internal city structure containing separate blocks, streets, and buildings. The naturalness of metaphors causes both simplicity of orientation in space and navigation ease. In software visualization systems within a city or a landscape, metaphor transport arteries are often used to represent control flows and data flows, as well as various connections between objects and program components. When using these metaphors in the systems based on virtual reality, a flight over the city is possible. There are examples of software visualization systems based on an extended city/building/room metaphor with the use of teleportation for immediate relocation between city districts or buildings representing different elements of a big software complex.
A cosmic metaphor in its modern sense, with a heliocentric worldview, is chosen as an idea for a visual programming medium. At the same time, parts of the entities of the program are represented as planets, their satellites, rings (like the rings of Saturn), and other elements of outer space. It seems that in the case of virtual reality application, the most archaic 3D version of a geocentric model may be more convenient, with the Earth represented as being flat and celestial bodies located on hemispheres covering the flat Earth [8].
Based on scientific views, a molecule metaphor in particular can be used to visualize performance traces and graphs for parallel programs. This metaphor provides representation view of a large volume of structured data. Interpreting a physical molecule (particle) metaphor and its modifications is generally simple and natural, although it requires certain (basic) knowledge of physics from the user. Moving and navigation can be executed by means of flying around the molecule (or a set of particles). This means, a molecule metaphor, in the same way as a city/landscape metaphor, includes some magic or fantastic features.
The paper [9] describes the original brain metaphor, which is used for animated representation of a parallel program performance. The idea of visualizing brain activity when presenting it with some stimuli is transferred onto a program or an application’s performance visualization (activating procedures and functions, input/output, etc.). Let us note that this metaphor does not have any magic features; possibly, this is what hampers perception of a large volume of information based on it.
Currently the idea of gamification has been gaining popularity. It implies the use of computer game ideas in non-gaming fields of application. When developing software visualization systems, this approach presupposes creating tools that provide software engineers with an interface similar to that of computer games. The paper [5] discusses a software visualization system based on virtual reality with the use of virtual reality. A city metaphor is the basic metaphor for this system. However, both the imagery and the method of interaction in the system strongly resemble popular computer games.
Gamification in software visualization system development based on virtual reality is also mentioned in the paper [10]. An environment based on virtual reality is described, which should provide work with the structures of a program code using city metaphors and cosmic metaphors for visualization, navigation, and program code data transfer in an interactive mode. Games have been released that have demonstrated the potential of gamification for the purposes of enhancing the understanding of structural dependencies and code modularization.
Thus, everyday reality, scientific ideas, and modern computer games serve as sources for metaphors. Further, we shall look at fairy tales and science fiction, where objects with magic features are used and characters have magic abilities, as sources. Magic ideas described in fantasy novels or in literary processed folklore fairy tales are the most functional and consequently the most useful ones for our purposes.
An important issue when forming scientific and, in particular, computer metaphors is the question of where to find the source [11, 12]. The description of the constructive procedure of searching and/or generating interface metaphors is presented in [13]. This multistage procedure provides (among other things) the consideration of application domains, user tasks, and user characteristics.
Interest to “magic” in connection with HCI and interface metaphors has been shown in the early 1990s. Significant attention has been given to the concept of “magic features.” This concept in the context of HCI was introduced for the first time by [14].
The issue of magic and magic features as a source for metaphors when developing interactive visual software complexes is also discussed in the paper [15] (see also [16]).
The word “magic” is very popular as part of metaphoric names for interface techniques, for example, a “magic lens,” a “magic mirror,” a “magic lancet,” etc. In [17] a number of specific examples from stage magic are presented, and application of its principles and techniques in human interface design is discussed. The article [18] is devoted to sources of metaphor for tangible user interfaces. Authors suppose magic and paranormal phenomena could be a fruitful place to look for new metaphors for tangible user interfaces. Also, voodoo magic is considered an interesting idea for interfaces with virtual objects. In [19] Voodoo doll technique is used as a two-handed interaction technique for manipulating objects at a distance in immersive virtual environments.
Ideas for interface metaphor design, linked with magic fairy tales, fantasy, and science fiction novels, are described in a number of articles. In [20], for example, the magic metaphor of a flying carpet is mentioned, but in [21] the metaphor of a magic carpet is realized, for instance, moving in the virtual reality environment. In [22, 23, 24, 25, 26], the ways of using a “magic wand” are described. A magic wand is considered a manipulation metaphor to form an interface in systems with elements of virtual reality. Interesting ideas of wonder objects (e.g., a magic mirror) were proposed (and realized in prototype versions) for storytelling in modern museums [27]. In [28] an information system using a city metaphor is described. In this system, magic/fantastic opportunities are used on a regular basis. Among these opportunities there is “tunneling through space” presenting the typical adoption from science fiction. Rooms with “magic windows” may also be considered as a magic (science fiction) feature. A “magic window” is an interesting expansion of a well-known information wall metaphor.
Here we consider fantastic magic features, selecting the samples that are fruitful for interface and visualization metaphors.
Teleportation—an instant movement by means of verbal influence (spell) or by means of manipulations with any objects or uses of such devices as teleports
A rather slow movement by means of magic transport. A magic transfer may take place both for subjects and for (animated and inanimate) objects of magic
One can set out the general class of
Similarly to magic objects, magic subjects may be set out, i.e., evil, good, or neutral (with respect to the characters) magicians possessing superpowers. (As an option—magic anthropomorphic beings, e.g., fairies, gnomes, trolls, genies, etc.)
Our attention was focused on two “magic-fantastic” metaphors from the novels (and also the films) about Harry Potter. These are speaking and moving portraits and the Marauder’s Map, which even showed people’s movements on it. In this case, portraits of dead people are the active objects. They may address the living characters of the novel without requests and even move from one portrait frame to another to pay visits to each other. The map continuously traces and shows the location of the person under observation.
There are many active, anthropomorphic, and speaking characters in fairy tales and in science fiction novels such as Golem, robots of K. Capek and I. Asimov, and so on. Similarly, there are numerous variations of magic/fantastic means of navigation and search both in fairy tales and in fantasy.
In these magic metaphors, visual characteristics are not as important as spontaneous activity inherent to generated objects and subjects. Spontaneous activity can be considered the means of imitating reasonable behavior. Of importance is also the character’s existence independently of users, imitating reasonable behavior. In sci-fi and popular scientific literature and films such active computer, “subjects” appeared several decades ago. In modern computer practice, agents who are active under their own initiative frequently cause irritation. We started our research of active intellectual agents to understand what, why, and where active intellectual agents have to do.
The idea of an “active” map showing a real landscape and movements of objects was considered. The “activity” of a map can be connected to events, in the same way as in navigating systems: moving around, turning, crossing, and so on; but “activity” can also be spontaneous, connected with time events. Another idea that may be possible is the development of an “active” scheme of a protected apartment or territory. In this case tracking systems and “highlighting” persons may be necessary. Movements of all characters without exception may be shown on the scheme, and labels will allow identification. In the context of the given ideas, it may be noted that works in this direction, on the basis of such systems as GPS, are underway and there are examples of interactive maps serving as guide advisers. Moreover, now it is easy to develop speaking anthropomorphic avatar agents, and there are many examples of such implementations.
We have decided to link the idea of active agents based on a metaphor of a speaking portrait with the expert system. The point is that an active agent with its (possibly) importunate activity is authorized only in the case of teaching systems. The logic of project development led us to the following idea of an “active textbook.” This textbook has to be able to analyze the student’s behavior in the process of studying, for example, the time of reading, manipulations with the text, and so on. Based on these analyses, the “active textbook” may detail teaching material, search new data sources, or turn to other things. The analysis of a user behavior may be accomplished at a syntactic level (at a level of operations with a mouse and a keyboard, eye tracking, etc.) and on a semantic one (monitoring opened files or sites, running applications, recording events, etc.). Such analysis and elements of programming by demonstrations will allow our system to learn how to teach in the process of its use and to operate in the given direction “independently.” It is also possible to supply the system with adviser functions. The system will be like an intelligent human adviser and will not impose its opinion but provide recommendations and solutions. This human-like behavior may be provided by psychologically driven slowdowns in the system’s activity.
Expansion of a city metaphor used in software visualization systems is suggested by means of adding active agents by inputting parameters into certain functions and methods. The agents can move around the city, determining the locations where they are used and changed and the way the process of algorithm work plays out. This way, an extended metaphor creates such additional properties as the opportunity to observe software objects inside buildings or rooms, reflecting particular entities while active agents move around the city.
In visualization systems based on virtual reality environments, there are such tasks where complex manipulations with objects are necessary, for example, pulling something out, cutting, or zooming in. As a metaphor of the tool for such tasks, first of all, the idea of a magic wand comes into designer’s mind. However, a magic wand does not have differentiated actions and hence requires the means to change operating modes. In specialized systems, it is more natural to use specialized “magic tools.” For example, in medical information system as manipulator’s metaphor, the idea of a “magic lancet” is offered. The lancet allows to “dissect” this or that organism area for profound exploration. When “dissecting” any human organism object, all physical changes are visualized, as if we did it in a reality. In case of a combination of a “magic lancet” metaphor with a three-dimensional model of a human body, one may obtain the virtual model of operations, and a prototype system of information visualization for medical purposes is in progress now. Systems based on this metaphor may be used, for example, to teach surgery [29].
Science fiction may be an implicit source of metaphors used to control visual objects in virtual reality environments. Thus, for instance, the paper [30] describes an environment for an experiment studying psychological states in virtual environments. A user has to manipulate cubes to compose a given pattern. These cubes in the virtual environments are “caught” with a special trap, in which an antigravity movement mode to a necessary point or a cube rotation mode may be activated. When using a special command, the cube rises over the virtual table and flies in the location set by the user.
Our preliminary research shows the applicability of “magic” metaphors for tasks in interactive systems and systems based on virtual reality environments. For example, the search of metaphors for movements in virtual environments may require magic transportation techniques, such as teleports and flights of various types (the flying carpet, the flying ship, Roc, a winged horse). Metaphors of intellectual agents-informants may also be based on magic means of navigation.
In fairy tales and science fiction novels, one can find a lot of magic phenomena, such as magic knowledge, war magic, fulfillments of desires, telepathy and thought-reading, etc. But we do not know for sure yet, whether these features are useful for metaphor search. However, for a choice of metaphors for manipulations with objects and processes in virtual environments, “the war magic” may be of interest. War magic is connected with transferring the events taking place in the magical world into reality. For example, any variations of “magic chess,” where games with chess pieces are transferred into land battles, or the “naval” military magic where models of fight in a vat of water are transferred into sea battles. One may find these ideas (partially close to voodoo magic) in a number of folk and literary fairy tales.
Note that folk fairy tales are governed by rigorous logic of plot development and a choice of characters. By the way, in literary fairy tales and fantasy novels, this logic is also typically observed.
Analysis shows that exotic “magic” metaphors may be used to form any interface features. However, implementation of interactive systems on their basis may be both complex and contradictory. Magic metaphors are frequently transformed into abstract interface opportunities, losing the appreciable connection with initial ideas. For example, in case of a speaking portrait metaphor, the anthropopathy of an agent turned out to be unnecessary. But it is necessary to endow it with the function of a magic assistant/conductor into the world of knowledge. Of course, the transmuted abstractness of metaphors is an advantage rather than a defect of their use. In the systems created, for example, for office automation or for end-user programming, the presence of magic interface manuals may appear as a distracting or even irritating factor. However, using such “magic features” as automatic return of electronic analogs of paper documents on their place at the end of processing may be carried out without any special warnings even for non-expert users. Such features are well-conformed to common sense of clerks and do not demand unnecessary efforts during operations. Infringement of magic logic due to any absurd ideas or too farfetched subjective likeness may lead to serious mistakes. Sharp criticism of interface metaphors as such is connected with the infringement of magic logic in the early version of Apple’s interface (using the trash can metaphor to eject disks) [14].
Virtual reality environments were initially used for aviation and space simulation training systems. They gained widespread use in entertainment systems and computer games. They are also used in medicine and psychology for therapeutic purposes. We are interested in virtual reality as a basis for computer visualization systems development. The imagery used in virtual reality systems can be adopted from the imagery inherent to a certain computer model. However, for software visualization, systems based on virtual reality metaphors are typically used. Such systems can benefit from (or even require) fairy tale features described above. In this respect, we are interested in interface metaphors which are applied in virtual reality.
The role of interface metaphor is to promote the best understanding of interaction semantics and to determine the visual representation of dialog objects and a set of user manipulations with them. A metaphor, considered as a basis of the sign system, in turn underlies a dialog language. A user articulates the problem with the help of this language and achieves solution from the computer. The metaphor helps to describe abstraction and provide structural understanding of a new applied area but also assigns dialog [visual] language objects. Interface metaphors may be considered a special case of scientific metaphor used for generating new or additional senses to understand new facts and phenomena.
Virtual reality is characterized by a set of specific states, above all, presence, involving a human perceiving themselves inside a virtual environment with various features. Due to experiencing presence, a person finds themselves in situations similar to those of fairy tales and science fiction, even if no magic metaphors were applied (e.g., finding oneself inside a brain or a molecule). In such conditions, the use of magic features described above is reasonable, both for navigation and movement in a virtual environment and for interaction with the objects of this environment.
A project of a virtual environment designed for modeling visual search in large space may use either emerging magic signs or talking objects to facilitate user navigation. In virtual reality systems, a magic wand may be useful as an interface metaphor to point at objects and interact with them. The idea of teleportation is interesting in virtual reality systems for movement organization, as it provides the possibility of instant movement to a new virtual scene.
Interesting metaphors may be adopted from science fiction works. Thus, a time machine metaphor and a butterfly effect metaphor were used in a project of an environment for adjusting parallel programs dealing with software visualization systems [31].
One may consider time as an axis that is analogous to traditional spatial axes. And the event stream may be depicted along this axis. Any change in this stream may break the whole chain of cause-and-effect relations. In this case, the idea of traveling in time in both directions seems to be natural. One may consider a set of parallel processes as consistent streams of events flowing and changing along this time axis. In this case, effects of an event in the process cause a reaction, affecting both the process in which it has occurred and other processes. It is possible to correct errors by going back in time along the axis and interfering with the sequence of events at the moment. This approach can be described as the “time machine” metaphor. Note that the use of the time machine metaphor does not require any knowledge of the source (science fiction novels). We have developed a prototype of a visualization component for a parallel process control and representation system. This system can be used for debugging parallel programs. We use 3D imagery to visualize processes. Processes are represented by color cylinders connected with each other by thin “threads” (similarly to visual representations in the VisuaLinda system [32]). Globules representing data move along these threads. The states of processes are depicted by colors. A user may navigate along the time axis and change the processes’ states. The time machine metaphor may be considered similar to a traditional record player metaphor. However, in the case of a time machine, there is a possibility of event changes described by the well-known butterfly effect metaphor, which is connected with the situation when a small change of initial conditions causes significant and often unpredictable effects.
A time machine metaphor seemed promising for software visualization of parallel computing. However, after analyzing its implementation, this impression may change. In this case further development of fully fledged debugging and visualization facilities for parallel programs is needed, for example, trapping events, online visualization, and other tools similar to those implemented in the debuggers of the 1990s, such as [33, 34]. These metaphors may also be applied in the systems of software visualization based on virtual reality [31].
Present-day comics and manga may be described in terms of visual texts. You can describe rich and complex languages of pictorial art based on natural imagery, but in this case, the task of a detailed language description is rather complex and often uncertain. One can also describe complex and weakly formalizable dynamic languages of cinema and animation. Similarly, one can define graphical texts associated with computer visualization. The examples of those visualization texts are:
Isolated displays
Dynamic, logically related shot changes with the inclusion of interaction
Animations also with the inclusion of interaction
The goal of visualization is to leverage the existing scientific methods by providing new scientific insight into visual methods. Virtual reality environments are actively used to practice leaping into a new quality of cognitive visualization. Virtual environments are characterized by such features as egocentric points of view and user-centered, often multisensory, interactions. Virtual reality environments are dynamic, rather than static. The user’s experience of the virtual world may combine a visual channel with auditory or haptic feedback. Immersion and sense of presence (the feeling of “being there”) are factors which define virtual reality. The sense of presence distinguishes virtual reality from “traditional” 3D computer graphics. Users “immersed” in virtual reality control the graphics output. Users may also participate in adaptive control of the application system. The essence of virtual reality is in the interaction between the user and the virtual environment. The interpretation principle for graphical texts was formulated as follows: interpretation of such texts is possible only if the “readers” of the text have external information. This principle is similar to the principle of intuitive use. The interpretation principle is very important in the case of visualization based on virtual reality.
One may consider the evolution from comic-like visualization methods to controlled animation-like movies and from these movies to full insight and controlled immersion processes. In its own right, visualization languages of virtual reality may be considered; however, a visualization language in the case of “immersion movies” becomes much more complicated and needs further description. It appears that a new quality of visualization can be achieved primarily through the following media:
Immersion in virtual reality
Creation of an interactive “movie”
Presence of a controlled and modifiable “screen story” (“movie” script)
The language of this script is the language of visualization description (and possibly of visualization depiction—in the case of visual languages). The languages have to support history tracing, including visualization and interaction traces and fixing insight experiences. Examples of “immersion movies” will be used in computer visualization systems.
The issue of finding the sources arouses a whole range of questions. First, an assessment of metaphor applicability is necessary both for the given applications and for a specific task. When assessing the applicability of a metaphor, one should evaluate the way this metaphor can depict the features of a certain application, for which the visualization system is built. However, imaging precision does not necessarily guarantee success for the system. For example, a brain metaphor, precisely depicting the work of a parallel program, is not very convenient in terms of perception, which strongly hampers visualization perception. Magic features are useful in addition to the complex of computer metaphors but are not sufficient. There are examples when a metaphor, for various reasons, was not successful even after introducing these features. Gamification is an interesting idea. However, the question remains whether game components risk distracting the user from their intellectual activity by putting them into a silly, playful mood. Distraction from the main task may also be caused by the magic features of metaphors, especially in environments based on virtual reality. When using virtual reality, one should also analyze the potential user states in terms of increasing or decreasing performance. All these thoughts show that research of substantial user groups is necessary. It is worth noting that in case of software visualization, this research is relevant, as there is a considerable number of tasks and a significant number of experts.
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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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