Sources of earlier visits of the Caribbean Basin by American whaleships.
\r\n\tSolar radiation is the radiant energy that originated from the sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation at various wavelengths. Solar radiation is the source of renewable energy and can be captured and converted into various forms of energy (e.g. electricity and heat) using different technologies.
\r\n\tA very vast amount of solar energy reaches the atmosphere and surface of the earth and solar energy has been used for heating purposes for a very long-time and after solar cells’ invention in 1954, solar cells have also been used widely for electricity generation. Solar cells convert the sunlight into electricity by the creation of voltage and electric current through the so-called photovoltaic effect.
\r\n\tPhotovoltaic (PV) solar energy has attracted significant attention in the recent decade as a reliable source for power generation due to various merits such as the free source of energy, abundant materials resources, environmentally friendly and noise-free, longtime service life, requiring low maintenance, technological advancements, market potential, and very importantly, low cost. The growth of using photovoltaic (PV) solar energy as a promising renewable energy technology, is being increased more and more worldwide. Therefore, much further research is needed for possible future developments in the field of solar photovoltaic energy.
\r\n\tThe aim of this book is to provide detailed information about solar radiation as the source of photovoltaic (PV) solar energy for a broad range of readership including undergraduate and postgraduate students, young or experienced researchers and engineers.
\r\n\tThis should be accomplished by addressing the various technical and practical aspects of solar radiation fundamentals, modeling and the measurement for photovoltaic (PV) solar energy applications.
\r\n\tThe majority of this book should describe the basic, modern, and contemporary knowledge and technology of extraterrestrial and terrestrial solar irradiance for photovoltaic (PV) solar energy.
\r\n\tThe book covers the most recent developments, innovation and applications concerning the following topics:
\r\n\t• Fundamental of solar radiation and photovoltaic solar energy
\r\n\t• Solar radiation and photovoltaic solar energy potential
\r\n\t• Solar irradiance measurement: techniques, instrumentation and uncertainty analysis
\r\n\t• Solar radiation modeling for photovoltaic solar energy applications
\r\n\t• Solar monitoring and data quality assessment
\r\n\t• Solar resource assessment and photovoltaic system performance
\r\n\t• Solar energy and photovoltaic power forecasting
\r\n\tThese are accompanied with other useful research topics and material.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-859-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-858-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-860-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4c3d1319d7286e81bfb15c1f4b20460a",bookSignature:"Dr. Mohammadreza Aghaei",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9862.jpg",keywords:"Solar Radiation Modeling, Solar Data Assessment, Solar Monitoring, Solar Radiation Forecasting, Solar Irradiance Measurements, Solar Instruments, Solar Spectral Distributions, Uncertainty Analysis, Solar Cell Technologies, Photovoltaics (PV), Solar Resource Assessment, Photovoltaics Power Forecasting",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 17th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 15th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 14th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 4th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 3rd 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A senior researcher in the field of photovoltaic solar energy, a postdoctoral scientist at Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e), Chair of the WG2: reliability and durability of PV in EU COST PEARL PV.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"317230",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammadreza",middleName:null,surname:"Aghaei",slug:"mohammadreza-aghaei",fullName:"Mohammadreza Aghaei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317230/images/system/317230.jpg",biography:"Mohammadreza Aghaei is a senior researcher in the field of photovoltaic solar energy, Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e), The Netherlands. He is chair of the Working Group 2: reliability and durability of PV in European Cooperation in Science and Technology, COST Action PEARL PV.\nHe received the M.S. degree in electrical engineering from the Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN), Selangor, Malaysia, in 2013, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy, in 2016.\nHe was a Postdoctoral Scientist with Fraunhofer ISE and Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin (HZB)-PVcomB, Germany, in 2017 and 2018, respectively. He is a Guest Scientist with the Department of Microsystems Engineering (IMTEK), Solar Energy Engineering, University of Freiburg since 2017. He is currently a Postdoctoral Scientist with the Design of Sustainable Energy Systems Group, Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e), The Netherlands. He has authored numerous publications in international refereed journals, book chapters, and conference proceedings. The main his research interests include Solar Energy, Photovoltaic systems, PV monitoring, LSC PV, solar cells, machine learning, and UAVs.\nDr. Aghaei is a member of the International Energy Agency, PVPS program-Task 13 and International Solar Energy Society, and also an MC member in EU COST Action PEARL PV.",institutionString:"Eindhoven University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Eindhoven University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Netherlands"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"10",title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247865",firstName:"Jasna",lastName:"Bozic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247865/images/7225_n.jpg",email:"jasna.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"40760",title:"Yankee Whaling in the Caribbean Basin: Its Impact in a Historical Context",doi:"10.5772/50792",slug:"yankee-whaling-in-the-caribbean-basin-its-impact-in-a-historical-context",body:'Utilization of marine mammals in general and of whales in particularhas varied greatly across historical periods and geographical locations. From prehistoric times (e.g., Stringer et al. 2008), the use of these animals was opportunistic by taking advantage of animals either beached (animals arrived dead on the coast) or stranded (animals arrived live on the coast). Later shore whaling (active whaling using small boats launched from the coast for a few hours) took place, and later came the development of industrial whaling, which engaged larger vessels embarked in whaling expeditions that might have lasted up to several years at a time. The heyday of industrial whaling took place during the mid-nineteenth century and was epitomized by Yankee whaling (Sanderson 1993).
For the purposes of this chapter, I define Yankee whaling as an offshore fishery carried out by American whaling vessels between 1712 and 1925 (Starbuck 1876, p. 20; Hegarty 1959, p. 47). The geographical area considered as Caribbean Basin for the purpose of this chapter is defined as all the coasts (clockwise) of Venezuela, northern Colombia, eastern Central America, the Yucatán Peninsula, and all of the coasts of the Antilles from Cuba down to Trinidad including the Bahamas and Bermuda. The Bahamas are commonly included as part of the Caribbean Basin from a geological and cultural viewpoint. Bermuda, although being geographically an oceanic island in the western North Atlantic, has cultural ties to many of the Caribbean Basin countries including being the springboard for numerous whaling operations in the region (Romero 2006).
The aim of this chapter is to describe Yankee whaling in the Caribbean Basin in a historical context to understand its development, cultural, and ecological impact.
As a general source of data on Yankee whaling expeditions I used Lund (2001). Of the known 14,864 voyages of Yankee whalers there were at least 1101 voyages to the North Atlantic of which 454 were voyages to the Caribbean Basin (including Bermuda). Many of those voyages included whaling operations in more than one location in the Caribbean. All information about those voyages was tabulated by vessel name, year of departure, and locality visited. Many of the logbooks of the vessels involved in this activity were examined at the New Bedford Whaling Museum, the Free Public Library, New Bedford, and the Providence Public Library. Other information of this activity for this area was compiled from numerous sources cited throughout this chapter.
The places visited by Yankee whalers and the numbers of visits per locality are shown in Figure 1. Barbados and Bermuda are the places most visited by Yankee whaling vessels.
Places visited by Yankee whalers and their frequency.
The frequency with which that activity took place is shown in Figure 2. To that figure other historical information was added in order to put the activity in historical context. That context is interpreted in the Discussion section.
I combined this information with other historical records of the political, economic and social circumstances that might have influenced whaling in that geographic area. This chapter shows how a holistic description of a whaling activity requires understanding of the interplay among numerous factors.
Native Americans exploited cetaceans and other marine mammals in the Caribbean Basin since before the arrival of the Europeans (Acosta 1590, Romero et al. 1997, Romero and Hayford 2000, Romero et al. 2002). The first whaling operations in this area, as defined earlier by Europeans or people of European descent, were in Bermuda. As soon the first English colonists arrived in those islands in 1609 they tried to hunt humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) but it was not until 1663 when the first successful attempt took place in those waters (Romero 2006).
The earliest record of an attempt to whale in the Caribbean Basin area by New Englanders was in 1688 when there was a petition to the Governor of New York asking for permission to carry on “a fishing Design about the Bohames Islands and Cap florida for sperma Coeti whales and Racks: And so to returned for this Port” (Starbuck 1876, p. 15). The term “sperma Coeti”refers to the sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) and “Racks” was a spelling used in the seventeenth century for wrecks. Although there is no record that this expedition ever took place, this is an interesting record because it is dated 24 years before the first actual successful hunt of a sperm whale took place by New Englanders in 1712 near Nantucket (Hawes 1924, p. 57).
The earliest known logbook that refers to a successful Yankee whaling expedition to the Caribbean Basin is that of Two Brothers, from Nantucket, MA. This brig visited Barbados in 1775 (logbook at the New Bedford Whaling Museum under the former collection of the Kendall Whaling Museum). The last one was of the schooner Athlete out of New Bedford that visited St. Thomas in 1921. Yet, there are indications that some Yankee whalers had been visiting the area for many years before that (Clark 1887, p. 64-65) (see Table 1).
Year | Locality | Source(s) |
1730’s | Bahamas | Sanderson 1993, pp. 212-213 |
1750-1784 | Bahamas | Tower 1907, p. 33 |
1762 | “French West Indies” | Starbuck 1876, p. 41 |
1762 | “Bermuda Ground” | Stackpole 1953, p. 50, Lund 2001, p. 651 |
1762 | Barbados | Stackpole 1953, p. 51 |
1763 | Barbados | Stackpole 1953, p. 23 |
1768 | “West Indies” | Stackpole 1953, p. 48-49 |
1775 | St. Eustatius, Barbados | Stackpole 1953, p. 73 |
Sources of earlier visits of the Caribbean Basin by American whaleships.
Although occasional expeditions also took place primarily between 1830 and 1860, the heyday of Yankee whaling in the Caribbean Basin occurred roughly between 1860 and 1880. Below is the narrative of how Yankee whaling interplayed with the majority of the countries visited.
American whaling vessels frequently visited Barbados. This island has the largest number of visits registered in this study. Yankee whalers engaged in whaling and the trans-shipment of whale oil and utilized Barbadian ports for the re-stocking of provisions. Additionally, some Yankee whaling vessels were taken there after being captured by British vessels during the British-American War (1812-1815); others were simply abandoned there. This provided ample opportunity for Barbadians to have direct contact with whalers and to acquire whaling skills. For example, an unspecified number of locals joined Yankee whaling vessel crews in order to fulfill the need for hands on board because of death and desertion. Since Yankee whalers recruited many Barbadians, they gained the necessary skills to hunt whales they later applied to shore whaling after returning to Barbados. The combination of Yankee and shore whaling led to the local extinction of humpback whales in those waters (Romero and Creswell 2010 and references therein).
There are very few traces of intense contact between Bermudans and Yankee whalers. That was due to a combination of factors: (1) Bermuda was a stronghold of the British during the Revolutionary War, which made its waters off-limits to New Englanders; (2) during the British-American war of 1812, the English utilized Bermuda as a major base for their naval operations and any American vessel in those waters (whaler or otherwise) was captured and taken there; (3) during the American Civil War Bermudans who had historical ties with the South, particularly Virginia and the Carolinas, sided with the confederates, making of Bermudan waters hostile territory to Yankee whalers and (4) by the time of the heyday of Yankee whaling the local populations of humpbacks were already severely depleted since shore whaling began around 1663 in those waters.
Thus, despite the overall large number of Yankee whalers visiting Bermuda, it seems that those visits were more a matter of convenience for obtaining provisions for ships either heading to the Eastern Atlantic grounds or heading south to the Caribbean. My survey of archival material in Bermuda yielded no information about relationships between Yankee whalers and the locals (Romero 2009).
Activities by Yankee whaling ships for Trinidad and Tobago have been summarized elsewhere (Romero et al. 2002). All indications are that there was never much interaction between Yankee and land-based whalers. Yankee whaling in the area did not start until the 1830s, when their Trinidadian counterparts were already fully engaged in whale hunting. If anything, Yankee whaling may have furthered the whale population decline since humpbacks are virtually extinct in that area at the present time.
Yankee whalers began whaling in the waters of SVG in the early 1800’s and their activity peaked in 1864. They hunted humpback, sperm, and short-finned pilot whales (Globicephala macrorhynchus). Both pilot and humpback whales were chosen as target species because of the seemingly abundant populations and the products that can be extracted from them. Humpback whales produce a high volume of oil (approximately 25 barrels per adult animal), whereas pilot whales produce two types of oils: one from the blubber and one from the melon (a bulbous area located on the head of the animal). Oil from the latter is of high quality as characterized by its ability to retain stable physical/chemical properties under conditions of extreme temperature and pressure. This oil was used to lubricate precision instruments and was exported to the United States. In addition, local residents utilized the oil from both species as well as other body parts for either human consumption of the meat or for the manufacturing of some goods. Sperm whale hunting did not persist because the demand for its oil declined and the meat was considered inedible. In addition, local fishermen found that sperm whales were difficult and dangerous to catch.
From archival records there were 25 were voyages to SVG for whaling, that took place between 1864 and 1886. In the 10 logbooks I examined 196entries (daily records kept by the captain or designated crew member) regarding whale hunting. These entries documented that Yankee whalers sighted whales and lowered their boats 117 times. Of those attempts, 34.2% were successful at harpooning one or more humpback whales, but only 40 whales were landed. At least six of those landings were mother/calf pairs. Nine whales were hit but lost. With the addition kill/loss correction factor, Yankee whalers killed an estimated 75 humpback whales between 1864 and 1871.
The local residents adopted boat designs and equipment from Yankee whalers for shore whaling. In addition, terminology of the Yankee whalers such as ‘sea-guaps’ for sperm whales and ‘blackfish’ for short-finned pilot whales are names still used locally today. Cultural influence on SVG whalers by Yankee whalers can also be seen in the transfer of New England whaling shanties, or songs that helped the whalers keep rowing rhythm (Kannada 2006 and references therein).
This island was occasionally visited by Yankee whalers and sometimes was used as a base for their whaling. These vessels mostly pursued humpbacks, but occasionally took some short-finned pilot whales (Reeves, 1988). The last report of Yankee whaling for St. Lucia is dated 1883 (Reeves and Smith, 2002).
The presence of Yankee whalers was not uncommon in Grenadian waters during the second half of the nineteenth century. In the early months of 1857 as many as eight American whalers might have been seen anchored off St. George’s, Grenada’s capital, with their boats fully employed. Whaling ships primarily hunted humpbacks, but occasionally landed sperm whales, and a high percentage of their catch was cow-calf pairs. The ships provided whale meat to the local market of Grenada and the neighboring southern Grenadines (Romero and Hayford, 2000, and references therein).
Yankee whalers visited the area of the Gulf of Paria, between Venezuela and Trinidad, between 1837 and 1871 but may also have visited other localities and at other times. They predominantly hunted humpbacks, but occasionally they would strike a sperm whale or a ‘blackfish,’ (G. macrorhynchus). Yankee whalers also visited other coastal areas in eastern Venezuela. Since data are incomplete, the only quantitative statement I can make, based on the summary provided by Reeves et al. (2001), is that Yankee whalers, captured at least 25 whales, during at least nine whaling voyages. There was very little, if any, interaction between the whaling crews and Venezuelans. Therefore, there is no evidence that they ever influenced any marine mammal exploitation practice in Venezuela. Further, the presence of Yankee whaling ships created some stir in the local press, because the locals saw this operation as a breach of their national sovereignty (Romero et al 1997 and references therein).
Fig. 2 shows Yankee whaling activity based on tonnage (blue line), number of trips to the Caribbean Basin (red line), and the historical factors that contributed to the fluctuation in the intensity of Yankee whaling overall. The first noticeable aspect between Yankee whaling activities in general with that in the Caribbean Basin is the asynchrony between the two. While Yankee whaling intensity reached a peak between the U.S. industrial boom of the 1830s and the industrial exploitation of mineral oil in the early 1860s, the expansion of the Yankee whaling activity in the Caribbean Basin took place between the mid 1860’s and the mid 1870s. Therefore we need to examine economic factors to understand this phenomenon.
Total activity of Yankee whaling by tonnage (blue line) and by number of trips to the Caribbean basin (red line). There is an asynchrony between the two suggesting that the Yankee whaling activity in the West Indies was a marginal operation that took place after the traditional whaling grounds had been depleted. Arrows represent historical events to give a context to better understand how political and economic factors influenced these activities in general.
First we need to recognize that Yankee whalers shifted both whaling grounds and species targets as resourses became scarcer in different geographic areas. Romero and Kannada (2006), using historical catch records, report that populations of bowhead (Balaena mysticetus) and right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) in the North Atlantic became severely depleted by the 19th century. This depletion caused Yankee whalers to seek new hunting grounds in the Caribbean. Yet that happened shortly after substitute products such as kerosene and mineral oil became available in the market making. As a consequence the demand for whale oil declined as soon as subsurface mineral oil was discovered at Titusville, Pennsylvania, in 1859 (Coleman 1995). Although there was again an increase in the price of whale oil during the American Civil War (1861-1865) due to increased demand, whale oil prices declined severely after that.
The Yankee whale oil industry responded by trying to lower their production costs that were becoming higher as their vessels had to navigate to more difficult grounds. To that end they tried to make their operations more efficient by improving whaling technology with the introduction of the exploding harpoon head in 1864 and by reducing labor costs by hiring more and more crews from countries in the Caribbean Basin, particularly English-speaking ones. By this time, whalers were earning one-third to one-half of what merchant seamen earned and one-fifth of a shore laborer (Coleman 1995).
Thus a combination of the depletion of whale stocks in the historical whaling grounds of the North Atlantic together with lower labor costs by hiring natives from the West Indies shifted Yankee whaling activities to the Caribbean basin (and later to Artic and Antarctic waters). As Brandt (1940, p. 54) put it “Slowly the crews had to be composed more and more of halfcastes from all parts of the West Indies and of Central and South America.”
These circumstances increased interaction between Yankee whalers and West Indies locals, which led to both technology transfer to the countries they were recruiting crews and depletion of local populations of whales, particularly humpbacks. Yet, the cultural influence of Yankee whalers on that part of the world was uneven. The large number of voyages to Barbados and Bermuda may be due not only to the presence of whales in those waters, but also because (1) Barbados is the first island a ship traveling from the east Atlantic encounters when sailing with the aid of the trade winds and (2) Bermuda is the only island between the North American continent and other whaling grounds in the eastern Caribbean such and Cape Verde.
Yet, by the time Yankee whalers initiated a significant activity in the Caribbean Basin, two localities –both under British sovereignty at that time: Bermuda and Trinidad and Tobago has already developed a local shore whaling industry: Bermuda in 1663 (Romero 2006) and Trinidad in the 1820’s (Romero et al., 2002). This contradicts the generalization made by Caldwell & Caldwell (1971) that Yankee whalers directly influenced shore whaling in the Caribbean.
Yankee whaling activity in Trinidad and Tobago have been summarized elsewhere (Reeves et al., 2001, Reeves and Smith, 2002). All available data indicate that there was never much interaction between Yankee and the already established shore whaling industry of Trinidad. Yankee whaling in the area did not start until the 1830s, when Trinidadian shore whaling was already in full swing. In fact, the owners of one of the whaling stations in Trinidad asked the Governor of the Island to refuse authorization for the American Schooner Harmony, of Nantucket, to whale in the Gulf of Paria, for fear of competition (de Verteuil, 1994). It is not known how the Governor decided in this matter. Still some Yankee whaling vessels continued occasionally visiting Trinidad’s waters until at least 1867. There are records of Yankee whaling ships visiting Tobago waters during 1877, although it is unclear whether or not they actually captured any whales (Reeves and Smith, 2002).
Yet, in other places such as SVG, the story was different. Despite the fact that the number of voyages by Yankee whalers these and other surrounding islands was relatively low in comparison to those to Bermuda and Barbados, their cultural influence in undeniable. For example, a SVG resident named William Wallace took interest in whaling and participated as a crewmember on several Yankee whaling expeditions. He later left Bequia and moved to New Bedford, Massachusetts, the center of the Yankee whaling fleet. While in New Bedford, he learned whaleboat design, tool production and maintenance, and hunting methods. Upon returning to SVG, he applied this new knowledge and began whaling. Whaling represented an opportunity for economic development for men of European ancestry returning to an impoverished island. Thus, the development of the whaling industry in SVG was the result of cultural contacts rather than a direct correlation of intensity of Yankee whaling operations in those waters (Kannada 2006).
The reason why Yankee whalers did not intensively exploit whales in SVG had to do with yield per unit of effort. The efficiency with which Yankee whalers caught whales in SVG was less than ideal: 38.5 % success rate (killing and hauling in). This was probably due to the limitations of the boats, which were rowboats, and the inaccuracy of hand-thrown harpoons. It seems that landing a humpback whale was a difficult task. These same limitations may have played a role in Yankee whaler’s choice not to hunt pilot whales unless times were desperate. In contrast to the large, slow moving, and obvious humpback whales; the short-finned pilot whales are small and quick. Chasing after the smaller and faster pilot whales would have been extremely costly in terms of time and profit potential (Kannada 2006).
Prior to the 1986 International Whaling Commission (IWC) moratorium on commercial whaling, SVG and the rest of the world for that matter, whaled without regard to depletion issues. Despite a negative correlation between global oil value and the number of humpback whales caught in SVG, it is unlikely that the global market drove the industry. SVG exported oil and meat of humpback whales to neighboring countries in only small quantities. It is more likely that the persistence of the humpback whale fishery in SVG was due to local tradition and local demand for whale products as there are no longer exports of these products outside the country. The SVG market followed the typical supply and demand curve in that as the amount of humpback whale oil became available, the less it cost which lead to a higher demand for the product. Since the late 1930’s, there has been little fluctuation in the number of humpback whales killed and that number has remained low (no more than 4 killed in any one year) (Kannada 2006).
The intensification of Yankee whaling in the Caribbean was due to a combination of factors such as (1) depletion of stock whales in traditional whaling grounds of the North Atlantic and (2) higher costs of whaling which led to the search of lower labor costs by hiring crews in the West Indies, particularly given that wages for crews of merchant vessels and shore industries were higher.
The discovery and development of a replacement commodity (mineral oil) together with the increase risks of investment on the whaling activity due to longer and longer voyages would ultimately signify the end of whale oil as a major commercial commodity.
The bulk of Yankee whaling in the Caribbean Basin was short-lived and out of sync with the heyday of Yankee whaling. It concentrated in the southeastern Caribbean most likely because of the abundance of humpback whales in that area. The cultural influence of Yankee whalers varied by location mostly determined on whether or not their arrival took place before the development of local shore whaling. Therefore, a combination of factors, including whale stocks, political events, and labor and other economic and social issues influenced Yankee whaling activities in the Caribbean.
Both Yankee whaling and local shore whaling led to the depletion of humpbacks in the Caribbean Basin as it has been quantified elsewhere (Swartz et al. 2003, Smith and Reeves 2003).
Wave breaking is one of the most important process for coastal engineers since it greatly influences both the transport processes and the magnitudes of the forces on coastal structures [1, 2]. Wave breaking in the surf zone drives complicated turbulent structures and for this reason breaking is possibly the most difficult wave phenomenon to describe mathematically [3, 4, 5].
Pioneering experimental studies were carried out by [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11], who described the velocity field under plunging breakers in the outer region of the surf zone; more recently by [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. As observed experimentally by [18], during the pre-breaking stages, the maximum turbulence intensity appears at the core of the main vortex and decreases as the vortex moves downstream. Additional turbulence is then generated near the free surface during the breaking process.
Moreover, the difficulties of measuring velocity due to the existence of air bubbles entrained by the plunging jet have hindered many experimental studies on wave breaking encouraging the development of numerical model as useful tool to assisting in the interpretation and even the discovery of new phenomena. One of the great advantages of the numerical models is their ability to disclose the evolutions of undertow currents and turbulence quantities in the spatial and temporal domains, which are too expensive to be investigated by experiments. Therefore, the main emphasis for research is placed on the application and development of numerical methods. Furthermore, for consistent and accurate results, it is essential to calibrate the numerical models with experimental data.
The numerical models can be classified as Eulerian or Lagrangian method. In Eulerian method, the space is discretized into a grid or mesh and the unknown values are defined at the fix points, while a Lagrangian method tracks the pathway of each moving mass point. The Eulerian methods such as the finite difference methods (FDM), finite volume methods (FVM) and the finite element methods (FEM) have been widely applied in many fields of engineering because are very useful to solve differential or partial differential equations (PDEs) that govern the concerned physical phenomena [19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. Despite the great success, grid based numerical methods suffer from difficulties in some aspects such as the use of grid/mesh makes the treatment of discontinuities (e.g., wave breaking, cracking and contact/separation) difficult because the path of discontinuities may not coincide with the mesh lines.
Therefore, during the last years, research has been focused on Lagrangian techniques such as Discrete Element Method (DEM) [24], Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) [25], Immersed Particle Method (IPM) [26, 27]. The development and applications of the major existing Lagrangian methods have been addressed in some review articles such as [28, 29, 30]. In general, the Lagrangian methods provide accurate and stable numerical solutions for integral equations or partial differential equations (PDEs) with all kinds of possible boundary conditions using a set of arbitrarily distributed nodes or particles. During the last years, Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) has become a very powerful method for CFD problems governed by the Navier–Stokes equations such as fluid-dynamic problems with highly non-linear deformation [31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37]; multi-phase flows for coastal and other hydraulic applications with air-water mixture sand sediment scouring [38, 39, 40, 41, 42]; oscillating jets inducing breaking waves [43] and nonbuoyant jets in a wave environment [44, 45, 46]; fluid/structure/soil-interaction [47, 48, 49]; hydraulic jumps [50, 51, 52, 53]; multi-phase flows and oil spill [54, 55].
The present chapter is organized as follows. First, an WCSPH method is developed using the RANS equations and a two-equation k–ε model is formulated using the particle approach. Then the numerical model is employed to reproduce breaking in spilling and plunging waves in a sloped wave channel. The experimental data by [14] are used to check the model results. This reveals the importance of experimental data in these studies. The present chapter is aimed to describe some recent results obtained within the frame of numerical and experimental analyses of wave breaking. The new insight is the investigation of the ability of WCSPH with a k–ε turbulence closure model to disclose the turbulence dispersion and the temporal and spatial evolutions of turbulence quantities in different types of breakers.
A Lagrangian numerical model is developed to solve free surface turbulent flows. The flow field is governed by the Reynolds Averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations and the k–ε turbulence equations [56]. These equations are solved by the WCSPH method in which an artificial compressibility is introduced to solve explicitly in time the equations of motion of an incompressible fluid.
Using the SPH approach, the fluid flow domain is initially represented by a finite number of particles. These particles can be viewed as moving numerical nodes, which move according to the governing equations and boundary conditions. Each discrete point is associated to an elementary fluid volume (or particle) i, which has position xi and constant mass mi.
To find the value of
where ρ is the fluid density, and the summation is extended to all the N particles located inside the sphere of radius 2η centered on
Dehnen and Aly [60] showed that the Wendland kernel function [61] is more computationally convenient than the B-spline function, allowing better numerical convergence; Liu and Liu [62] showed that the quintic-spline function [63] is more effective in interpolating the second-order derivatives. The SPH computations discussed in the present paper were based on the cubic-spline kernel function proposed by [64] that is more effective in the simulation of several different hydraulic flows [65, 66].
The advantage of SPH approach is that differential operator applied to
For further details on the different methods for SPH approximations of all the vector operators, the reader can see [67, 68]. In a Lagrangian frame, the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations and the k–ε turbulence equations take the following form
where v = (u, v) is the velocity vector, p is pressure, g is the gravity acceleration vector, T is the turbulent shear stress tensor, c is the speed of sound in the weakly compressible fluid, μT is the dynamic eddy viscosity, S is rate-of-strain tensor and the subscript 0 denotes a reference state for pressure computation.
The RANS equations (3) in the SPH semi-discrete form become
where Wij is a shorthand notation for
The momentum equation is then solved to yield an intermediate velocity field
using a velocity smoothing coefficient φv. The corrected velocity value is then used to update the particle position and to solve the continuity equation. The new density values are finally used to compute pressure, according to the equation of state.
A pressure smoothing procedure is also applied to the difference between the local and the hydrostatic pressure values [71] in order to reduce the numerical noise in pressure evaluation which is present, in particular in WCSPH, owing to high frequency acoustic signals [72]. The present method is applied only to the difference between the intermediate pressure field
The eddy viscosity coefficient
where ki is the turbulent kinetic energy per unit mass, ε is the dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy, Pk is the production of turbulent kinetic energy depending on the local rate of deformation and
According to Eq. (6) both the production term and dissipation term for ε become singular when k approaches zero. Furthermore, no turbulence energy can be produced if there is no turbulent kinetic energy initially. Thus, it is necessary to “seed” a small amount of k in both the initial condition and inflow boundary condition. In this paper the initial seeding of turbulent kinetic energy recommended by [75] is adopted.
The results obtained from the numerical model outlined in the previous section have been validated against extensive experimental data [14], and then used to obtain further insight in the physics of the flow here analyzed.
The detailed experimental setup has been given in De Serio and Mossa [14]. Here only some important parameters are summarized.
Experiment was carried out in the wave flume 45 m long and 1 m wide of the Department of Civil, Environmental, Land, Building Engineering and Chemistry (DICATECh) of the Polytechnic University of Bari (Italy). A beach with constant slope of 1/20 is connected to a region with constant water depth of h = 0.7 m. The wave generating system is a piston-type one, with paddles producing the desired wave by providing a translation of the water mass, according to the proper input signal. The instantaneous Eulerian velocities were acquired by a backscatter, two-component, four beam Laser Doppler Anemometer (LDA) system and a Dantec LDA signal processor (58 N40 FVA Enhanced) based on the covariance technique. The wave elevations were measured with a resistance probe placed in the transversal section of the channel crossing the laser measuring volume.
Figure 1a–f show the different parts of the complex experimental apparatus, which comprises the LDA system, the resistance wave gauge system and the wavemaker system. Further details about the experimental tests can be found in [14].
Experimental apparatus: (a) LDA probe; (b) DANTEC FVA signal processor and process computer; (c) laser coherent Innova and Dantec 2D fiber flow optics; (d) process computer with a AD/DA board for the wavemaker control; (e) a part of the wave channel; (f) the wavemaker.
A sketch view of the experimental setup is shown in Figure 2.
Sketch view of experimental setup.
Table 1 shows the main parameters of the examined waves listed for each experiment, such as the offshore wave height H0, the wave period T and the deepwater wavelength L0, estimated in section 76, where the bottom is flat and the mean water depth h is equal to 0.70 m. In the experiments, the regular wave had a height H0 = 11 cm and a period T = 2.0 s for the spilling breaker case (T1), while H0 = 6.5 cm and T = 4.0 s were used to generate a plunging breaker (T2). Table 1 shows also the Irribarren number ξ0, computed for the two tests from the following equation
H0 (cm) | T (s) | L0 (m) | d (m) | ξ0 | Breaking type | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T1 | 11 | 2 | 4.62 | 0.70 | 0.37 | Spilling/plunging |
T2 | 6.5 | 4 | 10.12 | 0.70 | 0.74 | Plunging |
Experimental parameters of the analyzed regular waves.
in which β is the bottom slope angle.
Water surface elevations and velocities were measured at six different sections along the longitudinal axis of symmetry of the wave channel named 76, 55, 49, 48, 47, 46 and 45 (see Table 2). Specifically, for all two tests, section 48 was in the pre-breaking region, section 47 was where the incipient breaking occurred, while in sections 46 and 45, the wave re-arranged into a bore.
Investigated section | Distance from paddles (m) | d (cm) |
---|---|---|
Section 76 | 10.56 | 70.0 |
Section 55 | 19.80 | 31.0 |
Section 49 | 22.44 | 16.5 |
Section 48 | 22.88 | 14.0 |
Section 47 | 23.32 | 11.3 |
Section 45 | 24.20 | 8.5 |
Location of measurement sections.
The WCSPH method coupled with a k–ε turbulence model has been employed to reproduce the above experiment. The computational domain has been reduced to be 20.0 m long so as to save computing expenses (Figure 3).
Sketch of the computational domain wave channel with location of the seven investigated sections, used to calibrate the numerical model.
The adopted offshore boundary condition guarantees a regular development of the wave train before the sloping section of the channel and, therefore, does not influence the quality of the numerical solution, as shown by [32].
For both the two tests, the offshore boundary condition has been treated as dynamic boundary condition modeled by a numerical wave paddle also composed of ghost particles whose motion has been forced to obtain the frequency and amplitude of the wave paddle needed to generate the desired sinusoidal wave [76]. The initial water depth was set equal to 0.70 m. In the present simulations, the initial particle spacing Σ = 0.022 m, the value of η/Σ = 1.5 and
The instantaneous SPH particle distribution and velocity magnitude snapshots of the breaking wave are shown in Figures 4a–e and 5a–e, respectively, for the spilling and plunging breakers. These results show that the general features of wave breaking, collapsing and a turbulent bore propagating have been well captured by the SPH computations.
Instantaneous SPH velocity field in the SPH simulation of spilling wave (T1): (a) before; (b)–(c) during and (d)–(e) after breaking.
Instantaneous SPH velocity field in the SPH simulation of plunging wave (T2): (a) before; (b)–(c) during and (d)–(e) after breaking.
In order to further verify the accuracy of the SPH model the time series of wave elevations, horizontal and vertical velocities at the investigated sections (Figure 3) have been compared with the experimental data of De Serio and Mossa [14]. As an example, in Figure 6a–c both laboratory and numerical wave surface elevations, and velocities at vertical sections 48 and 45 are plotted for T1, referring to the point located at 1 cm from the bottom. The agreement between the calibrated numerical results and the laboratory measurements is fairly good.
Instantaneous computed and measured (a) wave elevations, (b) horizontal and (c) vertical velocities in section 48 and section 45 for T1.
One of the great advantages of the numerical models is their ability to show the evolutions of vorticity and turbulence quantities in the spatial and temporal domains, which are too expensive to be investigated by experiments. Using the SPH computational results, the turbulent kinetic energy distributions are shown in Figures 7a–e and 8a–e, respectively, for the spilling (T1) and plunging (T2) waves. For both breakers, the turbulence quantity has the largest values near the free surface and decreases into the water column. However, the results highlight that there exist fundamental differences in the dynamics of turbulence between the spilling and plunging breakers, which can be related to the processes of wave breaking production.
Instantaneous turbulence intensity distributions in the SPH simulation of spilling wave (T1): (a) before; (b)–(c) during and (d)–(e) after breaking.
Instantaneous turbulence intensity distributions in the SPH simulation of plunging wave (T2): (a) before; (b)–(c) during and (d)–(e) after breaking.
For the spilling wave (T1), higher turbulence levels are mainly concentrated in the breaking wave front and the highest turbulence level appears in the roller region (Figure 7d). After the breaking, as the wave propagates forward, the turbulence kinetic energy decreases (Figure 7e). Instead, the turbulence levels increase rapidly after the wave breaking for the plunging case (T2) as shown in Figure 8c–e. The maximum turbulence level is generated as the plunging jet touches down on the wave trough (Figure 8d) in sections 46–45 (Figure 2); After the breaking, the roller continues to spread downwards and therefore high turbulence levels are generated beneath the free surface after breaking (Figure 8e).
Using the SPH computational results, the vorticity maps are shown in Figures 9a–e and 10a–e, respectively, for the spilling and plunging waves. Vorticity is defined as
Instantaneous values of ω distributions in the SPH simulation of spilling wave (T1): (a) before; (b)–(c) during and (d)–(e) after breaking.
Instantaneous values of ω distributions in the SPH simulation of spilling wave (T2): (a) before; (b)–(c) during and (d)–(e) after breaking.
and is computed using instantaneous values of the horizontal and vertical velocity.
As noted by several authors [77, 78], for both breakers (T1 and T2), when the breaking begins, positive vorticity occupies the whole region of the surface roller and spreads out over the whole water column. However, the vorticity levels increase rapidly after the wave breaking for the plunging case (T2) due to the strong impingement of the jet on the forward trough, inducing a propagation of the positive vorticity towards the bottom (Figure 10c–e).
Moreover, the results highlight that there exist differences in the dynamics of vorticity between the spilling and plunging breakers. In fact, only during spilling formation (T1), small structures of negative vorticity are generated, instead when the plunging breaker (T2) occurs the fluid is relatively free of negative vorticity regions.
Figures 11 and 12 show the comparison between the instantaneous map of vorticity and of the surface parallel convective acceleration for the spilling and plunging waves (T1 and T2) when the breaking begins at time step of Figures 9b and 10b, respectively. The surface parallel convective acceleration here has been computed following [79]. As noted by Dabiry and Gharib [80], for both breakers (T1 and T2), a flow deceleration (Figures 11b and 12b) occurs in the same location where peaks of positive vorticity appear (Figures 11a and 12a). Therefore, the present results confirm the findings by Dabiri and Gharib [80] that the vorticity is convected due to the sharp velocity gradient of the fluid near the free surface with respect to the fluid below.
SPH simulation of spilling wave (T1): (a) Vorticity map and (b) surface-parallel convective acceleration map.
SPH simulation of plunging wave (T2): (a) Vorticity map and (b) surface-parallel convective acceleration map.
In the present chapter a WCSPH method has been developed using the RANS equations and a two-equation k–ε model has been formulated using the particle approach. Then the numerical model has been employed to reproduce breaking in spilling and plunging waves in a sloped wave channel. The experimental data by [14] have been used to check the model results. Finally, we have fully exploited the advantages of numerical modeling to disclose fundamental differences between the different types of breakers by investigating the temporal and spatial evolutions of turbulence quantities and vorticity field.
For the spilling wave (T1), during the pre-breaking and breaking stages, the maximum turbulence intensity has been generated near the free surface and decreases as the vortex moves downstream. Instead, the turbulence levels increased rapidly after the wave breaking for the plunging case (T2). In fact, the maximum turbulence level was generated as the plunging jet touches down on the wave trough and after the breaking, the roller continued to spread downwards and therefore high turbulence levels were generated beneath the free surface after breaking.
For both breakers (T1 and T2), analyzing the instantaneous vorticity distributions, when the breaking begins, positive vorticity has occupied the whole region of the surface roller and has spread out over the whole water column. However, only during spilling formation (T1), small structures of negative vorticity have been generated, instead when the plunging breaker (T2) occurs the fluid was relatively free of negative vorticity regions.
Furthermore, comparing the instantaneous map of vorticity and of the surface parallel convective acceleration for the spilling and plunging waves (T1 and T2), the present results confirmed the findings by Dabiri and Gharib [80] that the vorticity was convected due to the sharp velocity gradient of the fluid near the free surface with respect to the fluid below.
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