\r\n\tHysterectomy dates back to around the birth of Christ and the middle ages, where, until the beginning of the nineteenth century, the least risky way to remove a uterus was by the vaginal approach. \r\n\tThe first deliberate laparotomy to remove a massive ovarian tumor was performed in the very early nineteenth century, in Kentucky, USA on a kitchen table without anesthesia. This was followed, not many years later, by the first abdominal hysterectomy in Manchester, England. The patients usually died of hemorrhage and sepsis. \r\n\tHysterectomy became safer with the introduction of anesthesia, antiseptics, antibiotics, and blood transfusion, and relatively late, the introduction of laparoscopic hysterectomy.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book will aim to extend recent writing on hysterectomy to cover the indications, types, techniques, recovery, and alternatives, thus offering an overview of the current trends in hysterectomy.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-061-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-060-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-062-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"36e36a3ed2c05bf054bb66bd4dd09b68",bookSignature:"Prof. Zouhair Amarin",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11040.jpg",keywords:"Dysfunctional Uterine Bleeding, Fibroids, Total Hysterectomy, Partial Hysterectomy, Conventional Abdominal Hysterectomy, Vaginal Hysterectomy, Bleeding, Neighboring Organ Injury, Hospital Stay, Menopausal Symptoms, Progestogens, Lecvonorgestrel IUCDs",numberOfDownloads:431,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 29th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 31st 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 5th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 24th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 22nd 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"9 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor Amarin was a Lecturer at the University of Glasgow, Senior Lecturer at the University of Nottingham, and Dean of the Faculty of Medicine at Mutah University. He is a Fellow of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, and the Faculty of Public Health, London. Professor Amarin holds a Master’s Degree in Medical Science, Glasgow, and in Medical Education, Maastricht. He has published more than 115 papers and has received 8 awards.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"101551",title:"Prof.",name:"Zouhair",middleName:null,surname:"Amarin",slug:"zouhair-amarin",fullName:"Zouhair Amarin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101551/images/system/101551.jpg",biography:"Zouhair Amarin is a Professor of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at the Jordan University of Science and Technology. Previously, he was a lecturer at the University of Glasgow, Scotland; senior lecturer at the University of Nottingham, United Kingdom; and dean of the Faculty of Medicine, Mutah University, Jordan. He is a fellow of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists and the Faculty of Public Health, London. He has a master’s degree in Medical Science from the University of Glasgow, and a master’s degree in Medical Education from Maastricht University, The Netherlands. Dr. Amarin is a pioneer in in-vitro fertility and was the first to develop microsurgical epididymis sperm aspiration for clinical use. He also discovered a surgical procedure for critical ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. He is the author of numerous book chapters, editor of several books, and author of more than 120 journal papers. 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1. Introduction
Waste plastics, such as polystyrene (PS), polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene (PE), are usually disposed together and so require time for sorting. Polystyrene articles (e.g., Styrofoam, food trays, and packing materials) occupy a large volume at a very low weight. This results in inefficient transportation of waste plastic. In addition, subjecting waste plastics to pyrolysis, which involves conversion of plastic to oil requires energy and is expensive. It would be useful to reduce waste plastic volume and to recover the energy of waste polystyrene recycling by a simple process. In this chapter, a simple process is proposed to obtain liquid fuel dissolved polystyrene in biodiesel at lower energy costs.
As shown in Figure 1, waste polystyrene such as expanded polystyrene is selectively dissolved in biodiesel derived from waste cooking oil, and biodiesel-dissolved polystyrene is utilized as diesel fuel for a cogeneration system. This chapter describes the potential for selective dissolution of polystyrene in biodiesel, which consists of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), by using Hansen solubility parameters and for properties and combustion characteristics as diesel fuel by using fuel ignition analyzer.
The results obtained by Hansen solubility parameters indicated that methyl oleate, the main component of biodiesel, provides selective solubility for polystyrene. Results of experiments that examined solubility properties revealed that the kinematic viscosity increased with polystyrene concentration in FAME derived from soybean cooking oil. The cause of the increase in kinematic viscosity was due to the presence of a polymer with a molecular weight of up to approximately 107.
On examining the use of dissolved polystyrene as fuel for diesel engines, experiments showed that the cetane number decreased with an increase in polystyrene concentration; however, the cycle-to-cycle fluctuations in combustion pressure and ignition timing when polystyrene dissolved in FAME was used were less than those found for neat FAME. Polystyrene dissolved in FAME crystallized and precipitated in the gel upon addition of hydrocarbons such as engine lubricant oil. Therefore, the use of FAME-dissolved polystyrene as diesel fuel requires attention to tribology.
Figure 1.
Energy recovery using biodiesel fuel (FAME) derived from waste cooking oil selective-dissolved waste polystyrene (PS).
Biodiesel consists of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) and can be produced from a great variety of feedstocks including vegetable oil (e.g., soybean, palm, rapeseed oil) and animal fats, as well as waste cooking oils (e.g., used frying oils). FAME has been used as alternative fuel of diesel fuel. Many research projects have been carried out and have been published in books and journals [1-3]. Most of all are concerning to fuel quality, combustion and exhaust emission characteristics, which regards the utilization with the diesel engines.
Effective use of waste plastics is important in establishing a recycling-oriented society. FAME can dissolve plastics and rubbers, which are used as fuel system parts of diesel engines, resulting in the need to replace these parts. If a method to utilize FAME as a solvent to dissolve plastics can be developed, waste plastics could be recovered and could be utilized as liquid fuel.
Several studies on solubility report that n-alkenes and di-n-alkyl are better solvents for the low and medium molecular weight samples of polystyrene than the corresponding n-alkanes [4]. Also, it is shown that certain food items have been shown to be incompatible with the expanded polystyrene (EPS) used for the manufacture of food containers. Citronella, limonene and terpinene, which are constituents of many flavor oils, are excellent solvents for polystyrene [5].
Studies of solubility for volume reduction and waste management of polystyrene recycling have been conducted earlier [6,7]. Solubility values of extrude poly-styrene(XPS) in several solvents such as benzene, toluene, xylene, tetrahydrofuran, chloroform, 1,3-butanediol, 2-butanol, linalool, geranoil, d-limonene, p-cymene, terpinene, phellandrene, terpineol, methanol, eucalyptus, cinnamaldehyde, nitrobenzene, N,N-dimethylformamide, and water have been determined. The solubility of the polymer in the mentioned solvents at different temperatures has been investigated. The solvent can be easily recycled by distillation.
Polystyrene dissolved in FAME has a greater heating value as fuel than that of FAME alone, so that a reduction of the fuel consumption per output and the increase in the use of diesel and boiler cogeneration can be expected. The diesel combustion characteristics of soybean oil FAME-dissolved packing peanuts has been investigated by Kuzhiyil et al. [8]. The results showed that engine power increased initially with the polystyrene concentration and then decreased at concentrations greater than 5%. The decline in engine power at high polystyrene concentrations could be caused by the poor spray atomization and deteriorated combustion efficiency due to the high viscosity of polystyrene mixtures.
Studies on the use of soy methyl ester-polystyrene (SME-PS) blends to increase durability of concrete have been conducted [9,10]. Experimental results show that SME-PS reduces water absorption of concrete (by up to 75%), protects from damage caused by freezing and thawing (reduces damage by 66%, reduces chloride ingress depth by up to 50%, and slows the rate of the alkali-silica reaction by 50%.
The method for solubilizing polystyrene in a fatty acid ester has been granted as a US patent [11]. The purpose of the invention is to produce commodity material useful for the production of polymers from polystyrene dissolved in fatty acid esters. This patent also provides the method for disposing of polystyrene solubilized in a fatty acid ester. A fatty acid ester composed of a variety of alkyl and alkene esters is used and heated to temperatures between 100°C and 180°C.
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is used for packaging material to cushion appliances and containers of seafood and agricultural products. Extruded polystyrene (XPS) board is used as insulating material in building. The production of EPS in the world came up to 10 Mt in 2010. Presently, various EPS organizations from more than 25 countries around the world have subscribed to the international agreement on recycling of EPS. In Japan, EPS of 1.1 Mt was produced and 88% of waste EPS was recovered by means of material recycling and energy recovery in 2010; however, the EPS trays with food residue were not recovered. Almost all were sent to landfill sites or were incinerated. EPS and XPS are low density, high volume materials, which consume a significant amount of space in a landfill. The transport efficiency of waste polystyrene is poor because its volume-to-mass ratio is large. Reducing the volume of waste EPS and XPS will reduce CO2 emissions and decrease the cost of energy per volume due to the transportation of waste plastic.
2. Experimental
2.1. Solubility parameter determination
Solubility parameters can be used to easily identify solvents for polymers. Many successful studies have used methods based on the solubility parameter [12-14]. The term "solubility parameter" was first used by Hildebrand and Scott [15]. The theory relates the energy of mixing to the energy of vaporization of the pure component. This theory was developed for mixing of nonpolar substances. However, many solvents and polymers in common use are polar compounds. Hansen divided the polar portion into a dipole-dipole contribution and hydrogen-bonding contribution, both of which could be determined through solubility experiments with polymers [16]. The Hansen solubility parameter (HSP) separates the solubility energy into three parts: dispersion (δD), polarity(δP), and hydrogen bonding(δH). The HSP concept can be described as "like vectors dissolve like vectors." For the vector "likeness," the HSP distance (Ra), which is the distance between the solvent and center of the polymer solubility sphere, was used. Ra is calculated using Eq.1:
Ra=4(dD1−dD2)2+(dP1−dP2)2+(dH1−dH2)2E1
\n\t\t\t\t
where subscript 1 represents the solvent, and subscript 2 represents the polymer.
This equation was developed from plots of experimental data where the constant "4" was found convenient and correctly represented the solubility data as a sphere encompassing the good solvents. When the scale for dispersion (δD) parameter is doubled, in comparison with other two parameters essentially spherical, rather than spheroidal, regions of solubility are found [16].
To determine if the parameters for the solvent and polymer are within an acceptable range, a value called the interaction radius (R0) of the polymer is applied to the substance being dissolved. Good solvents are within R0, and poor ones are outside it. A simple composite affinity parameter, relative energy distance (RED), has been defined as:
RED=Ra/R0E2
\n\t\t\t\t
Good solvents will have RED less than 1.0. Poor solvents will have increasingly higher RED values.
In this study, the solubility of polymer in methyl ester, methanol, and fatty acid was determined by HSPiP (Hansen solubility parameters in practice) software [17]. Fatty acids are source materials of FAME production by esterification process. Oleic acid methyl ester (methyl oleate) is a main component of FAME derived from waste cooking oil, because a typical raw material for cooking oil is the rapeseed oil and soybean oil. Tables 1 and 2 show the HSP from the dataset in HSPiP for methyl oleate, methanol, and oleic acid as solvents, and polystyrene (PS), polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene (PE) as polymers. The HSP generally in use for liquids have all been calculated at 25oC. In this study, the dataset at 25oC was used.
2.2. Measurement of the solubility and fuel properties
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) and food trays (PSP), cut to pieces, were stirred slowly into FAME and dissolved at room temperature. FAME was prepared by the batch-type production equipment using an alkaline catalyst method [3]. Commercial soybean cooking oil was used as the raw material to produce biodiesel, soybean oil methylester (SME).
To determine the dissolved molecular weight of the polystyrene, polystyrene standards with an average molecular weight (MW) of 4000 and 50,000 were also dissolved in FAME. The polystyrene molecular weight distribution in FAME was measured by gel permeation chromatography (GPC).
To clarify the fuel characteristics as diesel fuel, kinematic viscosity was measured according to JIS K2283, the ignition quality as diesel fuel was analyzed by fuel ignition analyzer (FIA) through constant-volume combustion (Fueltech, FIA-100 ver3). Diesel combustion property was evaluated by an ignition delay. Figure 2 shows the configuration of the FIA. In the experiments, conducted under constant pressure of 2.0MPa and initial temperatures of 450oC, the fuel was injected and the ignition delay was measured. Ignition delay was defined as the time difference between the fuel injection start time and the time at which combustion pressure was 0.02MPa greater than the initial pressure in the chamber, as shown in Figure 3.
The cetane number (CN) is used often for estimating ignition quality. In this study, the CN value of FAME-dissolved polystyrene was estimated by calibration of the CN obtained from a mixture hexadecane (CN=100) and heptamethylnonane (CN=15). For practical purposes, the FIA cetane number(CNFIA) was determined by Eq.3.
CNFIA=1413⋅t−10.69E3
where τ denotes the ignition delay [ms].
Furthermore, the relationship between CN of FAME using FIA and CN value using the CFR standard institutional organization engine test, CNCFR, is described by the following relation [18]:
CNCFR=CNFIA+22E4
\n\t\t\t\t
One of the important characteristics of diesel fuel is the carbon residue (CR). The CR is a characteristic value related to the amount of carbon deposits stored inside the engine, carbon deposits for petroleum-based fuels in general are measured using a sample condensed to 10% in volume. For FAME, the high-temperature heating process under condensation results in thermal decomposition of FAME components. In addition, the chemical structure of the fatty acid methyl ester component is changed. For this reason, the CR value for FAME was measured using a sample without condensation in this study.
The heating value of fuel is related to fuel economy and engine power. In this study, the higher heating value of fuel was measured using an automatic bomb calorimeter (Shimadzu, CA-4PJ).
Figure 2.
Configuration of fuel ignition quality analyzer (FIA).
Figure 3.
Definition of ignition delay by FIA.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Solubility of polymers
Figure 4 represents data of the polymers as mesh spheres, and the solvents as dots. Figure 5 also represents the data as two-dimensional planes. Table 3 shows the results calculated from the HSP analysis. In Figures 4 and 5, the scale in coordinate of dispersion(δD) is expressed in HSPiP as twice as large as those in coordinates of polarity(δP) and hydrogen bonding(δH), due to the coefficient "4" of dispersion component in Eq.1.
In Figures 4 and 5, it seems that the methyl oleate is inside of polystyrene (PS) and polypropylene(PP) spheres, methanol and oleate acid are outside of them. From RED value in Table 3, the combination of PS and methyl oleate had a RED value less than 1.0. The PP and polyethylene (PE) combinations with methyl oleate had RED values slightly higher than 1.0. This indicates that methyl oleate is significantly outside the PE and PP spheres. The RED value of methanol and oleic acid are significantly greater than 1.0. Therefore, only polystyrene can be considered to be sufficiently dissolved in methyl oleate. The results also show that FAME will selectively dissolve the polystyrene in the form of mixed waste plastic.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tPolymer\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSolvent\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tMethyl Oleate\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tOleic Acid\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tMethanol\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
PS
\n\t\t\t
0.93
\n\t\t\t
1.17
\n\t\t\t
4.20
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
PE
\n\t\t\t
1.08
\n\t\t\t
1.23
\n\t\t\t
7.12
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
PP
\n\t\t\t
1.05
\n\t\t\t
1.15
\n\t\t\t
40.6
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 3.
RED numbers computed by HSPiP.
Figure 4.
plot of the HSP sphere for polymers and solvents.
Figure 5.
plot of the HSP for polymers and solvents.
Figure 6.
Photos of FAME dissolved polystyrene.
3.2. Characteristics of FAME-dissolved polystyrene
To examine solubility, both the food trays (polystyrene paper; PSP) and the expanded polystyrene(EPS) were completely dissolved in FAME, which was completely transparent after the dissolution, as shown in Figure 6. Figure 7 shows the relation between kinematic viscosity and mass concentration of PS dissolved in FAME. The figure also shows results obtained by another researcher [8] and the dissolved polystyrene standards (average molecular weight of 4000 and 50,000). Kinematic viscosity increased with increasing PSP and EPS concentrations. For EPS, kinematic viscosity increased exponentially, revealing a high kinematic viscosity such as that of heavy oil at a concentration of 9%(m/m) EPS in FAME. In contrast, the kinematic viscosity of the PS standard in FAME was less than those of EPS and PSP. In addition, the kinematic viscosity increased with an increase in average molecular weight, suggesting that an increase in kinematic viscosity is related to the degree of polymerization and molecular weight of the dissolved polystyrene.
Figure 7.
Relationship between kinematic viscosity and mass concentration of the polystyrene dissolved in FAME.
The molecular weight distribution of polystyrene in FAME was measured by GPC. Figure 8 shows the experimental results for the polystyrene (PS) standard with an average molecular weight of 50,000 dissolved in FAME and 5%(m/m) EPS in FAME. The molecular weight peak was similar to that of the polystyrene standard; however, the EPS molecular weights in FAME were distributed across a wide range compared to the range of the PS standard, and indicated a compound with a molecular weight greater than 107. These results suggest that the existence of a very large polymer causes an increase in kinematic viscosity.
Next, the rate of volume reduction of polystyrene and PSP caused by dissolution in FAME was investigated. The solvent n-hexane—a non-polar solvent—was added to crystallize the PS. The crystallized PS was filtered and the mass was measured to determine specific volume. The specific volume of PS in FAME was 1.38 × 10-3 m3/kg, indicating that the specific volume of 82.6 × 10-3 m3/kg for PS before dissolution was reduced. Therefore, dissolution of PSP in FAME can reduce the volume of waste plastic. Also, in case of EPS and XPS which show high expansion ratio, the volume will be extremely reduced by dissolution in FAME.
Figure 8.
Distribution of polystyrene molecular weight in FAME.
3.3. Fuel characteristics
Figure 9 shows a series of combustion pressures obtained by the FIA fuel ignitability tester. The cycle-to-cycle fluctuation in combustion pressure for EPS dissolved in FAME is less than that for neat FAME.
Figure 10 shows the changes in ignition delay and cetane number (CNFIA) against the dissolved EPS concentration. The ignition delay gradually increased with increasing EPS concentration. For this reason, the CNFIA value also decreases. This is caused by the increased kinematic viscosity and the suppression of fuel spray atomization upon dissolution of EPS. Furthermore, generally the petroleum-based fuels are known to possess poor ignitability at higher concentrations of aromatic hydrocarbons. The raw material for styrene monomers is represented by the aromatic chemical formula of C8H8. For this reason, the ignition delay gradually increases with PS concentration.
Figure 9.
Courses of combustion pressure obtained by FIA fuel ignitability tester.
Figure 10.
Changes of ignition delay and cetane number (CNFIA) against the dissolved polystyrene (EPS) concentration.
Figure 11 shows the relation between calorific value and EPS concentration. Initially, the dissolution of EPS in FAME was expected to result in a sufficiently high heating value. However, the increase at a lower heating value was greater than that at the higher heating value, because the oxygen content in the original FAME of approximately 10%(m/m) is reduced by dissolution of EPS.
Figure 11.
Effect of polystyrene (EPS) concentration in FAME on higher calorific value.
Table 4 shows the density, kinematic viscosity, higher heating value, cetane number (CNFIA), and carbon residue without sample condensation. The carbon residue at 5%(m/m) dissolved EPS was twice that at 2%(m/m) dissolved EPS. When this was used as diesel fuel, the amount of carbon deposit in the combustion chamber increased. This deposit may affect the fuel injection system and fuel spray atomization.
Figures 12 and 13 show the effect of fatty acid components of FAME on kinematic viscosity and carbon residue. As shown in Figure 12, the kinematic viscosity increases with an increase in concentration of EPS, and the fatty acid methyl ester with higher carbon number shows higher kinematic viscosity. Also, the carbon residue at methyl oleate shows higher value than methyl palmitate and methyl laurate at all concentrations of EPS. From the results, fuel properties of FAME dissolved EPS may be improved by changing fatty acid composition in FAME. In other words, to use FAME dissolve EPS as fuel, FAMEs with short and middle length of carbon chains as fatty acid component will be better than fatty acid methyl ester with the long length chains.
3.4. Diesel engine performance
This section describes the engine performance and problem of diesel generator fuelled with FAME dissolved EPS. The experiment was carried out by using small diesel engine generator. Fuel consumption was measured by a burette-installed fuel line at various engine loads. And the brake thermal efficiency was calculated. Table 5 shows the main specification of engine generator used in experiment. Figure 14 shows the result obtained by engine test. From Figure 14, the thermal efficiency at the FAME dissolved EPS-5% shows higher value than that at neat FAME at rated engine output. This might be caused by lower cycle-to-cycle fluctuation in combustion as shown in Figure 9 in case of EPS-5%.
In general, the lubricating oil in the diesel engine was mixed with some injected fuel, a process called “oil dilution by fuel.” Then, a mixing test that involved mixing of regular diesel lubricant hydrocarbons and FAME-dissolved EPS was conducted. Figure 15 shows the photos of mixture with regular diesel lubricant hydrocarbon and with lubricant oil derived from castor oil. These photos show that, immediately after mixing, the dissolved EPS crystallizes in the gel and precipitates for both cases. Thus, the use of FAME- dissolved polystyrene as diesel fuel requires the prevention of precipitation and deposition of polystyrene.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tDiesel engine generator\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Type
\n\t\t\t
Yanmar L40A Direct-injection Single cylinder Air-cooled
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Bore x Stroke
\n\t\t\t
68 mm x 55 mm
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Displacement
\n\t\t\t
199 cm3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Compression ratio
\n\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Injection nozzle
\n\t\t\t
YDLL-P type 4holes-0.22mm 150 degree of spray angle
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Rated engine output
\n\t\t\t
2.4kW/3,600rpm
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 5.
Main specification of diesel generator.
Figure 12.
Effect of polystyrene(EPS) concentration in FAME on kinematic viscosity.
Figure 13.
Effect of polystyrene(EPS) concentration in FAME on carbon residue.
Figure 14.
Brake thermal efficiency vs. engine load of diesel engine generator.
Figure 15.
Photo of mixture of FAME-dissolved EPS and engine lubricant oil.
4. Conclusions
The potential for dissolution of polystyrene in fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) was estimated using Hansen solubility parameters. Results indicated that FAME provides selective solubility for polystyrene.
Results of experiments that examined solubility properties revealed that the kinematic viscosity increased with polystyrene (EPS) concentration in FAME. The cause of the increase in kinematic viscosity was due to the presence of a polymer with a molecular weight of up to approximately 107.
The volume of polystyrene (PSP) can be reduced by approximately 1/60 by dissolution in FAME.
When examining the use of dissolved EPS as fuel for diesel engines, experiments showed that cetane number decreased with an increase in EPS concentration; however, the cycle-to-cycle fluctuation in combustion pressure and ignition timing when using EPS dissolved in FAME were less than those found for neat FAME.
EPS dissolved in FAME crystallized and precipitated in the gel upon addition of hydrocarbons such as engine lubricant oil. Therefore, the use of FAME-dissolved polystyrene as diesel fuel requires attention to tribology.
Acknowledgments
We would like to express our appreciation to Mr. Ryuta Onishi, graduate student from the University of Shiga Prefecture, for his assistance with the experiments.
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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Experimental",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Solubility parameter determination",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Measurement of the solubility and fuel properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1. Solubility of polymers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2. Characteristics of FAME-dissolved polystyrene",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.3. Fuel characteristics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.4. Diesel engine performance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Knothe G, Krahl J, Gerpen VJ. The biodiesel handbook, 2nd ed. Urbana IL: AOCS Publishing;2010.'},{id:"B2",body:'Yamane K, Kawasaki K. Potential of existing emission control technologies for diesel engines fuelled with biodiesel. FISITA Trans.2006;F2006P015T:1-12.'},{id:"B3",body:'Yamane K, Kawasaki K, Sone K, Hara T, Prakoso T. Oxidation stability of biodiesel and its effects on diesel combustion and emission characteristics. Int. J. Engine Research. 2007;8-3:307-19.'},{id:"B4",body:'Powers PO. Solubility of polystyrene. Ind. Eng. Chem. 1949;41-10:2213-17.'},{id:"B5",body:'Monte WC, Landau-West D. Solubility of polystyrene in certain vegetable oils, essential oils and their constituents. Journal of Food Science.1982;47-6:1832-35.'},{id:"B6",body:'Garcia MT, Gracia I, Duque G, de-Lucas A, Rodriguez JF. Study of the solubility and stability of polystyrene wastes in a dissolution recycling process. Waste Management. 2009;29-6:1814-18.'},{id:"B7",body:'Garcia MT, Duque G, Gracia I, de-Lucas A, Rodriguez JF. Recycling extruded polystyrene by dissolution with suitable solvents. J. Material Cycles and Waste Management. 2009;11-1:2-5.'},{id:"B8",body:'Kuzhiyil N, Kong SC. Energy recovery from waste plastics by using blends of biodiesel and polystyrene in diesel engines. Energy & Fuels. 2009;23:3246-53.'},{id:"B9",body:'Golias MR. The use of soy methyl ester-polystyrene sealants and internal curing to enhance concrete durability. Purdue University. e-Pubs. 2010;AAT 1490651:138.'},{id:"B10",body:'Coates KC, Mohtar S, Tao B, Weiss WJ. Can soy methyl esters reduce fluid transport and improve durability of concrete? Transportation Research Board. 2009;2113:22-30.'},{id:"B11",body:'Kapila S, Flanigen VJ, Maples MF, Mills MW. Fatty acid esters to dissolved polystyrene for production of commodity material useful for production of polymers. US Patent, 8 Jan 2002;6337413B1.'},{id:"B12",body:'Belmares M, Blanco M, Goddard-III WA, Ross RB, Caldwell G, Chou SH, Pham J, Olofson PM, Thomas C. Hildebrand and Hansen solubility parameters from Molecular Dynamics with applications to electronic nose polymer sensors. J Comp Chem. 2004;25-15:1814-26.'},{id:"B13",body:'Koenhen DM, Smolders CA. The determination of solubility parameters of solvents and polymers by means of correlations with other physical quantities. J. App. Polymer Sci. 1975;19-4:1163-79.'},{id:"B14",body:'Archer WL. Hansen solubility parameters for selected cellulose ether derivatives and their use in the pharmaceutical industry. Drag Dev Ind Pharm. 1992;18-5:599-616.'},{id:"B15",body:'Hildebrand J, Scott RL. The solubility of nonelectrolytes, 3rd ed. Dover Pub Inc, NY;1964.'},{id:"B16",body:'Hansen CM. Hansen solubility parameters. A Users Handbook. 2nd ed. Boca Raton FL: CRC-Press;2007.'},{id:"B17",body:'Abott S, Hansen CM, Yamamoto H. Hansen solubility parameters in practice(HSPiP)-complete software, data and examples, 3rd ed. v.3.1.20. Dec.2010.'},{id:"B18",body:'Kawasaki K, Yamane K, Ikawa T. Regression equation for predicting the cetane number of biodiesel fuel based on fuel composition and properties. SAE paper series. 2011;2011-01-1941:1234-39.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Koji Yamane",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Mechanical Systems Engineering, The University of Shiga Prefecture, Hassaka Hikone Shiga, Japan
Department of Mechanical Systems Engineering, The University of Shiga Prefecture, Hassaka Hikone Shiga, Japan
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1. Introduction
GM crops are one of the noble invention of 21st century that holds a good promise for better survival of humanity. These crops are developed through genetic engineering by altering the genetic make-up of the crops for enriching it with one or several economically important traits such as improved quality traits, reduction in anti-nutritional factors, herbicide tolerance, resistance to various biotic and abiotic stresses, etc. The GM crops have helped mankind to stand against various challenges arising out of high population growth, biodiversity loss and climate change but the process following which these crops have been developed may posed serious threat to the biodiversity which serve as the repository of raw materials for various biotechnological applications ranging from improved and processed foods, fibres and fuels, noble medicines and drugs, enzymes, etc. thus it is imperative that the biodiversity must be preserved satisfactorily to fully exploit the potential of this indispensable technology. In recent times, Biotechnological tool such as genetic engineering and recombinant DNA technology has proved its worth in achieving the sustainable development goals and enjoyed a great potential to mitigate the impact of climate change as well and opened new avenues for climate smart agriculture. However, while doing so we must take care of the ultimate stakeholder whether for the biodiversity or the technology i.e. the human beings and its environment. Fulfilling all these contradictory demands concurrently requires an elaborative and exhaustive framework involving robust protocols regarding safe designing, production, handling and transfer of GM crops. Keeping this in view, a series of meeting were held internationally to discuss the possible innovation or strategies to reduce the ill-effects of these technological interventions and to develop effective strategies for conservation and preservation of biological resources. One of the practical outcome of these discussion fruits in form of “The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, 2000” [1, 2].
2. The Cartagena protocol on biosafety
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB) was adopted on 29 January 2000 in Montreal with the holistic approach to addresses the probable threats from the transfer, handling and use of living modified organisms (LMOs) under the umbrella of Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992 (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Timeline of “The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety”. Key: COP: Conference of the parties; CPB: Cartagena protocol on biosafety; IGC: Intergovernmental committee.
The term “Biosafety” describes the principles, procedures and policies to be adopted to ensure the environmental and personal safety. The convention directs its Contracting Party to take appropriate measures to regulate, manage or control the risks that may arise due to use and handling of LMOs that may pose some threats to biological and to ensure the safe handling, transport and use of LMOs. Recognising the need of biosafety in genetic engineering research, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB) was adopted with the following objectives:
To set up the procedures for safe trans-boundary movement of LMOs.
To harmonise principles and methodology for risk assessment and establish a mechanism for information sharing through the Biosafety Clearing House (BCH) [3, 4].
2.1 Guidelines of CPB
The CPB promotes biosafety through well-defined guidelines for the safe transfer, handling and use of LMOs or GMOs, with a specific focus on regulating transboundary movements of these organisms. These guidelines ensure comprehensive information to take decisions on scientifically sound risk assessments and on the precautionary approach in use of LMOs and/or GMOs.
2.2 India’s initiative on biosafety
In India, Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF) plays the role of the nodal ministry for implementation of Cartagena Protocol and undertakes several initiatives to meet its obligations to the Protocol. It also organised various capacity building programmes to strengthen of the regulatory framework, particularly on transboundary movement of LMOs or genetically modified organisms, risk assessment and its management, training and human resource development and information sharing.
Authorities for implementation of regulations and guidelines in the country [5]
Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee (RDAC)
Review Committee of Genetic Manipulation (RCGM)
Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC)
Institutional Biosafety Committees (IBSC)
State Biosafety Coordination Committees (SBCC)
District Level Committees (DLC)
3. Risk assessment of GM crops
Risk assessment identifies potential hazards and/or adverse impacts of GM crops or derived product on non-target organisms and/or environment. This involves a number of coordinated steps like risk identification, risk characterisation and risk categorisation. The first and foremost practice i.e. risk identification involves identification of risk or possible hazard to the non-target species or the environment, if any, associated with release and use of transgenic or GM crops and associated products. This is followed by overall characterisation of risk i.e., whether its effect are direct or indirect, chronic or acute, immediate or delayed in action, etc. Finally, risk categorisation is done which involvves grouping of identified and well characterised risk under various categories viz., negative health effects on target population; adverse effect on non-target population, the evolution of resistance or resurgence in the targeted pest/pathogen population, flow of transgene to another species, etc. In the process of risk assessment if a potential risk is identified the appropriate measures are taken for its management .
3.1 Steps of risk assessment
4. Risk management in use of GM crops
Risk management involves strategic techniques to reduce the adverse effect of GM crops and associated products on non-target species or environment and also to reduce the chances of development of resistance in target pest population. Several tactics viz. application of alternate or mix insecticides with different modes of action or use of refuge strategy could be effectively employed to minimise the risk of development of insecticidal resistance in insects. These techniques are also helpful in avoiding the problem of resurgence in insects. In Bt crops newer techniques viz. use of alternate or combined Bt toxin or refuge strategy are much rewarding in management of resistance. Similarly, weeds could develop resistance in them following various mechanism viz. modified site of action, detoxification and compartmentalisation. By doing so they rendered the herbicides or weedicides ineffective against them in long run. Thus, to minimise or to prevent the risk of development of herbicide resistant in weeds and evolution of super weed various techniques have been utilised. Rotation of herbicides or using them in combination effectively reduces chances of development of resistance against herbicides in weeds. Crop rotation is another technique that could be used to reduce this risk [6].
5. Conclusion
Modern advances in biotechnology has revolutionalised the way of living particularly in meeting the requirement of food, fodder, fibre and fuel by use of GM crops. However, a group of social activist and environmentalists are always in against of the use of GM crops because of its unprecedented effects on ecosystem and human health. Thus, a scientific debate has been continued for a long time in which the favouring statements are made based on risk assessment and its consecutive management as per the norms and protocols. In addition to this a number of initiatives have already been taken by national as well as international agencies to ensure safety measures in use, handling and transfer of these GM crops. Thus, basically these crops can be commercialised in public domain with adequate care following the defined biosafety measures.
\n',keywords:"biosafety, GMO, Bt-cotton, CBD, health risk",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80533.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80533.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80533",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80533",totalDownloads:52,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"October 5th 2021",dateReviewed:"November 26th 2021",datePrePublished:"February 19th 2022",datePublished:"May 18th 2022",dateFinished:"February 19th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"With the advancement in the field of agricultural biotechnology, many genetically modified crops like Bt- cotton, Bt- brinjal have been developed and commercialised to fulfil the need of the world population. Several biosafety concerns viz., risk to human health, risk to environment, ecological concern o has been raised after the rapid commercialization of GM crops every year across the world. As per Convention on biodiversity (CBD), Biosafety is a term used to describe efforts to reduce and eliminate the potential risk resulting from biotechnology and its product. Though many concerns being raised time to time, strict biosafety guideline must be followed before introducing a GM crop in public domain especially in resource poor developing countries.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80533",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80533",signatures:"Ashutosh Kumar, Banshidhar, Priyanka Jaiswal and Harmeet Singh Janeja",book:{id:"10903",type:"book",title:"Genetically Modified Plants and Beyond",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Genetically Modified Plants and Beyond",slug:"genetically-modified-plants-and-beyond",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",bookSignature:"Idah Sithole Niang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10903.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-876-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-875-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-877-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"90172",title:"Prof.",name:"Idah",middleName:null,surname:"Sithole-Niang",slug:"idah-sithole-niang",fullName:"Idah Sithole-Niang"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"425448",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Ashutosh",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Ashutosh Kumar",slug:"ashutosh-kumar",email:"ashutoshgpb@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"448199",title:"Dr.",name:"Banshidhar",middleName:null,surname:null,fullName:"Banshidhar null",slug:"banshidhar",email:"dummy+448199@intechopen.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"448200",title:"Dr.",name:"Priyanka",middleName:null,surname:"Jaiswal",fullName:"Priyanka Jaiswal",slug:"priyanka-jaiswal",email:"dummy+448200@intechopen.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"448201",title:"Dr.",name:"Harmeet Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Janeja",fullName:"Harmeet Singh Janeja",slug:"harmeet-singh-janeja",email:"dummy+448201@intechopen.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The Cartagena protocol on biosafety",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Guidelines of CPB",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 India’s initiative on biosafety",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Risk assessment of GM crops",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Steps of risk assessment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Risk management in use of GM crops",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Bawa AS, Anilakumar KR. Genetically modified foods: Safety, risks and public concerns—A review. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 2013;50(6):1035-1046'},{id:"B2",body:'Hilbeck A, Meier M, Römbke J, Jänsch S, Teichmann H, Tappeser B. Environmental risk assessment of genetically modified plants-concepts and controversies. Environmental Sciences Europe. 2011;23(1):1-12'},{id:"B3",body:'https://www.cbd.int/doc/publications/bs-brochure-02-en.pdf'},{id:"B4",body:'https://www.icgeb.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/2-The-Cartagena-Protocol-on-Biosafety-Julian-Kinderlerer.pdf'},{id:"B5",body:'https://ibkp.dbtindia.gov.in/DBT_Content_Test/CMS/Guidelines/20181115134719867_Regulations-Guidelines-for-Reocminant-DNA-Research-and-Biocontainment-2017.pdf'},{id:"B6",body:'Prakash D, Verma S, Bhatia R, Tiwary BN. Risks and precautions of genetically modified organisms. In: International Scholarly Research Notices. 2011'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ashutosh Kumar",address:"ashutoshgpb@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
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Definition of Terms:
\n\n
Book - collection of Works distributed in a book format, whose selection, coordination, preparation, and arrangement has been performed and published by IntechOpen, and in which the Work is included in its entirety in an unmodified form along with one or more other contributions, each constituting separate and independent sections, but together assembled into a collective whole.
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Work - a book Chapter (as well as Conference Papers), including any and all content, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of, or accompanying, the Chapter/Conference Paper.
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Attribution – appropriate credit for the used Work or book.
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Creative Commons licenses – enable licensors to retain copyright while allowing others to use their Works in an appropriate way.
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Rules of Attribution for Works Published by IntechOpen
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With the purpose of protecting Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of OA (Open Access) content, IntechOpen has developed Rules of Attribution of Works licensed under Creative Commons licenses.
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All Chapters published in IntechOpen books prior to October 2011 are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0);
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All Chapters published in IntechOpen books after October 2011 are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license (CC BY 3.0);
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In case you reuse or republish any of the Works licensed under CC licenses, you must abide by the guidelines outlined below:
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1. Rules for reusing of books in their entirety or significant parts of books
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All rights to Books and other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen. The Copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a separate Copyright from any that exists in the included Works.
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A Book in its entirety or a significant part of a Book cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Further information can be obtained at permissions@intechopen.com.
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In instances where permission is obtained from the publisher for reusing or republishing the Book, or significant parts of the Book, all of the following conditions apply:
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Information about the first publisher must be provided – please note the fact that the material was originally published by IntechOpen as an OA (Open Access) publication must be acknowledged;
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All original Academic Editor(s) must be credited;
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Since you are reusing content that someone else created and allowed you to use freely, you must credit all Authors involved;
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The type of license that is available for the Works must be indicated, as well as a link to the license provided, so that others can investigate the terms of the license. You will be aware that the material can be used for free in consequence of the CC license attribution, so you must acknowledge that fact. It is not sufficient that the material is Creative Commons, because that says nothing about how the material can actually be used. There are different CC licenses and you have to identify the specific license that is being used;
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Any original Copyright Notices associated, with the Works which constitute the Book must be kept intact;
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Provision of the original title of the Book, as well as the original titles of any individual Works;
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Provision of the URL where the Book is hosted, with a notice to the effect that the Book is an OA (Open Access) publication;
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Provision of the URL to every individual Work which constitutes the Book with a notice that the Work is an OA (Open Access) publication. As the material has been accessed for free, it is incumbent upon you to provide the source so that others can also access it for free.
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Every single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please write to permissions@intechopen.com.
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2. Rules of attribution for works published by IntechOpen
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Individual Works originally published in IntechOpen books are licensed under Creative Commons licenses and can be freely used under terms of the respective CC license, if properly attributed. In order to properly attribute the Work you must respect all the conditions outlined below:
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Credit all Authors – since you are reusing contents that someone created and allowed you to use freely, you have to acknowledge authorship;
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Indicate the type of license under which the Work is available and provide the URL to the license so others can find out the license terms. Preferably keep intact any original Copyright Notice associated with the Chapter (if any). You will be aware that the material can be used for free in consequence of the CC license attribution, so you must acknowledge that fact. It is not sufficient that the material is Creative Commons, because that says nothing about how the material can actually be used. There are different CC licenses and you have to identify the specific license that is being used;
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Provide the URL where the Work is hosted, preferably providing the original title of the Work, as well as the original title of the Book with a notification that the Work is an OA (Open Access) publication. As the material has been accessed for free, it is incumbent upon you to provide the source so that others can also access it for free;
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Provide information about the first publisher – please note the fact that the material was originally published by IntechOpen as an OA (Open Access) Work must be acknowledged.
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Every single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way as described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please contact Us at permissions@intechopen.com.
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In the event that you use more than one of IntechOpen's Works published in one or more books (but not a significant part of the book that is under separate Copyright), each of these have to be properly attributed in the way described.
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IntechOpen does not have any claims on newly created copyrighted Works, but the Works originally published by IntechOpen must be properly attributed.
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All these rules apply to BOTH online and offline use.
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Parts of the Rules of Attribution are based on Work Attributing Creative Commons Materials published by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, in partnership with Creative Commons Australia, which can be found at creativecommons.org.au licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia license, and Best practices for attribution published by Creative Commons, which can be found at wiki.creativecommons.org under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.
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All the above rules are subject to change, IntechOpen reserves the right to take appropriate action if any of the conditions outlined above are not met.
Work - a book Chapter (as well as Conference Papers), including any and all content, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of, or accompanying, the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\n\n
Attribution – appropriate credit for the used Work or book.
\n\n
Creative Commons licenses – enable licensors to retain copyright while allowing others to use their Works in an appropriate way.
\n\n
Rules of Attribution for Works Published by IntechOpen
\n\n
With the purpose of protecting Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of OA (Open Access) content, IntechOpen has developed Rules of Attribution of Works licensed under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\n
\n\t
All Chapters published in IntechOpen books prior to October 2011 are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0);
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All Chapters published in IntechOpen books after October 2011 are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license (CC BY 3.0);
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In case you reuse or republish any of the Works licensed under CC licenses, you must abide by the guidelines outlined below:
\n\n
1. Rules for reusing of books in their entirety or significant parts of books
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All rights to Books and other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen. The Copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a separate Copyright from any that exists in the included Works.
\n\n
A Book in its entirety or a significant part of a Book cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Further information can be obtained at permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\n
In instances where permission is obtained from the publisher for reusing or republishing the Book, or significant parts of the Book, all of the following conditions apply:
\n\n
\n\t
Information about the first publisher must be provided – please note the fact that the material was originally published by IntechOpen as an OA (Open Access) publication must be acknowledged;
\n\t
All original Academic Editor(s) must be credited;
\n\t
Since you are reusing content that someone else created and allowed you to use freely, you must credit all Authors involved;
\n\t
The type of license that is available for the Works must be indicated, as well as a link to the license provided, so that others can investigate the terms of the license. You will be aware that the material can be used for free in consequence of the CC license attribution, so you must acknowledge that fact. It is not sufficient that the material is Creative Commons, because that says nothing about how the material can actually be used. There are different CC licenses and you have to identify the specific license that is being used;
\n\t
Any original Copyright Notices associated, with the Works which constitute the Book must be kept intact;
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Provision of the original title of the Book, as well as the original titles of any individual Works;
\n\t
Provision of the URL where the Book is hosted, with a notice to the effect that the Book is an OA (Open Access) publication;
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Provision of the URL to every individual Work which constitutes the Book with a notice that the Work is an OA (Open Access) publication. As the material has been accessed for free, it is incumbent upon you to provide the source so that others can also access it for free.
\n
\n\n
Every single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please write to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\n
2. Rules of attribution for works published by IntechOpen
\n\n
Individual Works originally published in IntechOpen books are licensed under Creative Commons licenses and can be freely used under terms of the respective CC license, if properly attributed. In order to properly attribute the Work you must respect all the conditions outlined below:
\n\n
\n\t
Credit all Authors – since you are reusing contents that someone created and allowed you to use freely, you have to acknowledge authorship;
\n\t
Indicate the type of license under which the Work is available and provide the URL to the license so others can find out the license terms. Preferably keep intact any original Copyright Notice associated with the Chapter (if any). You will be aware that the material can be used for free in consequence of the CC license attribution, so you must acknowledge that fact. It is not sufficient that the material is Creative Commons, because that says nothing about how the material can actually be used. There are different CC licenses and you have to identify the specific license that is being used;
\n\t
Provide the URL where the Work is hosted, preferably providing the original title of the Work, as well as the original title of the Book with a notification that the Work is an OA (Open Access) publication. As the material has been accessed for free, it is incumbent upon you to provide the source so that others can also access it for free;
\n\t
Provide information about the first publisher – please note the fact that the material was originally published by IntechOpen as an OA (Open Access) Work must be acknowledged.
\n
\n\n
Every single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way as described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please contact Us at permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\n
In the event that you use more than one of IntechOpen's Works published in one or more books (but not a significant part of the book that is under separate Copyright), each of these have to be properly attributed in the way described.
\n\n
IntechOpen does not have any claims on newly created copyrighted Works, but the Works originally published by IntechOpen must be properly attributed.
\n\n
All these rules apply to BOTH online and offline use.
\n\n
Parts of the Rules of Attribution are based on Work Attributing Creative Commons Materials published by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, in partnership with Creative Commons Australia, which can be found at creativecommons.org.au licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia license, and Best practices for attribution published by Creative Commons, which can be found at wiki.creativecommons.org under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.
\n\n
All the above rules are subject to change, IntechOpen reserves the right to take appropriate action if any of the conditions outlined above are not met.
\n\n
Policy last updated: 2016-06-09
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