List of notable chemical characterisations of biochar.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10494",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Erythrocyte - A Peripheral Biomarker For Infection and Inflammation",title:"Erythrocyte",subtitle:"A Peripheral Biomarker For Infection and Inflammation",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In addition to carrying haemoglobin for gas exchange, red blood cells (RBCs) or erythrocytes contain a number of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates, making them capable of acting as peripheral biomarkers for many pathological conditions. Early identification of key changes in erythrocytes in response to inflammatory or infectious diseases saves millions of lives worldwide. As such, this book examines the role of RBCs in immunology. Chapters cover such topics as an iron deficiency in erythrocytes, the modulation of oxidative stress (OS) in erythrocytes in bacterial and viral infections, using human foetal astrocytes (HFAs) as an experimental model to measure early predictive biomarkers for hypertension, and more.",isbn:"978-1-83969-121-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-120-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-122-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92510",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"erythrocyte-a-peripheral-biomarker-for-infection-and-inflammation",numberOfPages:118,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"fa5f4b6ef59e28b6e7c1a739c57c5d2f",bookSignature:"Kaneez Fatima Shad",publishedDate:"July 28th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10494.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1570,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:5,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 15th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 30th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 29th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 19th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 18th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhwqQAC/Profile_Picture_1643703122186",biography:"Professor Kaneez Fatima Shad, an Australian neuroscientist with a medical background, obtained a Ph.D. from the Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales (UNSW), Australia, in 1994, followed by a postdoc at the Allegheny University of Health Sciences, Philadelphia, USA. She taught medical and biological sciences at various universities in Australia, the United States, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Pakistan, and Brunei. During this period, she was also engaged in research by obtaining local and international grants (a total of more than $3 million USD) and developing products such as a rapid diagnostic test for stroke and other vascular disorders (i.e., schizophrenia). She has published more than sixty-eight articles in refereed journals, edited nine books, authored ten book chapters, presented at more than ninety international conferences, and mentored thirty-four postgraduate students. She is an international mentor and a protocol development specialist.",institutionString:"University of Technology Sydney",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"University of Technology Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1027",title:"Hematopathology",slug:"hematopathology"}],chapters:[{id:"77219",title:"Introductory Chapter: Anaemia and Iron Deficiency in Heart Failure",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98635",slug:"introductory-chapter-anaemia-and-iron-deficiency-in-heart-failure",totalDownloads:178,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Kaneez Fatima Shad and Nazar Luqman Bilgrami",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77219",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77219",authors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad"},{id:"291749",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazar",surname:"Luqman Bilgrami",slug:"nazar-luqman-bilgrami",fullName:"Nazar Luqman Bilgrami"}],corrections:null},{id:"76717",title:"Erythrocytes as Biomarkers of Virus and Bacteria in View of Metal Ion Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97850",slug:"erythrocytes-as-biomarkers-of-virus-and-bacteria-in-view-of-metal-ion-homeostasis",totalDownloads:345,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The erythrocyte contributes to the immune system in several ways. It sequesters interferons, interleukins or chemokines and by binding nucleic acid. It binds virus and bacteria and may deliver bacteria to macrophages for phagocytosis. It may also kill bacteria directly with oxygen. For proper function of the erythrocyte, homeostasis of reactive oxygen species, selenium, metal ions and trace elements is important. Erythrocytes display morphological and metabolic changes in diseases like sepsis, and in several genetic diseases. Patients infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), giving rise to the coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19), show many erythrocyte changes as compared to healthy controls. The erythrocyte responds to hemolysins by purinergic signaling leading to hemolysis or phosphatidylserine exposure on the plasma membrane. Phosphatidylserine marks erythrocytes for clearance by spleen macrophages. Regulated erythrocyte cell death, also called eryptosis, can be induced by oxidative stress, pathogen infection, and certain diseases like sepsis. Erythrocytes may, in the future, contribute more to diagnosis based on research and diagnostic technological development.",signatures:"Erland Johansson and Anders B. Falk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76717",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76717",authors:[{id:"318442",title:"Dr.",name:"Erland",surname:"Johansson",slug:"erland-johansson",fullName:"Erland Johansson"},{id:"350451",title:"Dr.",name:"Anders B.",surname:"Falk",slug:"anders-b.-falk",fullName:"Anders B. Falk"}],corrections:null},{id:"76908",title:"Modulations in Oxidative Stress of Erythrocytes during Bacterial and Viral Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98236",slug:"modulations-in-oxidative-stress-of-erythrocytes-during-bacterial-and-viral-infections",totalDownloads:239,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Oxidative stress (OS) occurs when the generation of free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS) overwhelms the antioxidant capacity. OS causes storage lesions which can be defined as a series of biochemical and biomechanical changes. Erythrocytes are constantly exposed to OS due to the presence of ROS, which are countered by the endogenous antioxidant system. Various irreversible changes that occur include fragmentation and aggregation of proteins and lipids. The changes in proteins, lipids and antioxidant capacity are used as OS biomarkers to assess the efficacy of the erythrocytes, post oxidative insult. Aging of erythrocytes is also associated with the changes in its physical, biochemical and physiological properties and OS causes its rapid aging. Bacterial and viral infections also cause OS which alters the erythrocytes’ antioxidant capacity. These modulations in its microenvironment are both beneficial in terms of protection against invading microorganisms as well as harmful to the erythrocytes, causing damage to surrounding cells and tissues. Thus, OS biomarkers can be used to gain insights into the effects of bacterial and viral infections on the erythrocyte microenvironment.",signatures:"Vani Rajashekaraiah, Carl Hsieh and Masannagari Pallavi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76908",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76908",authors:[{id:"352876",title:"Dr.",name:"Vani",surname:"Rajashekaraiah",slug:"vani-rajashekaraiah",fullName:"Vani Rajashekaraiah"},{id:"414441",title:"Mr.",name:"Carl",surname:"Hsieh",slug:"carl-hsieh",fullName:"Carl Hsieh"},{id:"414442",title:"Mrs.",name:"Masannagari",surname:"Pallavi",slug:"masannagari-pallavi",fullName:"Masannagari Pallavi"}],corrections:null},{id:"77231",title:"Early Predictive Biomarkers for Hypertension Using Human Fetal Astrocytes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98561",slug:"early-predictive-biomarkers-for-hypertension-using-human-fetal-astrocytes",totalDownloads:237,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hypertension is a major risk factor for cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, causing high numbers of deaths and /or disabilities worldwide. Previous studies have reported numerous biomolecules, such as, triglycerides and fibrinogen as biomarkers of hypertension (HTN), but none of these biomolecules could be considered as ‘true’ predictive biomarkers as they were produced after the establishment of HTN. Therefore, there is an urgent need for identifying and monitoring molecules that are linked to early pre-HTN stages, that is, prior to the onset of HTN. Astrocytes are the most abundant cells in the nervous system and through their long processes, astrocytes can communicate with both neuronal and non-neuronal cells such as endothelial cells lining blood vessels. Thus, any biochemical changes in astrocytes will affect both blood vessels and neurons. We are using human fetal astrocytes (HFAs) to investigate the molecules which may possibly act as early predictive biomarkers for hypertension. Astrocytic processes are mostly supported by the intermediate filaments, an example is the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) which is a type III intermediate filament. Elevated GFAP levels are being considered as a marker of astroglial injury, indicating the conversion of non-reactive (A2) into reactive (A1) astrocytes. Our initial immunohistochemistry studies using anti-GFAP antibodies on astrocytes from spontaneous hypertensive rats (SHRs) and their normal counter parts (WKY) rats showed a similar profile to that of reactive (A1) and non-reactive (A2) HFAs, respectively. Numerous studies point to a significant role of calcium ion channel proteins in hypertension, and calcium channel blockers such as Amlodipine (Norvasc) Diltiazem (Cardizem) are commonly used as antihypertensive drugs. By using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) we observed that reactive (A1) astrocytes, contain more calcium-activated proteins such as calpain, calpastatin, cathepsin and mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) as compare to normal (A2) HFAs, suggesting their possible link to the future onset of HTN. Hence these proteins could be considered as potential early predictive biomarkers of HTN.",signatures:"Fahmida Abdi, Ann M. Simpson, Sara Lal and Kaneez Fatima Shad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77231",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77231",authors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad"},{id:"157918",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann M.",surname:"Simpson",slug:"ann-m.-simpson",fullName:"Ann M. Simpson"},{id:"419935",title:"Mrs.",name:"Fahmida",surname:"Abdi",slug:"fahmida-abdi",fullName:"Fahmida Abdi"},{id:"419936",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Lal",slug:"sara-lal",fullName:"Sara Lal"}],corrections:null},{id:"75447",title:"Detection of Benzo[a]Pyrene Diol Epoxide-DNA Adducts in White Blood Cells of Asphalt Plant Workers in Syria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96437",slug:"detection-of-benzo-a-pyrene-diol-epoxide-dna-adducts-in-white-blood-cells-of-asphalt-plant-workers-i",totalDownloads:331,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) is a major polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), it can bind the DNA to produce DNA-adducts, which has major carcinogenic potential. Enzyme-linked immunosorbet assay (ELISA) is the method used to detect these DNA adducts of B[a] P diolepoxide (BPDE) within the living cells. The aim of this study is to evaluate exposure to bitumen fumes, and to B[a]P in asphalt plant workers by measuring the BPDE-DNA adducts in their peripheral white blood cells (WBC), which are considered biological markers for exposure risk assessment.In this study, Hemostatic blood (CBC, AST) were measured, and the levels of BPDE-DNA adducts were measured in DNA samples of WBC obtained from asphalt plant workers in Syria and compared to those measured from a control group. The measurement was performed using BPDE-DNA Adducts ELISA.kit. The sample size was determined to be 50 with 25 asphalt plant workers and 25 healthy volunteers with no occupational exposure to PAHs. The results showed some diseases associated with exposure to asphalt fumes among the workers in the study group and a statistically significant difference in the values of (CBC; WBC, leukocytes, HCT, MCHC and AST) between the study group and the control group. BPDE-DNA adducts were detected in WBC of 11 asphalt plant workers with concentrations ranging between 0 and 2.75 ng/ml and only one individual in the control group with concentration of 0.75 ng/ml. These results indicate significant positive relationship between exposure to the bitumen fumes and formation of BPDE-DNA adducts. BPDE-DNA adducts is potential biomarker for PAHs exposure and likely helpful indicator of PAH-induced DNA damage and possibly carcinogenesis.",signatures:"Razan Zohairee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75447",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75447",authors:[{id:"337314",title:"Dr.",name:"Razan",surname:"Zohairee",slug:"razan-zohairee",fullName:"Razan Zohairee"}],corrections:null},{id:"75206",title:"The Study of Some Possible Risk Factors for Arterial Thrombosis in the Example of Georgian Patients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96121",slug:"the-study-of-some-possible-risk-factors-for-arterial-thrombosis-in-the-example-of-georgian-patients",totalDownloads:240,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the most common cause of death worldwide. As arterial as venous thrombosis are major cause’s morbidity and mortality. There is an exponential increase in the risk of arterial and venous thrombotic events with age, gender, smoking habits, diet type etc. The association of arterial and venous thrombosis and ABO histo-blood group is well established. Our research aim was to find a possible relationship between age, gender, smoking habit, ABO, Rh, Kell, MN blood group and arterial thrombosis in the example of the Georgian population. The study material comprised the blood samples of 100 patients with arterial thrombosis. Also, control (donor) groups were studied. The Control group included individuals without cardiovascular disease during the 2019–2020 periods. They were asymptomatic, healthy persons. The immunoserological express method with universal monoclonal antibodies ware used. 77% of the studied patients were males. The majority of patients were over the 60 years old. 35% of our studied patients are non-smoker, 39% are ex-smoker, and 26% are active smokers. A similar distribution has the ABO and Rh phenotypes in patients and donors. M+ N+ (MN) the phenotype is relatively high in the patient group to comparing to donors. Kell antigen prevalence was relatively high in studied patients. Our study has shown maleness as a higher risk factor for arterial thrombosis. The smokers have a more predicted chance for arterial thrombosis. K+ phenotype and M+ N+ characteristics are a high prevalence in patients. There is no correlation between ABO and Rh blood groups with arterial thrombosis.",signatures:"Marina Koridze, Marina Nagervadze, Maria Sarkhaiani, Leila Akhvlediani, Rusudan Khukhunaishvili, Ketevan Dolidze, Sophiko Tskvitinidze, Shorena Gabaidze, Irina Nakashidze, Sopio Garakanidze and Giorgi Nikolaishvili",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75206",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75206",authors:[{id:"337765",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Marina",surname:"Nagervadze",slug:"marina-nagervadze",fullName:"Marina Nagervadze"},{id:"337766",title:"Prof.",name:"Marina",surname:"Koridze",slug:"marina-koridze",fullName:"Marina Koridze"},{id:"337767",title:"Prof.",name:"Rusudan",surname:"Khukhunaishvili",slug:"rusudan-khukhunaishvili",fullName:"Rusudan Khukhunaishvili"},{id:"337768",title:"Ms.",name:"Maria",surname:"Sarkhaiani",slug:"maria-sarkhaiani",fullName:"Maria Sarkhaiani"},{id:"337769",title:"Prof.",name:"Ketevan",surname:"Dolidze",slug:"ketevan-dolidze",fullName:"Ketevan Dolidze"},{id:"337770",title:"Prof.",name:"Leila",surname:"Akhvlediani",slug:"leila-akhvlediani",fullName:"Leila Akhvlediani"},{id:"337771",title:"Dr.",name:"Sophiko",surname:"Tskvitinidze",slug:"sophiko-tskvitinidze",fullName:"Sophiko Tskvitinidze"},{id:"337772",title:"MSc.",name:"Shorena",surname:"Gabaidze",slug:"shorena-gabaidze",fullName:"Shorena Gabaidze"},{id:"337773",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",surname:"Nakashidze",slug:"irina-nakashidze",fullName:"Irina Nakashidze"},{id:"337774",title:"Dr.",name:"Sopio",surname:"Garakanidze",slug:"sopio-garakanidze",fullName:"Sopio Garakanidze"},{id:"337775",title:"Dr.",name:"Giorgi",surname:"Nikolaishvili",slug:"giorgi-nikolaishvili",fullName:"Giorgi Nikolaishvili"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1624",title:"Patch Clamp 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Pilar unit is a structure generally made up of three subunits which are hair follicle, sebaceous gland, and arrector pili muscle. Hair follicle is divided in to three parts: infundibulum, isthmus, and inferior part. Infundibulum extends between entrance of sebaceous gland duct to the follicular orifice in epidermis. Isthmus: extends between entrance of sebaceous duct to hair follicle and insertion of arrector pili muscle. The basal part of hair follicle is called the inferior segment or inferior part. Histologic structure and function of hair follicle is very intriguing.
The life cycle of hair follicle is divided into three phases: anagen (growth phase), catagen (regressing phase), and telogen (resting phase). The sebaceous gland attached to hair follicle produces holocrine-type secretions. They excrete the sebum through excretory ducts into hair follicle [1]. Sebum that inhibits the reproduction of bacteria and fungi is rich in triglyceride. When the increased number of
There are bazillion hair and pilosebaceous units on the body surface. As a matter of course, hair follicle-related pathologies (especially inflammatory diseases) comprise one of the most popular topics in dermatology clinics.
\nIn a big pathology center where daily around 40 cases of skin materials and annually a total of 35,000–40,000 different biopsy materials are examined, we rarely do histopathologic examination of disorders in inflammatory pilosebaceous units. It is mainly because the clinicians diagnose clinically and do not need much tissue correlation with their differential diagnosis in these disorders.
\nWe retrospectively searched the information system of our hospital for the last 3 years and found 154 reports in which the term “acne” was aforementioned (132 cases were categorized as acne rosacea). For the last 3 years, approximately 23,000 skin samples have been sent by dermatology or plastic and reconstructive surgery departments (punch biopsies, shave biopsies, incisional biopsies, excisional biopsies included). Although general approach do not persuade for biopsy, sometimes in our clinic there is a little tendency to biopsying central face lesions for differential diagnosis.
In follicular eruptions adnexocentric inflammation, microabscesses and pustules on epidermis can be seen [3]. Peri- and intrafollicular inflammatory cells consist: lymphocytes, plasmocytes, histiocytes, polymorphonuclear, leukocytes, and multinuclear giant cells. Most folliculitis emerges as a result of follicular orifice occlusion by normal flora of the skin.
\nAlthough different categorization can be found in various textbooks, folliculitis can be divided into two groups: infectious and noninfectious (sterile). Furthermore noninfectious folliculitis can be grouped as neutrophilic, eosinophilic, etc. according to the predominant cell component present in the lesion. Infectious folliculitis can be grouped as bacterial (Gram-negative, Gram-positive), fungal, viral, and symbiotic (demodex) folliculitis [4].
\nThe most common cause of Gram-positive folliculitis is
According to some other studies, folliculitis can be classified as superficial and both superficial and deep [5].
\nIndependent of etiology, the primer lesion of folliculitis is generally an erythematous papule or pustule. Histologically in all types of folliculitis, inflammation is seen either in follicular epithelia and/or perifollicular area (Figure 1).
Mixed type inflammation that surrounded the follicle, attacked the follicular epithelia, and destroyed the hair follicle (HE ×100).
Whenever the cause is a bacterium, a neutrophilic infiltrate is dominantly seen in the follicular epithelia and dermis (Figure 2). Granuloma formation can be seen in consequence of follicular epithelial rupture and passing of pilosebaceous unit components into the dermis.
In a bacterial folliculitis case, predominantly neutrophilic infiltrate is present in the upper dermis and invades the follicular epithelia (HE ×100).
In viral folliculitis, cytopathic effects such as acantolysis, dyskeratosis, multinucleation, inclusions, chromatin marginalization, nuclear molding, etc., can be seen in infundibulum. In early lesions, cytopathic effects cannot be seen [5]. In a viral folliculitis, a lower concentration of inflammation is noticeable. In some cases, hyperplasia of epidermis, necrosis of follicular epithelia or sebaceous gland can be visible.
\nFungal folliculitis is commonly seen in adult women living in warm and humid climates. Immunosuppression, diabetes and antibiotic use can be predisposing factors. The cause is mostly
Keratin plug of hair follicle contains numerous yeast forms of fungi (HE ×400).
In the syphilitic folliculitis, plasma cells are dominant [6].
\nThere are some possible and practical methods for finding the cause of folliculitis such as: Gram staining (for bacteria), PAS or silver stain (for fungi) and immunohistochemistry (for viral causes). However, the sensitivity of these methods can be low. The more sensitive and specific methods such as fresh tissue culture, PCR, etc., can be used for microorganism typology [6].
\nFolliculitis can also be classified according to microanatomic structure of the skin which is involved. Most of bacterial folliculitis involves the superficial part of hair follicle that is why they are called superficial bacterial folliculitis. The superficial folliculitis caused by
In some textbooks the term “acneiform folliculitis” can be seen. This term means that there is an acneiform dilatation in the hair follicle (e.g., pityrosporum folliculitis).
\nIn demodex folliculitis, besides the mites located inside the hair follicle, follicular spongiosis, perifollicular lymphohistiocytic inflammation also draws attention. An isolated folliculitis is generally self-limited. In old and advanced lesions of all folliculitis perifollicular fibrosis can be visible.
\nWhen clinically folliculitis is among the differential diagnosis but histopathologically the lesion is not seen in biopsy sections, deeper and serial sections must be taken. When histopathologically folliculitis diagnosis is made but no microorganism is detected, additional histochemical and immunohistochemical stains can be implemented. Acneiform lesions should be thought primarily when no microorganisms detected microscopically and by applying additional methods (culture, etc.). On the other hand, for diagnosis of acneiform lesions a hundred percent clinical correlation is required.
\nDuring investigation if a microorganism is detected, cure rate is very high with appropriate treatment (topical antibiotic, topical antifungal, and systemic antiviral drugs).
Eosinophils are predominant in some kinds of folliculitis. When eosinophils are predominantly seen in folliculitis, the first step should not be searching for microorganisms
Histopathologically follicle infundibulum is surrounded by inflammation which is predominantly composed of eosinophils and few lymphocytes. The follicle can be ruptured but granuloma formation is not expected. In the past few years, studies have recommended exclusion of fungal folliculitis with PAS-D and/or GMS (Gomori methenamine silver) staining. Eosinophilia in peripheral blood and increased serum IgE levels can be detected in eosinophilic folliculitis. There is also a self-limiting variant of eosinophilic folliculitis presenting on the scalp of children with numerous papules and pustules.
\nSome authors accept
Chronic abscess which is formed by hair shafts and chronic inflammatory cells (HE ×100).
Fibrosis in the dermis which can turn into a hypertrophic scar (clinically an acne keloidalis nuchae case) (HE ×100).
There are some acne forms that are induced or developed by drugs, sunlight exposure, impulsive skin picking, or different materials.
\nOveruse of bromides triggers severe acneiform lesions which is called
Chemical exposure to mineral oils and dioxin can cause acneiform eruptions predominantly comedones, this is called
Acneiform lesions can be seen both in Behcet’s and Wegener’s diseases.
\nIn conclusion, a comprehensive dermatological examination and detailed history taking is indispensable in all clinical entities mentioned above.
\nFlowchart 1 summarizes all the above-mentioned clinical entities.
Demodex mites inside the hair follicle, perifollicular inflammatory cells and exocytosis of these inflammatory cells (HE ×200).
A simple, practical approach to basic kinds of folliculitis.
Acne vulgaris is the prototype of acneiform lesions and is the inflammatory disease of sweat glands and pilosebaceous units, mostly observed in teenagers and young adults. In contrast to age predilection, race and sex predilection do not exist. The clinical course is severe in male patients [2]. Acne lesions favor forehead, chin, cheek, chest, shoulder, and back. Family history may be present. In most patients, the lesions regress in a few years period.
\nThe lesions are generally presented as erythematous papules, pustules, blackheads, and whiteheads. In severe cases, tender and painful nodules and cysts can be apparent. Because hair follicle is plugged with keratin, excreted sebum is accumulated in addition to
Acne vulgaris lesions are studied in two groups: noninflammatory (blackheads and whiteheads or comedones) and inflammatory (folliculitis, etc.). Acne lesions can end up with postinflammatory hyperpigmentation and scars (Figures 6–8). Keloid formation is quite rare.
Pilosebaceous unit has started to be dilated with keratin plugging, also a mild perifollicular inflammation can be seen (HE ×100).
A kind of fibrotic process at the neighborhood of dilated follicle can be noticed (HE ×100) (Same case with
Deeper part of the same lesion in Figures 6 and 7. Scar formation and an entrapped tiny hair follicle can be defined (HE ×100).
Acne is diagnosed clinically, and biopsy confirmation is generally not required. Histopathologically noninflammatory lesions (comedones) are a kind of follicular retention cysts. These tiny cysts may consist of cornified cells, hair shafts, sebum,
A closed comedone that has a narrow orifice on epidermal side (HE ×40).
Comedone consists of lamellar keratin, hair shaft, and some bacteria (HE ×200).
Microcomedone that has a smaller dilatation of follicle opening and a few mononuclear inflammatory cells basically around the follicular epithelia (HE ×100).
An opened comedone with keratin plugging, wider orifice on epidermis, and mild perifollicular inflammation (HE ×100).
Inflammatory lesions may progress in the following pattern: papule→pustule→nodule→cyst.
\nComedonal lesions due to retention the follicular wall is quite thin and the follicular content oozes into adjacent dermis which in turn causes accumulation of inflammatory cells in dermis. This process plays the major role in the formation of inflammatory lesions. When the follicle wall becomes much thinner, the follicle may rupture and lead to pustule (Figure 13) and by the time, nodule formation is in deep dermis. Depending on follicular damage and severity of inflammatory response scar formation, dermal necrosis, and confluent abscesses formation can be observed. Perifollicular elastolysis can be noticed in acne vulgaris scars [8].
A deep ruptured folliculitis, severe mixed type inflammation and a destroyed hair follicle (HE ×100).
In a noninflammatory lesion if the follicular opening does not expand the follicular wall becomes thinner thus follicular rupture becomes inevitable [8]. Spongiosis is noticeable in follicular epithelia of both inflammatory and noninflammatory lesions. In inflammatory lesions the inflammatory cells attacking follicular epithelia or perifollicular inflammatory cells are composed of mixed type cells (polymorphonuclear leucocytes, lymphocytes, histiocytes). Foreign-body-type multinuclear giant cells and/or granulomatous reactions can be observed as a result of follicular rupture (Figure 14).
After the rupture of hair follicle, foreign body type inflammatory reaction can be seen (HE × 200).
Rosacea is a disease characterized by macular erythema and flushing of central face generally affecting adult population. Some authors classify acne rosacea as a vascular and follicular disease. In a true rosacea, typical acneiform lesions such as papules and pustules are observed. However, comedones are not an important component of acne rosacea. In contrast to acne vulgaris, increased sebum is not the subject in acne rosacea. Sometimes acne rosacea can lead to blepharitis and phyma formation. In acne rosacea, flushing can be triggered by warmth, cold, alcohol intake, and spicy foods. Granulomatous lesions can be confronted within acne rosacea which present as yellow-brown nodular lesions [5].
\nHistopathological findings differ according to the stage of disorder.
\nIn early nonpustular lesions, telangiectasia is in the foreground also perifollicular and perivascular mixed type inflammation (lymphocytes, plasmocytes, macrophages, eosinophils, and polymorphonuclear leucocytes) draw attention (Figures 15 and 16). Abnormal dermal vessel regulation hypothesis is postulated but there is no objective method for evaluating telangiectasia [11, 12]
There is a mild-moderate inflammation in dermis and also telangiectatic vascular structures with solar elastosis in the upper dermis (HE ×100).
Lymphocyte predominant inflammation in the upper dermis, around the telangiectatic vessels (HE ×200).
Acne rosacea can rarely be extrafascial and/or generalized [2]. Acne rosacea more commonly affects women who have type 1 celtic descent skin phenotype. Some methods are present for clinical staging and severity scoring of acne rosacea [2, 13].
\nIn pustular lesions, an increased amount of polymorphonuclear leucocytes are observed. In severe rosacea (rosacea fulminans, pyoderma faciale), polymorphonuclear leucocytes are predominant cells. In the epithelia of hair follicle, spongiosis can be seen in infundibulum part (Figure 17). Follicular rupture can cause granulomatous reactions. Sometimes caseification necrosis can be observed in the center of granulomatous reaction. Solar elastosis can be generally present in rosacea lesions. However, solar elastosis can be a coincidence rather than a specific finding of acne rosacea because solar elastosis is generally present in patients above 40 years of age, in addition to central face is under dense exposure of sunlight throughout life [2].
A severe rosacea case that has intensive inflammatory infiltrate (polymorphonuclear leucocytes are dominant) (HE ×100).
Most of resources use the clinical classification method [14, 15] that has four types of acne rosacea:
\nErythematotelangiectatic
Papulopustular
Phymatous
Ocular
In order to reach this stage, episodic flushing → persistent flushing → papulopustular stages must be passed.
\nIn the histopathologically evaluation of rhinophyma, different amounts of lymphocytic inflammation, sebaceous hypertrophy, nodular ectatic vessels, hyperkeratosis [4], fibrosis, solar elastosis [6], and mucin accumulation can be observed [8]. Rhinophyma is generally irreversible and surgical intervention is required.
\nTelangiectatic vascular structures surrounding the rhinophymatous papules may evoke the suspicion of basal cell carcinoma for a clinician [16]. In this case, a biopsy can be done for the exclusion of basal cell carcinoma.
\nIn granulomatous rosacea where long-term phymatous lesions are present in the face,
There are granulomas that have caseification necrosis in their center and multinuclear histiocytic giant cells in dermis (HE ×100).
Demodex can be found in the normal fauna of the pilosebaceous unit. For this reason, generally it is not mentioned in the pathology reports. However, changing degrees of inflammatory reactions (from accumulation of lymphocytes up to suppurative and granulomatous reactions) are related to demodex mites [3]. Demodex favors sebaceous areas. Density of demodex mites increases with age.
\nTwo species of demodex inhabit in human:
Life cycle of demodex mite is as follows: ova→larvae→protonymph→nymph→adult [16].
\nThe aid of its mouth,
In 1993 Bonnar et al. [18], removed the stratum corneum of the skin by the help of cyanoacrylate glue and investigated the follicular contents. The mite count was significantly increased in patients who had acne rosacea compared to normal people. This study showed the relation between acne rosacea and demodex mites. This study is one of the studies that conclude the relationship between acne rosacea and demodex mites [17].
\nThe pathogenetic mechanisms of Demodex in rosacea can be:
\nforeign body reaction against the parasite
immune reaction of the host toward the parasite
the parasite serving as a vector for bacteria [18].
Clinically demodicosis also can be divided into primary and secondary demodicosis.
\nPrimary demodicosis:
Secondary demodicosis: more than 30% of the face is affected. Signs and symptoms of the disease are present (erythema, pruritus, etc.), this clinic course is thought to be induced by
Furthermore, there are three forms of traditionally identified demodicosis:
\npityriasis folliculorum,
rosacea like demodicosis,
demodicosis gravis [2].
In Flowcharts 2 and 3, we tried to establish a simple algorithm for making diagnosis easier.
A simple clinicopathological approach to central facial lesions.
Acne vulgaris and related diseases.
The word char, is a common terminology used for the solid product of the combustion of carbonaceous material [1]. Generally, char product is rich in carbon content; an example is charcoal, which is almost the earliest invention of humans from fire or heat creation. Another vivid example of char is biochar. In this case, the study, is made from organic compounds such as forest, agricultural or animal products but in the absence/limited supply of oxygen compared to charcoal. Therefore, biochar is derived from biomass combustion in the presence of a limited oxygen supply and at relatively low temperatures below 700°C. The earliest known purpose for creating biochar was specifically for soil application such as carbon storage or sequestration in soil; improvement of soil performance such as increase in nutrient availability, reduction of compactness in soil, soil pH improvement; soil water filtration. Recent applications involve energy production, biochemical process stability and improvement, climate change mitigation, and construction additive [1, 2, 3]. The raw material determines carbonized organic matter properties and the operational parameters used during it production. Pyrolysis (slow or fast) and gasification are the main methods for the production of biochar. The physical nature of the biochar produced is directly affected by the chemical composition of the biomass feedstock. Most organic matter begin to thermally decompose at temperatures above 120°C. Hemicelluloses degrade between 200 and 260°C, cellulose between 240 and 350°C, and lignin between 280 and 500°C. As a result, the proportions of these components will affect the degree of reactivity and, as a result, the extent to which the physical structure is modified during processing [4]. Biochar is characterized with high porosity with pores ranging in size from micro to macropores. Large holes, which originate from the raw biomass’s vascular bundles, are critical for increasing soil quality because they can serve as habitats for symbiotic microbes. Biochar major components are carbon, volatile matter, mineral matter (ash), and moisture. The percentage composition of each components varies based on the feedstock material and the operating parameters [1]. Biochar from plant-based materials have higher carbon composition which range from as low as 51% to as high. The understanding of the key mechanisms for changes in physicochemical properties of biochar during processing for various feedstock types and operating parameters is required to determine biochar’s potential for application both now and in future. Therefore, this chapter explains biochar production techniques, factors affecting its properties and compositions and its application.
An ever-growing appetency for using biochar for various applications has orchestrated an increase in converting it into biochar. Thermochemical conversion is a common technology for making biochar. Thermochemical conversion techniques are pyrolysis, hydrothermal carbonization (HTC), gasification, torrefaction, and hydrothermal liquefaction [5, 6].
Pyrolysis is a thermochemical technique that produces biochar, bio-oil, and syngas derived from biomass [7]. The process involves heating and thermally decomposing biomass under anaerobic conditions or limited oxygen supply (low stoichiometric oxygen atmosphere) with temperatures ranging between 400°C and 1200°C [2]. The absence of oxygen enables biomass heating beyond its thermal stability limit, causing the creation of more robust products, including solid residues. By creating an anaerobic atmosphere, it is also ensured that combustion will not occur when the biomass is heated. It is a highly complex process involving many distinct reactions in the reacting zone [8]. In another study, a low-temperature range for pyrolysis was recorded between 250°C and 900°C. Biomass from Agriculture comprises lignin, cellulose, hemicelluloses, and silica. Typically, cellulose pyrolyzes at 350°C, whereas the melting point of lignin is well above 350°C [6]. Although the product yield depends on various operating variables, char formation is generally favored by low temperatures and long residence times [9]. Therefore, it can be decoded that the effective temperature range for pyrolysis was between 300 and 700°C. The cracking of heavy chemicals happens in secondary pyrolysis and converts biomass into biochar or gases. Figure 1 is a summary of the pyrolysis technique and the operating variables affecting pyrolysis.
Schematic representation of pyrolysis process [
In essence, this is an alternative way to valorize biomass into various products such as bio-oil, syngas and biochar. Depolymerization, fragmentation, and cross-linking are chemical mechanisms that occur during the process at specific temperature points, resulting in a different product state for lignocellulosic components, including cellulose and hemicellulose (solid, liquid and gas). Biochar and bio-oil are the solid and liquid products, whereas CO2, CO, H2, (collectively known as syngas) are evolved as the gaseous by-products (C1-C2 hydrocarbons) [3]. Biochar is made in a different type of reactors, such as paddle kiln, bubbling fluidized bed, wagon reactor, and agitated sand rotating kiln. The biomass nature and employed type determine the biochar yield during the pyrolysis route. The major operating parameter that impacts product efficiency is the temperature [10, 11]. When the pyrolysis temperature is increased, biochar’s yield decreases and the generation of syngas increases. The gas yield is represented by the initial section of the product side (as shown in Eq. (1)), with various gases created during the process.
The mixture of multiple sorts of liquid outputs is shown in the second part of the products’ side, and the solid yield is represented in the last component [12]. One of the most significant masteries of this technology is that it may be optimized to achieve the desired outcomes. Slow pyrolysis, for example, can be utilized to produce a considerable amount of biochar, whereas fast pyrolysis is better for dominantly producing bio-oil [13].
Pyrolysis is strongly dependent on the operating parameters, namely temperature, heating rate, and residence time [14]. These operating conditions further help to categorize pyrolysis into other six subclasses. These subclasses are slow pyrolysis, fast pyrolysis, flash pyrolysis, vacuum pyrolysis, intermediate pyrolysis, and hydropyrolysis [15]. Each classification of pyrolysis has its own documented benefits and drawbacks. The subclasses in question foster an environment for different reaction conditions and mechanisms to have various products. The pyrolysis technology mechanism is shown in Figure 2.
Representation of a pyrolysis process [
As indicated by the name, to complete the process, slow pyrolysis has a long residence time (more than 1 hour), and biochar is produced as a major product [16]. Slow pyrolysis is dubbed conventional pyrolysis, where biomass is heated at temperatures ranging between 300 and 600°C accompanied by a heating rate of 5–7°C/min [12, 17]. A lower heating rate and longer vapor residence time provide a suitable environment and adequate time for the secondary reactions to proceed. Furthermore, a prolonged residence period permits vapors created during the secondary reaction to be evacuated [15, 18]. This leads to the creation of solid carbonaceous biochar in the end. Slow pyrolysis favors char development, but liquid and gaseous products are also created in modest quantities. Biochar is formed as a primary product (35–45%) together with other products such as bio-oil (25–35%) and syngas (20–30%), as indicated in Eq. (1) [6, 19].
Fast pyrolysis is a direct thermochemical process for converting solid biomass into high-energy liquid bio-oil. A high-efficiency thermochemical technique to produce biomass-derived biofuels, with reduced amounts of solids and gases produced [20, 21]. Fast pyrolysis is carried out without oxygen at temperatures above 500°C and a heating rate of over 300°C/min. Fast pyrolysis is a rapid biochar generation technique that takes only a few seconds. Fast pyrolysis produces 60% bio-oil, 20% biochar, and 20% syngas, as reported in other studies [21, 22]. Even higher temperatures in the range of 850–1250°C with a heating rate of 10–200°C for a short residence time ranging from 1 to 10 s have been reported in several experiments. 60%-75% of liquid products, 15%-25% of biochar and 10–20% of non-condensable gaseous products are produced by a typical pyrolysis process [23]. Fast pyrolysis takes biomass to temperatures in which thermal cracking can occur and minimizes the exposure time, which supports biochar production [24].
This is dubbed to be an enhanced and modified version of fast pyrolysis. Biomass decomposes quickly, usually in less than a minute, at 1000°C and even higher temperatures. Heating rates of above 1000°C/sec have been recorded on occasion. Flash pyrolysis is carried out at temperatures between 900 and 1200°C, which can be reached in less than one second (usually between 0.1 and 1 s) [25, 26]. A high bio-oil yield combines a high heating rate with a high temperature and a short vapor residence time. However, the yield of biochar is reduced because of the process [27, 28]. In flash pyrolysis, heat and mass transfer processes, reaction chemical kinetics and biomass phase transition behavior all play a role in product distribution. Although flash pyrolysis is performed in a fluidised bed reactor and a twin-screw mixing reactor, it has limited industrial applicability because of the reactor’s architecture, which requires it to run at a high temperature with a very high heating rate [12].
This is the thermal decomposition of biomass under vacuum or relatively low pressure in an isolated oxygen environment [15, 29]. Pressure is usually regulated in the region between 0.5 and 2 bar, and temperature is maintained at 450–600°C [30]. Like slow pyrolysis, vacuum pyrolysis has comparably low heating rates. However, these two techniques, in comparison, yield significantly different products. This owes to the constant and effective discharge of the vapor produced during vacuum pyrolysis through condensation train. The rapid evacuation of organic vapors created during the primary pyrolysis also considerably minimizes the vapor residence time, which in turn minimizes the occurrence of secondary reactions and assures a high liquid product yield during the secondary pyrolysis [31]. As a result, only vacuum or low-pressure extraction is utilized to remove vapor evolved during pyrolysis, which substantially affects product quality and yield by preventing inorganic devolatilisation.
As the name suggests, this is a combination of slow and fast pyrolysis processes, and it is crucial when there is a need to balance solid and liquid products. This means that slow pyrolysis is more efficient at producing large amounts of char, but it also results in lower amounts of liquid products, while it is vice versa with fast pyrolysis. Generally, pressure is kept at 1 bar during the process. Intermediate pyrolysis has temperatures ranging between 500 and 650°C, with heating rates between 0.1 and 10°C/min and residence time between 5 and 17 mins [32]. 40–60% liquid, 20–30% non-condensable gases, and 15–25% biochar are typical constituents of finished products [33, 34]. Using intermediate pyrolysis conditions prevents the synthesis of high molecular reactive tars and results in dry biochar, which can be utilized for agricultural purposes or directly in boilers and engines in conjunction with high-quality bio-oil [2].
It relatively a novel technique that is used for the conversion of biomass into high quality products by injection of hydrogen or hydrogen based material into the reactor under high pressure, typically above the atmospheric pressure, stretching from 50 bar to 200 bar [15, 35]. The heating rate (10–300°C/s), residence time (over 15 sec) and temperature (350–600°C) are not highly deviated from fast pyrolysis [36]. In essence, hydropyrolysis can be considered a special type of fast pyrolysis subjected to high pressure in an atmosphere infused with hydrogen or hydrogen-based material. This method is not ideal for the production of biochar as the introduction of hydrogen under high temperature and pressure acts as a reducing agent, hence reducing oxygen content in the bio-oils produced and synchronously inhibiting the production of biochar [37, 38]. The employment of a catalyst to eradicate oxygen, water, and COx from the liquid product is typically linked with hydropyrolysis. Catalysts also reduce depolymerisation and coking reactions [39]. However, developing the catalyst for this intention remains a notable example of the difficult aspects of catalytic hydropyrolysis.
The majority of the material used in biochar production via pyrolysis contain carbohydrates in various forms (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin), and these react differently based on the operating conditions they are subjected to, thus influencing the product yield of pyrolysis [15]. More specifically, lignin and cellulose are the major parts of biomass, making up its bulk [40]. On pyrolysis, cellulose mostly creates tar, a mixture of discrete ketones, aldehydes, organic liquids, and char, whereas lignin essentially produces char and a minimal amount of water. As the cellulose content grows but the char and tar content decreases, the yield of gaseous content increases. It’s also been discovered that structural differences in biomass cause changes in the pyrolysis product’s composition [41].
By lowering the extent of polymerization, the process of cellulose degradation is determined, which consists of two principal reactions:
Slow pyrolysis involves cellulose degradation over a prolonged period with a lower heating rate.
Fast pyrolysis occurs at high heating rates through speedy volatilization and leads to levoglucosan formation.
In addition to producing the solid product biochar, levoglucosan is dehydrated to generate hydroxymethylfurfural, which can break down to produce liquid and gaseous products such as bio-oil and syngas, respectively. Furthermore, the hydroxymethylfurfural can undergo several processes, including aromatization, condensation, and polymerization, to generate solid biochar [42, 43]. At low temperatures, cellulose degrades to a reasonably stable anhydrocellulose that produces a lot of char, but it decomposes into volatiles [25, 44].
The hemicellulose degradation mechanism is like that of cellulose. Depolymerisation of hemicellulose leads to oligosaccharides production [45]. Decarboxylation, intramolecular rearrangement, depolymerisation, and aromatisation reactions can be used to synthesize biochar or the compound can degrade into syngas and bio-oil [46]. The volatile products and lignin are responsible for the char yield of the cellulose and hemicellulose components in biomass [40].
Unlike the degradation of cellulose and hemicellulose, lignin decomposition is more complicated [47]. The creation of a more condensed solid structure and the shattering of relatively weak bonds result in the formation of char from lignin [48]. The β-O-4 lignin bond is broken and causes free radicals to be released. The protons emanating from other particles are captured by these free radicals, causing the production of degraded substances or compounds. Chain propagation is accomplished by free radicals moving to other molecules. Different amounts of lignin related to variable wood types bring about different breakdown rates. Coniferous lignin has been discovered to be more stable than deciduous lignin, and the former creates more char [49, 50].
This is a thermochemical process that decomposes carbon-rich materials into gaseous products, including CO, CO2, CH4, H2, and traces of hydrocarbons; these gases are referred to as syngas [51, 52]. Gasification happens at high temperatures between 700 and 900°C in an environment with restricted oxidizing agents such as oxygen, air, nitrogen, steam, carbon dioxide, or a mixture of these gases. It was discovered that when the temperature rose, carbon monoxide and hydrogen production increased, while other components such as methane, carbon dioxide, and hydrocarbons declined [53]. The main product of this process is syngas (mostly hydrogen), while char is referred to as a by-product (or waste) with a lower yield, along with ash, tar, and some oil [51]. Partial oxidation of biomass, unlike combustion, takes the energy available in the biomass and bundles it into chemical bonds in the form of gaseous products. The intrinsic chemical energy of carbon in biomass is transformed into combustible fuel gases, which are more efficient and convenient to utilize than raw biomass [54]. Commercial use of the gasification technique has also been documented. Because of its lower Levelised emissions and higher volume of syngas, gasification outperforms other traditional techniques including pyrolysis, combustion, and fermentation. The O/C ratio is critical to achieving high gasification efficiency. High gasification efficiency is achieved by using biomass with a low O/C ratio during gasification. Biomass can be reduced in its O/C ratio by the process of torrefaction. Before conventional gasification, torrefaction might be regarded as a pretreatment for better product quality. It is a low-temperature process between 200 and 300°C with a heating rate of roughly 50°C/min depending on the biomass composition and type [55, 56]. Pyrolysis and gasification are closely related processes. When gasification and pyrolysis are combined, there is no apparent separation between the two approaches [57, 58]. The little composition of oxygen used in gasification causes the biomass to undergo partial oxidation, changing the final product’s characteristics. The product type is one of the most significant variations between pyrolysis and gasification. Gasification produces around 85% gaseous products, 10% solid char, and 5% liquid products [15, 58]. The schematic of the gasification process is shown in Figure 3.
Process diagram for gasification [
The gasification mechanism can be sub-divided into many steps as follows [5]:
Biomass moisture is entirely removed from the material, and no energy is recovered in the process. Different types of biomass have varying moisture contents. When the biomass has a high moisture content, drying is used as a distinct step during gasification.
The biomass is heated from 200 to 700°C with restricted oxygen or air during the pyrolysis process. The volatile components of the biomass are evaporated under these circumstances. The volatile vapor contains CO, CO2, CH4, H2, tar (heavier hydrocarbon) gases, and water vapor [59]. Tar and char are also formed [60].
The oxidation and combustion reactions of the gasification agents are the primary energy sources for the gasification process. These gasification agents react with the gasifier’s combustible species to create CO2, CO, and water.
The CO2 and H2O are produced when the oxygen provided to the gasifier combines with the combustible elements. Upon contact with the char formed by pyrolysis, some of this CO2 and H2O are converted to CO and H2 [60, 61]. Furthermore, the hydrogen in the biomass can be oxidized, resulting in the production of water. The reduction reactions that take place inside the gasifier are endothermic, and the energy necessary for them comes from the combustion of char and volatiles. Through a series of reactions, biomass reduction produces combustible gases such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and methane [62, 63].
Furthermore, during the gasification process, the tar gases formed during the pyrolysis step are cracked, resulting in non-condensable gasses, light hydrocarbons, and unconverted tar [64]. The cracking stage follows more or less Eq. (2).
Where
Biomass is a composite solid substance made up of organic, inorganic and biological material produced from living or non-living creatures/organisms. There are two main categories of biomass, namely Woody and Non-woody biomass. Woody biomass is mainly forestry and tree residue [1]. It is characterized by low moisture and ash content, high calorific and bulk density values, and low voidage; in contrast, Non-woody biomass is made up of agricultural crop residue, animal waste, and municipal and industrial solid waste [1]. Non-woody biomass is characterized by high moisture and ash content, decreased calorific value, low bulk density, and increased voidage compared to woody biomass [1]. The moisture content of the biomass has been shown to have a significant effect on the physicochemical characteristics of the derived biochar [2]. A study conducted by [3] comparing the pyrolytic charcoals produced from hard and softwood bark samples reported a direct correlation between initial sample moisture content and the surface chemistry derived charcoal; the study found that a decrease in the moisture content of maple bark resulted in charcoal surface becoming more graphite-like and polyaromatic attributed to prolonged pyrolysis time. The effect of feedstock lignin and cellulose content on biochar formation is a well-researched area [4]. Lignin is an amorphous, high molecular weight polymer that is hydrophobic in nature and has several aromatic functional groups in comparison; cellulose and hemicelluloses are made up of simple sugar monomers that disintegrate at temperatures below 450 degrees Celsius [5]. Studies conducted by Tripathi et al. 2016 and Yu et al. 2014 [2, 6] showed that the cellulose content of feedstock aided the formation of tar (which comprises aldehydes, organic liquids, ketones, and char); while a high lignin concentration is beneficial to the formation of char during pyrolysis. According to Demirba (2004) [7], high feedstocks lignin content will increase char formation. It has been shown that increased lignin content in plant biomass promotes carbonization and increases biochar carbon and ash content [8, 9].
Residence (pyrolysis time) has been shown to affect the degree of carbonization and biochar yield of feedstock; this effect is particularly pronounced at low temperatures [18]. According to Zornoza et al. (2016), increased residence time during pyrolysis results in a higher degree of carbonization, reducing the liable organic matter mitigation the vulnerability of the biochar to microbial attack [19]. Residence time has also been shown to influence the specific surface area of biochar produced. A study conducted by Wang et al. (2019) found that the surface area of biochar’s derived from the co-pyrolysis of sewage sludge and cotton stalks increased as residence time increased from 30 minutes to 90 minutes [20]. This was attributed to the formation and extension of pore structures of the biochar caused by the increased thermal decomposition of organic matter and volatiles released from etching pores during the increased residence time [21]. The same study noted a decrease in the surface area of the biochar’s as the residence time was increased from 90 minutes to 150 minutes; this reduction was accounted for by the collapse of the pore structure of the biochar during the extended residence time [20]. Residence time has also been shown to affect the calorific value of the biochar produced; a study conducted by Ahmad et al. (2020) on coconut shell derived biochar showed an increase in calorific value from 25.99 MJ/kg to 29.54 MJ/kg as residence time increased for 45 minutes to 75 minutes [22].
The pre-treatment of biomass before the pyrolysis has been shown to influence biochar characteristics. Pre-treatment is primarily divided into four categories: physical, physiochemical/thermal, chemical, and biological. Physical pre-treatment describes methods (milling, grinding etc.) that use mechanical energy to alter biomass properties. The most common form of physical pre-treatment is particle size reduction via mechanical comminutions. The effect of particle size reduction and fractionation of ash content is well researched. A study conducted by Liu et al. showed that the ash content of switchgrass and pine bark varied considerably with particle size fractions [22]. The study also reported the potential 20% removal of inorganic constituents from switchgrass and a 30% removal of inorganic constituents from raw pine bark. A similar study conducted by Bridgeman et al. found that the ash content of switchgrass and reed canary greatly increased in fines with particle sizes smaller than 90 micrometers, increasing to 3.62 wt. % to 6.0 wt. % for reed canary grass and 3.12 wt. % to 6.88 wt. % (dry basis) for switchgrass [23]. Besides the ash content, feedstock particle size is also correlated to biochar particle size, with finer feedstocks producing finer biochar particle sizes [18]. Studies have found that biochar’s derived from finer feedstocks exhibit lower nitrogen content as well as increased surface area, electrical conductivity, and pH [24, 25]. A study conducted by Sun et al. (2012) evaluating the properties of fine apple wood and corn stover-derived biochar (feedstock = 0.25 mm) reported a higher surface area when compared to applewood or corn stover-derived biochar stover-derived biochar of feedstock particle size = 1.5 mm [27]. Thermal pre-treatment describes methods that make use of thermal energy to produce changes in biomass properties; the most common forms of thermal pre-treatment are steam explosion, HTC and hot water extraction. Steam explosion involves the subjection of biomass to high temperatures and pressures between (160-260°C) and (0.69–4.83 MPa); the biomass subsequently undergoes sudden decompression scattering the fiber material and breaking the covalent bonds between the hemicellulose and lignin [28, 29]. Steam explosion increases the lignin content of the biomass by facilitating the depolymerisation of lignin into lower molecular weight molecules, which then condense with other degradation products [30]. A study conducted by Chen et al. 2017 [46] evaluating the effect of the steam explosion of crop straws before pyrolysis reported a change in the surface structure of the derived biochar; exhibiting a rougher surface when compared to the smoother, clearer and distinct pore structure of the untreated crop straw [31]. The same study also showed an approximate increase in the specific surface area of oil-rape straw-derived biochar 16 times greater than that on the untreated sample.
Properties of biochar produced depend on the composition, type of biomass and the conditions under which it is carbonized. Both physical and chemical characterizations are necessary when identifying the basic properties of biochar and predicting the various application uses. Biochar serves as a promising alternative to its surface area, charged surfaces and functional groups. Figure 4 below displays the different physical and chemical methods used for biochar characterization, focusing on BET and FTIR, belonging to the chemical characterization and SEM as physical characterization.
Overview of a proposed characterization techniques for biochar [
The main aim of quantification to distinguish biochar from organic matter and other forms of black carbon produced. Majority of the potential technology is dependent on spectroscopic characteristics rather than physical separation or isolation.
Biochar being produced from a range of biomass that has different chemical and physical properties results in materials of different properties. Properties of each biomass are important during thermal conversion processes, proximate analysis (ash and moisture content); calorific value; fractions of fixed carbon; volatile components; fractions of lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose; inorganic substances; true density; particle size and moisture content.
Chemical composition of biomass feedstock and biomass is subjected to a range of analyses to achieve the basic physicochemical characteristics of each raw material. Figure 5displays the physiochemical characteristics of biochar. Biochar production is often assessed through changes in the elemental concentrations of C, H, O, S and N and the associated ratios. The fixed carbon is the solid residue that remains after the particle size is carbonized and the volatile matter is expelled. The H/C and O/C ratios are used to determine the degree of aromaticity and maturation. Elemental ratios of O/C, O/H and C/H have been used to provide a reliable measure of the extent of pyrolysis and the level of oxidative adjustment of the biochar. Irrespective of the pyrolytic temperature, the BET areas increased with an increase in carbon burn off, indicating that the carbon burns off had a significant role in increasing pore volume and surface area while the average pore size increased with residence time and pyrolytic temperature. The BET surface area of biochar value of (1057 m2 .g − 1) has been reported, which appears slightly higher than that of activated carbon (970m2 .g−1). Biochar micropore volume of (0.24 mL .g−1) also appeared smaller than that of activated carbon, having a value of (0.32 mL .g−1), however having an average pore diameter of (5.2 nm).
Fourier-transform infrared spectra (FTIR) of the biochar samples [
Scanning electron microscopy is categorized as a physical characterization technique used to determine the samples macroporosity and the physical morphology of solid substance (Figure 6). A study by Amin 2016 [1] approximated that the biochar produced from cellulose plant materials had a pore diameter of 1 𝜇m. This characteristic is highly dependable in the intrinsic architecture of the feedstock use.
SEM micrograph of biochar with magnification of 500x [
SEM micrographs displayed that the biochar produced at different pyrolytic temperatures has a distinguishable and clear honeycomb structural appearance due to the original tubular structures present in plant cell materials (Figure 6). The well-developed pores have a direct impact on the high surface area. According to Cantrell et al. (2012), biochar produced at lower temperatures is appropriate for regulating fertilizer nutrients and absorbing pollutants from the soil. Higher temperatures lead to material analogous to activated carbon and environmental remediation. SEM micrographs of biochar displayed a clean surface as the pyrolysis process had stabilized the volatile hydrocarbons, therefore smoothening the surface of the biochar. Pyrolysis at lower temperatures displays molded structures with small pores and uneven surface structure. In general, it is safe to say that since the biomass wastes contain lignin and high volatile matter content, the pore creation in biochar is directly affected.
FTIR spectroscopy serves as a great tool to observe the shift change of chemical compositions. The commonly used technique for biochar characterization using the FTIR is the pellet technique, which mixes 1 mg of dried biochar with 300 mg of pre-dried and pulverized spectroscopic grade KBr. Novak ae al. (2012) used the pellet technique to conclude 3400to 3410 cm−1, H-bonded O–H stretching vibrations of hydroxyl groups from alcohols, phenols, and organic acids, 2850 to 2950 cm−1, C–H stretching of alkyl structures; 1620–1650 cm−1, aromatic and olefinic CDC vibrations, CDO in amide (I), ketone, and quinone groups; 1580 to 1590 cm−1, COO- asymmetric stretching; 1460 cm−1, C–H deformation of CH3 group; 1280–1270 cm−1, O–H stretching of phenolic compounds; and three bands around 460, 800, and 1000–1100 cm−1, bending of Si–O stretching [68]. Figure 5 illustrates the FTIR spectra of biochar collected during different stages of the production, i.e. (Biochar: Original, −1: pre-incubation, −2: jointing, −3: Heading; −4: Mature).
Biochar is a product (together with bio-oil and gases) resulting from biomass pyrolysis. Biochar usage has increased because it reduces the negative impacts of biomass on the environment [69]. The physicochemical properties of biochar are what govern the applications of this material. Depending on the feedstock type, production technology and process conditions [70]; the quality, yield and toxicity of the resulting biochar differs (as shown in Table 1) [72, 73]. These applications (including potential applications) range from adsorption for water and air pollutants [74], activated carbon [75], anaerobic digestion promoter/catalyst [76], construction material [77], agriculture and horticulture use such as soil conditioning, compost additive [78], carbon sequestration, etc. [73]. Figure 7 demonstrates these applications and how biochar contributes to the circular economy through its uses in agriculture and horticulture. Also, these numerous biochar benefits show a great potential to contribute to the economic sustainability of emerging cellulosic bioenergy production systems [79, 80]. It is worth noting that as the number of applications of biochar increases, so does the number of manufacturers, leading to a need for regulated standards and guidelines for the production of this material (see Table 2) [81, 82].
Type of characterization | Determination method | Results and remarks |
---|---|---|
Elemental analysis | C, H, O, S and N associated ratios | The H/C, O/C and N ratios are used to determine the aromaticity and maturity of the biochar |
BET | Surface area, pore structure, average pore diameter, pore volume and average pores of biochar | 1057m2g−1; macroporosity and microporosity; 5.2 nm; 0.24 mLg−1; 3.3 nm. [71] |
FTIR | Changes which occur in the biochar preparations as well as its functional groups present from the original biochar. | Changes include dehydration, pyrolysis, graphene nucleation, and finally carbonization; O–H (3600–3100 cm − 1), C=C and C=O stretching (1740–1600 cm − 1), C–O–C symmetric stretching (1097 cm − 1), –COOMe (1400–1500 cm − 1), and so on |
List of notable chemical characterisations of biochar.
Biochar uses in agriculture and horticulture and its contribution to the circular economy [
Process | Process temperature | Residence time | Solid product yield on a dry wood feedstock basis (mass %) | Carbon content of the solid product (mass %) | Carbon yield (masscarbon, product/masscarbon feedstock |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Slow pyrolysis | Minute to days | 95 | |||
Fast pyrolysis | 12–26 | 74 | 0.2–0.26 | ||
Gasification | — | — | |||
HTC | 1-12 h | ||||
Flash carbonization | 37 | ||||
Torrefaction | 10–60 min | 61–84 | 51–55 | 0.67–0.85 |
Comparison of typical operating conditions and product properties of various biochar production processes [81].
Biochar application in agriculture and horticulture has been explored both on a laboratory scale and in the field. These applications include being used as a component of chemical fertilizer [83], soil microbial activity, soil amendment for crop productivity improvement through nutrient availability [84, 85] as well as water holding capacity [86]. Biochar has also been reported to alleviate heavy metals release in the soil while having a limiting effect that aids in increasing the pH of highly acidic soils [87, 88]. Though biochar is another soil conditioner type, it differs from compost by production pathways. Biochar is produced by thermal decomposition of food, horticultural and municipal solid waste in the absence of oxygen, while natural biodegradation of organic substrates produces compost by the microbial community under aerobic conditions. Another difference is that; compost degrades fast, making its benefits relatively short-lived compared to biochar which persists in the soil for more prolonged periods [78, 89].
Low soil organic carbon and fertility are challenges faced by many agricultural farmers around the globe. Biochar offers a solution to this challenge because it gives two options, i.e. returning nutrients and carbon to the soil while producing energy [90]. Also, the compositing rate can be increased by using biochar as an additive. Zhang and Sun [91] have examined spent mushroom compost and biochar co-composting. Their results showed a great increase in nutrients content of the resultant compost product and an improved composed quality while reducing the composting time from 90 to 270 days to only 24 days. Also, the large porosity of biochar enables it to facilitate microbial growth in the compost pile, leading to accelerated nutrient recycling [92]. The addition of biochar to poultry manure has been found to increase the maximum temperature reached and shorten the thermophilic phase [93].
An issue of heavy metals/metalloids (HMS) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil and water poses detrimental environmental problems and poor quality of agriculture, affecting all forms of life [94, 95]. These pollutants are toxic, persistent, non-biodegradable and potentially bioaccumulate [96]. Among other bioremediation technologies used to solve the HMS and PAHs issue, biochar is one of the best solutions due to its advantages [97]. These advantages include sustainability, low costs, sequestration of carbon, etc. [94]. Various physical and chemical characteristics of biochar, such as pore structure, specific surface area and functional groups, have been used to adsorption different pollutants [98]. For instance, Mahmoud, et al. [99] have used modified Switchgrass biochar for efficient decolorization of reactive red 195 A dye from aqueous and wastewater samples. Other biomass materials such as rice husks and dairy manure have also been used for biochar production with varying adsorption capacities according to the biomass used upon other factors [100].
Biochar has been used in road construction and as a concrete admixture. Wang, et al. [77] assessed this where a novel production of fill material and pedestrian/vehicle paving blocks were done. In this study, biochar addition was found to be beneficial to cement hydration even though it was noticed that the studied particle sizes could incur microcracks and strength degradation. Also, biochar’s incorporation resulted in enhanced immobilization of potentially organic contaminants and toxic elements in the sediment product, which is significant for moderately to heavily contaminated products. Therefore, biochar from wood can be used as a green combination for cement-based recycling procedures for highly contaminated waste. The use of biochar in construction material to trap atmospheric carbon dioxide in buildings also offers the potential to reduce greenhouse gasses by 25%. High pH and high water retention rate of biochar enable it to absorb some of the mixing water used in concrete mixing, thereby reducing the amount of free water in the concrete [101].
Since biochar’s applications depend greatly on its properties, future research must elucidate the production process effects on biochar’s properties. Biochar used in water treatment would differ from the one used in energy/agriculture. Likewise, there are diverse literature findings on the effects of biochar on agriculture, particularly on crop production caused by soils being different. For instance, crop yields may be increased or decreased by adding biochar depending on the soil type and fertilizer management [90, 102]. Also, the chemical behavior of biochar with heavy metal ions has been found to be inconsistent [103]. It is apparent that the interaction mechanisms between biochar, soil and plants are critical and yet not thoroughly known. Therefore, more efforts are still needed concerning biochar properties to soil and crop responses equally in the field and climate-controlled environment.
Biochar has been applied to remediate contaminated agricultural soil and improve soil fertility by reducing acidity and increasing the availability of nutrients. Thus, the addition of biochar to soils can be one of the best practices to overcome any biotic stress in soil and increase crop productivity, mainly in the agricultural sector. The properties of biochar have significantly been influenced by processes such as pyrolyscould, which have been discussed in this chapter. Thus, biochar appears as a highly promising option for pollutant removal. Economic impacts and recyclability should be considered in developing recoverable biochar for wide environmental applications. The relationship between various solutions for waste management and energy production differs in parameters and multiple techniques for its production and economic, social and ecological constraints. This review paper detailed the state-of-art information that would be helpful to find new opportunities in scientific innovation in the field of biochar research.
The authors are thankful to the Green Engineering and Sustainability research group in the Department of Chemical engineering at the Durban University of Technology, South Africa.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Shields"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6156",title:"Lepidoptera",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b5d586ee7920aa6388b521b833916453",slug:"lepidoptera",bookSignature:"Farzana Khan Perveen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6156.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"56325",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70098",title:"Contact-Mediated Eyespot Color-Pattern Changes in the Peacock Pansy Butterfly: Contributions of Mechanical Force and Extracellular Matrix to Morphogenic Signal Propagation",slug:"contact-mediated-eyespot-color-pattern-changes-in-the-peacock-pansy-butterfly-contributions-of-mecha",totalDownloads:1279,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Butterfly wing color patterns are developmentally determined by morphogenic signals from organizers in the early pupal stage. However, the precise mechanism of color-pattern determination remains elusive. Here, mechanical and surface disturbances were applied to the pupal hindwing of the peacock pansy butterfly Junonia almana (Linnaeus, 1758) to examine their effects on color-pattern determination. Using the forewing-lift method immediately after pupation, a small stainless ball was placed on the prospective major eyespot or background of the developing dorsal hindwing to cause a wing epithelial distortion, resulting in deformation of the major eyespot. When the exposed dorsal hindwing was covered with a piece of plastic film or placed on a surface of a glass slide, an adhesive tape, or a silicone-coated glassine paper, the major eyespot was effectively reduced in size without a direct contact with the covering materials. The latter two treatments additionally induced the size reduction of the minor eyespot and proximal displacement and broadening of parafocal elements through a direct contact, being reminiscent of the temperature-shock-type modifications. These results suggest the importance of mechanical force and physicochemical properties of planar epithelial contact surface (i.e., extracellular matrix) to propagate morphogenic signals for color-pattern determination in butterfly wings.",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Joji M. Otaki",authors:[{id:"208068",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Joji",middleName:"M.",surname:"Otaki",slug:"joji-otaki",fullName:"Joji Otaki"}]},{id:"56320",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70050",title:"Synergistic Damage Response of the Double-Focus Eyespot in the Hindwing of the Peacock Pansy Butterfly",slug:"synergistic-damage-response-of-the-double-focus-eyespot-in-the-hindwing-of-the-peacock-pansy-butterf",totalDownloads:888,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Eyespot color patterns in butterfly wings are determined by the putative morphogenic signals from organizers. Previous experiments using physical damage to the forewing eyespots of the peacock pansy butterfly, Junonia almana (Linnaeus, 1758), suggested that the morphogenic signals dynamically interact with each other, involving enhancement of activation signals and interactions between activation and inhibitory signals. Here, we focused on the large double-focus fusion eyespot on the hindwing of J. almana to test the involvement of the proposed signal interactions. Early damage at a single focus of the prospective double-focus eyespot produced a smaller but circular eyespot, suggesting the existence of synergistic interactions between the signals from two sources. Late damage at a single focus reduced the size of the inner core disk but simultaneously enlarged the outermost black ring. Damage at two nearby sites in the background induced an extensive black area, possibly as a result of the synergistic enhancement of the two induced signals. These results confirmed the previous forewing results and provided further evidence for the long-range and synergistic interactive nature of the morphogenic signals that may be explained by a reaction-diffusion mechanism as a part of the induction model for color-pattern formation in butterfly wings.",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Mayo Iwasaki and Joji M. Otaki",authors:[{id:"208068",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Joji",middleName:"M.",surname:"Otaki",slug:"joji-otaki",fullName:"Joji Otaki"},{id:"208071",title:"MSc.",name:"Mayo",middleName:null,surname:"Iwasaki",slug:"mayo-iwasaki",fullName:"Mayo Iwasaki"}]},{id:"75753",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96637",title:"Managing a Transboundary Pest: The Fall Armyworm on Maize in Africa",slug:"managing-a-transboundary-pest-the-fall-armyworm-on-maize-in-africa",totalDownloads:513,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda J.E Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) invaded Africa in 2016, and has since spread to all countries in sub-Saharan Africa, causing devastating effects on mainly maize and sorghum. The rapid spread of this pest is aided by its high reproductive rate, high migration ability, wide host range and adaptability to different environments, among others. Since its introduction, many governments purchased and distributed pesticides for emergency control, with minimal regard to their efficacy. In this chapter, we review efforts towards managing this pest, highlight key challenges, and provide our thoughts on considerations for sustainable management of the pest.",book:{id:"9666",slug:"moths-and-caterpillars",title:"Moths and Caterpillars",fullTitle:"Moths and Caterpillars"},signatures:"Michael Hilary Otim, Komi Kouma Mokpokpo Fiaboe, Juliet Akello, Barnabas Mudde, Allan Tekkara Obonyom, Anani Yaovi Bruce, Winnifred Aool Opio, Peter Chinwada, Girma Hailu and Pamela Paparu",authors:[{id:"331168",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:"Hilary",surname:"Otim",slug:"michael-otim",fullName:"Michael Otim"},{id:"339328",title:"Dr.",name:"Girma",middleName:null,surname:"Hailu",slug:"girma-hailu",fullName:"Girma Hailu"},{id:"339330",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"Paparu",slug:"pamela-paparu",fullName:"Pamela Paparu"},{id:"339339",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Chinwada",slug:"peter-chinwada",fullName:"Peter Chinwada"},{id:"339340",title:"Ms.",name:"Winnifred",middleName:null,surname:"Aool Opio",slug:"winnifred-aool-opio",fullName:"Winnifred Aool Opio"},{id:"339341",title:"Dr.",name:"Anani",middleName:null,surname:"Bruce Yaovi",slug:"anani-bruce-yaovi",fullName:"Anani Bruce Yaovi"},{id:"339345",title:"Mr.",name:"Allan",middleName:"Obonyom",surname:"Tekkara",slug:"allan-tekkara",fullName:"Allan Tekkara"},{id:"339346",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliet",middleName:null,surname:"Akello",slug:"juliet-akello",fullName:"Juliet Akello"},{id:"339347",title:"Dr.",name:"Barnabas",middleName:null,surname:"Mudde",slug:"barnabas-mudde",fullName:"Barnabas Mudde"},{id:"339349",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaboe",middleName:null,surname:"Komi K Mokpokpo",slug:"fiaboe-komi-k-mokpokpo",fullName:"Fiaboe Komi K Mokpokpo"}]},{id:"57286",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71158",title:"Mitochondrial Genomes of Lepidopteran Insects Considered Crop Pests",slug:"mitochondrial-genomes-of-lepidopteran-insects-considered-crop-pests",totalDownloads:1214,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"In this chapter, the complete mitochondrial genome of Guatemalan potato moth, Tecia solanivora (Povolny, 1973) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) is presented as a model to understand how to characterize and study a mitogenome in insects. It was sequenced, analyzed, and compared with other lepidopteran insects. T. solanivora mitogenome is a circular double-stranded molecule, typically found in insects and containing 37 genes, all them well described over the other lepidopteran mitogenomes sequenced. Interestingly, in this mitogenome was found a gene arrangement in the tRNA-Met gene different from the ancestral arrangement, but commonly present in insect mitogenomes. Other important characteristics are the high A + T-biased and negative AT- and GC-skews contents, but also unusual canonical start codons in 12 protein-coding genes and an incomplete stop codon in the cytochrome oxidase subunit II gene consisting of just a Thymine. Another common feature shared with lepidopteran mitogenomes is the A + T-rich region. It is characterized by having 325 bb, the ‘ATAGA’ motif, a 17 bp poly (T) stretch and a (AT)8 element preceded by the ‘ATTTA’ motif. Likewise, this mitogenome has 21 intergenic spacer regions. In addition, an update about other recent mitogenomes research done mainly over lepidopteran insects considered crop pests is presented. On the other hand, a novel development based on induced mutations by CRISPR-Cas9 in the mitogenomes seeking applicable capability for pest control is shown. The utility of this study is to improve scientific databases and support future studies of population genetic in lepidopteran.",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Viviana Ramírez-Ríos, Javier Correa Alvarez and Diego Villanueva-\nMejia",authors:[{id:"206827",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:"F.",surname:"Villanueva-Mejía",slug:"diego-villanueva-mejia",fullName:"Diego Villanueva-Mejía"},{id:"214479",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Correa Alvarez",slug:"javier-correa-alvarez",fullName:"Javier Correa Alvarez"},{id:"219660",title:"MSc.",name:"Viviana",middleName:null,surname:"Ramírez-Ríos",slug:"viviana-ramirez-rios",fullName:"Viviana Ramírez-Ríos"}]},{id:"56208",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69958",title:"Molecular Phylogeny and Taxonomy of Lepidoptera with Special Reference to Influence of Wolbachia Infection in the Genus Polytremis",slug:"molecular-phylogeny-and-taxonomy-of-lepidoptera-with-special-reference-to-influence-of-wolbachia-inf",totalDownloads:1278,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter provides a case of genus Polytremis Mabille, 1904 (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae), to explain the molecular phylogeny and taxonomy of Lepidoptera and the influence of Wolbachia infection. Earlier studies of Lepidoptera were focused mainly on the morphological classification, population distribution, and identification of new species. As the supplementary to morphological research, analysis of DNA has been widely used in the phylogenetic studies of Lepidoptera. The study provides a conservative estimate that the Wolbachia infection rate in Polytremis nascens Leech (1893) is 31%, and no significant difference in the prevalence is found between the sexes. The Wolbachia infection mainly prevails in populations of P. nascens in southern China, which influence the diversity of mtDNA in P. nascens by a Wolbachia-induced sweep. The Wolbachia infection rate in Polytremis fukia Evans (1940) is 47% and shows a weak association existed between mitochondrial DNA haplotypes and wFuk1 infection status.",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Weibin Jiang",authors:[{id:"207420",title:"Dr.",name:"Weibin",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"weibin-jiang",fullName:"Weibin Jiang"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57369",title:"Introductory Chapter: Lepidoptera",slug:"introductory-chapter-lepidoptera",totalDownloads:7031,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Farzana Khan Perveen and Anzela Khan",authors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen"}]},{id:"57355",title:"Lepidoptera Collection Curation and Data Management",slug:"lepidoptera-collection-curation-and-data-management",totalDownloads:1558,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The collections of Lepidoptera often serve as foundational basis for a wide range of biological, ecological, and climate science disciplines. Species identification and higher taxa delimitation based on collection specimens and especially, on types test scientific hypotheses, provide multiple types of evidence for a broad range of users. Curation and data management approaches applied in Lepidoptera collections benefit greatly from many newly developed information techniques, which link and integrate data. Mostly attention is focused on clean verified collection and taxonomic literature mining data to obtain correct species-group and higher taxa names, as well as reliable data on the distribution of Lepidoptera and their trophic interactions. Collection creation and management became a subject of natural sciences itself. The chapter provides a historic overview on collection creation and curation together with a short discussion on collection goals and purposes. The creation of a virtual collection based on interlinked data is emphasized. Information science and data management tools became very important in Lepidoptera collection curation. The complexity of techniques and computing tools used in taxonomy and the increase in the amount of data that can be obtained by collection-based disciplines make it necessary to automate data gathering, manipulation, analysis, and visualization processes.",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Jurate De Prins",authors:[{id:"213731",title:"Dr.",name:"Jurate",middleName:null,surname:"De Prins",slug:"jurate-de-prins",fullName:"Jurate De Prins"}]},{id:"57731",title:"Taxocenotic and Biocenotic Study of Lepidoptera (Rhopalocera) in Rucamanque: A Forest Remnant in the Central Valley of the Araucanía Region, Chile",slug:"taxocenotic-and-biocenotic-study-of-lepidoptera-rhopalocera-in-rucamanque-a-forest-remnant-in-the-ce",totalDownloads:1254,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Considering that butterflies (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera) are sensitive to physical and climatic changes, e.g. of temperature, humidity and solar radiation, produced by disturbances in their habitat, a survey of this group was carried out in a small remnant of native forest (Rucamanque) in the central valley of the Araucanía Region of Chile. The object was to record the composition, abundance and diversity of Rhopalocera in grassland, forest and the ecotone between them during spring and summer. The study recorded 1190 individual butterflies belonging to 25 species, 18 genera, 8 sub-families and 4 families. The highest values of species richness and abundance were obtained in the summer, of 25 species and 953 individuals; in the spring, 9 species were recorded with a total of 237 individuals. The greatest diversity and homogeneity were found in the ecotone habitat (H′=3.86; J′=0.88; λ =0.08); the values for grassland were (H′=2.73; J′=0.67; λ =0.23) and for forest (H′=2.55; J′=0.71; λ =0.23); these environments being less diverse and more homogeneous. The greatest taxocenotic similarity was found between grassland and the ecotone (54%), and the least similarity appeared between the ecotone and forest (34%). The greatest biocenotic similarity was found between the ecotone and forest (48%), and the lowest correspondence was between grassland and forest (4.18%).",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Hernán Navarrete Parra and Ramón Rebolledo Ranz",authors:[{id:"193813",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rebolledo Ranz",slug:"ramon-eduardo-rebolledo-ranz",fullName:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz"},{id:"217930",title:"Prof.",name:"Hernán",middleName:null,surname:"Navarrete",slug:"hernan-navarrete",fullName:"Hernán Navarrete"}]},{id:"56208",title:"Molecular Phylogeny and Taxonomy of Lepidoptera with Special Reference to Influence of Wolbachia Infection in the Genus Polytremis",slug:"molecular-phylogeny-and-taxonomy-of-lepidoptera-with-special-reference-to-influence-of-wolbachia-inf",totalDownloads:1278,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter provides a case of genus Polytremis Mabille, 1904 (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae), to explain the molecular phylogeny and taxonomy of Lepidoptera and the influence of Wolbachia infection. Earlier studies of Lepidoptera were focused mainly on the morphological classification, population distribution, and identification of new species. As the supplementary to morphological research, analysis of DNA has been widely used in the phylogenetic studies of Lepidoptera. The study provides a conservative estimate that the Wolbachia infection rate in Polytremis nascens Leech (1893) is 31%, and no significant difference in the prevalence is found between the sexes. The Wolbachia infection mainly prevails in populations of P. nascens in southern China, which influence the diversity of mtDNA in P. nascens by a Wolbachia-induced sweep. The Wolbachia infection rate in Polytremis fukia Evans (1940) is 47% and shows a weak association existed between mitochondrial DNA haplotypes and wFuk1 infection status.",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Weibin Jiang",authors:[{id:"207420",title:"Dr.",name:"Weibin",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"weibin-jiang",fullName:"Weibin Jiang"}]},{id:"75535",title:"Role of Pheromone Application Technology for the Management of Codling Moth in High Altitude and Cold Arid Region of Ladakh",slug:"role-of-pheromone-application-technology-for-the-management-of-codling-moth-in-high-altitude-and-col",totalDownloads:338,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The codling moth is a threat to the apple industries in India. Currently, no solutions are available for the management of codling moth in Ladakh. Therefore, all fresh fruits from Ladakh are still banned due to quarantine regulations. Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh and Ladakh are the three main apple producing states of India, both in quality and quantity. The ban on all fresh fruits from Ladakh directly affects the economy of rural populations. These fruits are sold in all the local markets of Kargil and Leh. Apples damaged by the larvae of codling moth are less preferred by inhabitants, tourists, and security forces, a large area of Ladakh is bordered with China and Pakistan. Field demonstration trials revealed significantly less fruit damage in apple orchards in different hamlets of Ladakh using pheromone dispensers, pheromone baited traps, and two applications of insecticides for codling moth management. A demonstration of the use of pheromone and pheromone dispenser technology for area-wide management for high dense populations of the codling moth in Ladakh has revealed successful results in the orchards of the apple growers. Area-wide management of the codling moth in some villages, using dispenser technology has shown promising results. The ban of fresh fruits in Ladakh may not be, therefore, appropriate as management of the codling moth appears to be successful with the use of pheromone dispenser technology. This technology will, surely, boost the apple industry and have a great potential for establishing commercial orchards and quality apples in high altitudes in the second-highest cold arid region of the world.",book:{id:"9666",slug:"moths-and-caterpillars",title:"Moths and Caterpillars",fullTitle:"Moths and Caterpillars"},signatures:"Barkat Hussain, Faizaan Ahmad, Ejaz Ahmad, Wasim Yousuf and Mohd Mehdi",authors:[{id:"319667",title:"Dr.",name:"Barkat",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"barkat-hussain",fullName:"Barkat Hussain"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"316",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. By addressing hot topics in veterinary sciences, we aim to gather authoritative texts within each issue of this series, providing in-depth overviews and analysis for graduates, academics, and practitioners and foreseeing a deeper understanding of the subject. Forthcoming texts, written and edited by experienced researchers from both industry and academia, will also discuss scientific challenges faced today in Veterinary Medicine and Science. In brief, we hope that books in this series will provide accessible references for those interested or working in this field and encourage learning in a range of different topics.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/13.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 7th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. 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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:26,paginationItems:[{id:"83087",title:"Role of Cellular Responses in Periodontal Tissue Destruction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106645",signatures:"Nam Cong-Nhat Huynh",slug:"role-of-cellular-responses-in-periodontal-tissue-destruction",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Periodontology - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11566.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"82654",title:"Atraumatic Restorative Treatment: More than a Minimally Invasive Approach?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105623",signatures:"Manal A. 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