Overview of different airway management techniques—advantages and disadvantages in prehospital use.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3103",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Wind Tunnel Designs and Their Diverse Engineering Applications",title:"Wind Tunnel Designs and Their Diverse Engineering Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is intended to be a valuable addition to students, engineers, scientists, industrialists, consultants and others providing greater insight into wind tunnel designs and their enormous research potential. 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\r\n\tIncreasing demand for agricultural production for human, animal, and industrial requirements is responsible for the enhancement of agricultural and agro-industrial activities. Each step of such activities produces various types of agricultural waste that include crop residue, on-farm livestock and fisheries waste, forest waste, agro-industrial waste, etc. Currently, handling and managing agricultural waste is a challenging task worldwide, especially in the context of environmental pollution control and sustainable agriculture. Thus, efficient management in terms of reuse, recycling, and reduction of agricultural waste is principally needed not only for the green economy but also for farmers' profitability. This would also contribute to minimizing environmental pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and climate change to meet the 2030 UN-SDGs. Therefore, this book aims to address agricultural waste production and management in the multidimensional aspects of crop residue, biodegradables, biomass, composting and vermiculture, agricultural waste economics, air pollution, environmental safety, waste management, and handling, on-farm waste reuse, and agricultural waste value addition. Authors are encouraged to submit original research, reviews, modeling and simulation, case studies, and recent progress and scenarios in the above-mentioned subject areas.
\r\n\t
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Ditta [58] stated that application of chemical pesticides causing climate change, and affected to urbanization, and natural resources. Those chemicals runoff or accumulate toxic pesticides in soil and it is needed to solve these problems immediately. However, there are still a few reports for the use of nanocarrier systems in agriculture [59]. Rai and Ingle [60] suggested that nanotechnology provides efficient to control diseases and insect pests. Ditta [58] added that nanotechnology has a great potential in agriculture due to its enhancing life quality, especially in crop production. Nanotechnology should be carefully evaluated for postive and negative impacts as done with any new technology. Some nanoparticles are formulated to contain chemical pesticides in colloidal suspensions or as powders, at the nano or micro scale that must be noticed. Soutter [56] stated that application of nanotechnology in agriculture should be done in precision farms and become the new “industrial revolution” in agriculture. Ditta [58] suggested that there is a great potential for nanoscience and nanotechnology to face various challenges in agriculture. Perlatti
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Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is frequently associated with depressed level of consciousness, compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) intubation. This practice is also reflected by the current guidelines: the American College of Surgeons Committee on Trauma Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) recommends intubation for patients with a GCS of 8 or lower for airway protection [1]. Also, the practice management guidelines of the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma give a level 1 recommendation for endotracheal intubation of patients with severe cognitive impairment (GCS ≤ 8) [2].
However, the potential benefit of an intubation in TBI, is also associated with risks: Difficult or failed endotracheal intubation may cause hypoxemia, aspiration, and hypotension and requires admission to the intensive care unit (ICU). In fact, there is no direct evidence supporting routine intubation of all patients with a GCS ≤ 8. Consequently, recent evidence challenged the practice of a strict GCS threshold for intubation and even suggested that routine endotracheal intubation for GCS ≤ 8 in TBI may be harmful [3].
The primary goal in the prehospital care of the trauma patient is to secure adequate ventilation until transfer to hospital care. To achieve this goal, various techniques for airway establishment and subsequent ventilation can be performed: endotracheal intubation has been considered as the gold standard. However, ventilation may also be achieved by less invasive and time consuming procedures such bag-valve mask (BVM) ventilation with the optional use of oropharyngeal (OPA) or nasopharyngeal (NPA) adjuncts. More advanced techniques include supraglottic airway (SGA) devices. There is a wide range of medications available to facilitate intubation prehospital or in the ER.
To date, there are no evidence-based guidelines for TBI patients regarding standardized airway management in the prehospital setting or in the ER. This explains also why indications and techniques for airway establishment vary in different systems and countries around the world. In the United States of America (USA) prehospital care is usually provided by emergency medical technicians or trained paramedics, whereas prehospital care in most European countries is provided by physicians [4]. Following these differences of American and European Emergency Medical Service (EMS) systems, the US prehospital care strategy follows more “scoop and run approach” with prioritizing rapid patient transport to trauma centers. In Europe the priority lies more on field triage, on scene assessment and initiation of procedures such as intubation “stay and play approach” [5].
This chapter will address the question what airway management strategy best meet the patients need and is associated with most favorable outcomes in TBI. Indications and optimal method of securing the airway prehospital and in the ER will be discussed. In addition, technical aspects including medication for pretreatment, induction, paralysis and sedation for endotracheal Intubation in the presence of TBI will be outlined.
Advanced prehospital care has been practiced for several decades in Western countries. In TBI particularly, prehospital airway management is one of the most critical aspects that determine patient outcomes. The importance of the airway management is reflected by the Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) algorithm [1], in which the airway takes priority over any other therapeutic interventions.
General prehospital TBI guidelines [6] are emphasizing avoidance and treatment of hypoxia, prevention and correction of hyperventilation, and avoidance and treatment of hypotension. The implementation of these prehospital guidelines showed that adjusted survival doubled among patients with severe TBI and tripled in the severe, intubated cohort. Furthermore, guideline implementation was significantly associated with survival to hospital admission [7]. These findings support the widespread implementation of the prehospital TBI treatment guidelines. However, specific evidence-based guidelines are needed to establish the optimal airway management in the prehospital setting.
Patients require an advanced airway under two sets of circumstances: failure to maintain a patent airway and the inability to oxygenate and ventilate the patient adequately [8]. While endotracheal intubation in the OR is a very safe and straightforward procedure with very low complication rate, emergency intubation of an unstable patient in the field is linked to a high rate of complication with up to 25% mortality in some studies. Emergency intubation remains a hazardous maneuver even under the best conditions. And no matter how skilled the prehospital team is, best conditions are seldom encountered in the field. This is why endotracheal intubation should ideally performed by skilled providers in patients who are likely to benefit from this technique. In a prehospital setting the indication to establish an airway is not always that obvious and depends on multiple factors (Figure 1
Severity of patients’ condition and the presence of hypoxia: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is frequently associated with depressed level of consciousness, compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. During the past 45 years, the quantitative GCS as a simple and practical numeric method for assessing impairment of the level of conscious has become the universal criterion for mental status assessment [10]. Consequently, the GCS is also a frequently used score to decide whether an intubation should be performed or not. According to the ATLS [1] and the practice management guidelines of the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma [2] intubation is recommended for GCS ≤8. However, there is no scientific evidence supporting this practice. The dogma that patients with a GCS ≤ 8 are at higher risk for aspiration or hypoxic injury has now been challenged. A prospective study from Hong Kong, in 2012, showed that of 33 patients with a GCS ≤ 8 36.4% had intact airway reflexes and potentially capable of maintaining their own airway, whilst many patients with a GCS > 8 have impaired airway reflexes and potentially be at risk for aspiration [11].
The need for immediate establishment of an obstructed or impaired airway or hypoxia is unquestionably associated with better outcomes. However, performing an intubation in a suboptimal environment in the field, especially if performed by paramedics, may be challenging and require multiple attempts and in some cases may result in the loss of airway with catastrophic consequences. A difficult intubation may result in hypoxemia, aspiration, and hypotension, factors that may contribute to worse outcomes. Also, prehospital intubation and hand ventilation is often associated with hyperventilation and hypocapnia, which could worsen brain edema and secondary brain damage. Finally, prolonging the prehospital time and delaying definitive care, may have adverse effects on the patient, especially in the presence imminent herniation due to increased intracranial pressure (ICP) or an ongoing hemorrhage.
In conclusion, it is important to identify those patients who might benefit from prehospital endotracheal intubation and those who can potentially be harmed by the procedure. At this moment there is no class I evidence supporting any specific approach. It might be appropriate to attempt prehospital intubation in a small number of selected patients with imminent airway obstruction or hypoxia not responding to oxygen administration.
Training and skills of the EMS personnel and the available equipment: In the United States of America (USA) prehospital care is usually provided by emergency medical technicians for basic life support (BLS) or trained paramedics for advanced life support (ALS), whereas prehospital care in most European countries is provide by physicians. Basic providers are restricted to splinting, bandaging, alignment of displaced limbs, the administration of oxygen including BVM ventilation, chest compression and the use of an automated external defibrillator (AED) in case of cardiac arrest. However, especially in the USA many of BLS providers have obtained an intermediate level (EMT-I); these individuals can obtain a more definitive airway such as using a SGA device or even perform endotracheal intubation. Paramedics are trained and performed endotracheal intubation. However, very often many paramedics, especially in areas with no large trauma volumes may not use this skill very often and may become less competent with the procedure. On the other hand, especially an experienced physician proficient with endotracheal intubation, is more likely to perform an intubation more liberally, often unnecessarily. In the United States, prehospital care strategy follows the principle of “scoop and run” with prioritizing rapid patient transport to trauma centers and minimal interventions on scene. In Europe there is a strong element on field triage and initiation of more advanced therapeutic interventions, such as intubation. This prehospital strategy is also known as “stay and play”. A matched cohort study compared patients with isolated severe TBI in Switzerland and the United States [12]. In line with the described differences in prehospital strategies, patients in Switzerland had significantly longer scene times (23 vs. 9 minutes, p < 0.001) and prehospital endotracheal intubation was more frequently performed (31% vs. 18.7%, p = 0.034). However, no significant differences in outcomes were observed between the two cohorts. The results what prehospital strategy should be prioritized and if an endotracheal intubation should be performed remain controversial, although there is evidence that a “scoop and run” approach is preferable for penetrating trauma. In these scenarios the number of meaningful interventions that can be made by prehospital providers is limited and rapid transportation to the hospital is the most important aspect, because in-hospital surgery is typically needed for hemorrhage control.
Safety and environment on scene: The safety aspect on scene, as well as the transportation mode and the expected time to reach the next hospital are important for considering airway interventions on scene. Especially for longer transports, the time-saving aspect of the scoop and run approach without airway interventions becomes less important and early establishment of an airway may improve patient outcomes.
Prehospital airway-management. The indication to establish an airway in a prehospital setting depends on: the severity of patients’ condition and the presence of hypoxia; the training and skills of the EMS personnel including the available equipment; and the safety and environment on scene. Figure provided by Clerc EMS Monthey, Switzerland.
Considering all factors above, complexity of the decision to perform a prehospital intubation becomes obvious, and it is not surprising that the literature on this topic remains contradictory. A retrospective multicenter study including 13,625 patients with moderate to severe TBI showed that prehospital intubation was independently associated with a decrease in survival [13]. Several other studies implicated out-of-hospital intubation as a factor associated with negative outcomes [14, 15]. In a recently published study prehospital airway management in severe TBI patients did not have a significant impact on mortality or long-term neurological outcomes [16]. Other investigations have also demonstrated no difference or even improved outcomes with field intubation [17, 18].
Besides intubation, different other options for airway management are available in a prehospital setting. The simplest approaches such as the jaw thrust or chin lift maneuver are included in the first aid. Oropharyngeal (OPA) or nasopharyngeal (NPA) adjuncts may be inserted orally or nasally to secure an open airway. More advanced airway techniques include the establishment of an airway using an SGA device and finally the performance of endotracheal intubation. In particular cases, a surgical airway must also be considered. A major challenge in prehospital airway management is to determine the appropriate approach for the individual patient in the present environment and setting. Table 1 shows various airway management techniques and summarizes advantages and disadvantages in prehospital use.
Airway management techniques | Skills | Training needed | Time needed | Possible complications | Level of sedation/unconsciousness needed | Equipment needed | Protection against aspiration and airway shutdown | Ventilation possible without face mask |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Trauma jaw thrust, trauma chin lift | ||||||||
Oropharyngeal airway, Nasopharyngeal airway | ||||||||
Laryngeal mask, laryngeal tube | ||||||||
Endotracheal intubation, surgical airway |
Overview of different airway management techniques—advantages and disadvantages in prehospital use.
A recently published systematic review [19] was assessing comparative benefits and harms across three different airway management approaches (BVM, SGA, and endotracheal intubation) for patients with trauma, cardiac arrest, or medical emergencies requiring prehospital ventilatory support or airway protection. Overall, 99 studies involving 630,397 patients from 1990 to September 2020 were considered for analysis. The evaluated outcomes included mortality, neurological function, return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC), and successful advanced airway insertion. Different meta-analyses were stratified first by study design (RCTs or observational studies), and then by emergency type (cardiac arrest, trauma, medical) and population age (adult, pediatric, mixed-age). All meta-analyses outcomes were reported as favoring one of the two compared approaches, or no difference. Sufficient evidence was not available to address all outcomes and all patient characteristics, provider characteristics, and variations in techniques that were specified a priori. For adult trauma patients 1-month post incidence survival was not different when BVM was compared to endotracheal intubation. Other comparisons for adult trauma patients did not show sufficient evidence to favor an airway management strategy over another. Potential harms of airway management for the entire study population were also compared. When comparing BVM vs. SGA and BVM vs. endotracheal intubation, no difference was found. When comparing SGA to endotracheal intubation, SGA was superior in terms of multiple insertion attempts; endotracheal intubation was superior in terms of inadequate ventilation. No difference was recorded for aspiration, oral/airway trauma and regurgitation. The authors concluded that the currently available evidence does not indicate benefits of more invasive airway approaches based on survival, neurological function, ROSC, or successful airway insertion. However, most included studies were observational. This supports the need for high-quality randomized controlled trials to advance clinical practice and EMS education and policy, and improve patient-centered outcomes.
Similar to the prehospital setting the standard indications for an advanced airway establishment in the ER, include low GCS, failure to maintain a patent airway and the inability to oxygenate and ventilate the patient adequately. In the presence of a TBI a diminished level of consciousness with the concern for the loss of airway control is very common and likely the most frequent indication for ER intubation. Therefore, the GCS is most commonly used to decide whether an intubation should be performed or not.
Patients with TBI and a GCS ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by ER endotracheal intubation. However, this practice is based mainly on expert opinion and long-standing dogma. There is very little evidence to support this policy! Recent work has challenged this practice! A recently published study including patients with isolated severe head injuries suggested that routine endotracheal intubation in the ER for GCS of 7 and 8 may be even harmful [3]. In this study 2727 patients with GCS 7/8 and isolated blunt head trauma were included. Overall, 1866 (68.4%) patients were intubated within 1 hour of admission (immediate intubation), 223 (8.2%) had an intubation >1 hour of admission (delayed intubation), and 638 (23.4%) patients were not intubated at all. After correcting for age, gender, overall comorbidities, tachycardia, GCS, alcohol, illegal drug use, and head injury severity, immediate intubation was independently associated with higher mortality (OR 1.79, CI 95% 1.31–2.44, p < 0.001) and more overall complications (OR 2.46, CI 95% 1.62–3.73, p < 0.001).
A study [20] evaluating a general trauma population with GCS of 6–8 came to a similar conclusion. An intubation within 1 hour of arrival was associated with an increase in mortality and longer ICU and overall length of stay compared to patients without an intubation. The authors also performed a subgroup analysis of patients with head injury and found similar results to that of the overall trauma population.
These two studies showing worse outcomes associated with immediate intubation and suggest that the existing GCS threshold to mandate intubation in patients with isolated head injuries should be revisited.
Beside the GCS, additional clinical criteria may help to guide the decision to intubate TBI patients in the future. A recently published study showed that head abbreviated injury scale (AIS), tachycardia and younger age were independent clinical factors associated with intubation [3]. These factors could potentially be taken into account to formulate a more selective approach to immediate intubation. In the mentioned study a policy of intubating all isolated blunt head injury patients ≤45 years with head AIS 5 and GCS 7 would have improved intubation management, with 7 immediate instead of delayed intubations and only three potentially unnecessary intubations. If these defined criteria are met (high specificity), an early intubation should be strongly considered. On the other hand, the defined criteria are not suitable to identify patients who definitely do not require an intubation (low sensitivity). Future research should focus on defining more adequate clinical parameters to identify patients requiring immediate intubation and should avoid fixed GCS threshold.
Muakkassa et al. [21] compared trauma patients who were intubated because of combativeness, and not because of medical necessity. In line with the findings above intubating for combativeness was associated with longer hospital LOS, increased rates of pneumonia, and worse discharge status when compared with matched non-intubated patients. It appears that the risks and adverse events of intubation may outweigh the potential benefits of intubation in specific trauma populations.
Therefore, the following potential risks associated with intubation in TBI patients need to be considered by every health care provider. Laryngoscopy and the endotracheal tube can cause a sympathetic or parasympathetic stimulation. Sympathetic stimulation may increase heart rate, blood pressure [22] and ICP [23], whereas parasympathetic stimulation can trigger bronchospasm or hypotension. Especially the increase in ICP from the sympathetic surge can cause an increase in cerebral blood volume, cerebral edema, and development of worsening hemorrhage or hematoma. Finally, both, sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulations may increase mortality and brain injury.
Ventilation after intubation need to be monitored closely, because both hyper- and hypoventilation can contribute to worse outcomes. Severe hyperventilation (arterial pCO2 below 25 mm Hg) should be avoided due to the risk of vasoconstriction and cerebral ischemia. In general, a normo-ventilation with an arterial pCO2 within 35–45 mm Hg should be targeted. However, mild hyperventilation (arterial pCO2 within 30–34 mm Hg) is commonly used to address high intracranial pressure and may potentially be beneficial [24]. More important to address the elevated ICP in TBI patients is the initiation of hyperosmolar therapy with mannitol or hypertonic saline when additional bleeding is suspected [25].
Technical aspects and medications for endotracheal intubation carries also risks for TBI patients. The following section gives an overview including recommendations for pretreatment, induction, paralysis, and sedation of patients with TBI to prevent secondary brain damage.
Endotracheal intubation remains the gold standard for airway management in trauma patients and should be performed via the oral route and a manual in-line stabilization maneuver [26]. Rapid sequence induction (RSI) is widely used for emergency intubation and often considered as the gold standard for trauma patients. This technique uses a fast acting anesthetic in combination with a fast acting relaxant to achieve rapid intubation. Only a few people are aware that this technique was formally described by P. Safar back in 1970 [27]. The primary goal of this technique was to prevent regurgitation during induction of anesthesia in patients with bowel obstruction. Hypoxemia and hypotension were hardly considered at that time, when advanced monitoring and pulse oximetry were still tools of the future. From today’s point of view, this technique is not ideally suited to prevent hypoxemia and hypotension. While in standard OR practice, such short events will hardly result in more than a check on the Q/A sheet, they may have devastating consequences on outcomes in patients with TBI.
In addition, complication rate increases significantly with the number of intubation attempts, with a sharp increase if more than 2 attempts are needed [28]. This suggests that first pass success should be the gold standard in emergency intubation, and return to basic maneuvers or surgical airway should be considered if 2 attempts have failed.
Another important aspect is efficient airway clearance before intubation, which has been shown to significantly increase first pass success [29]. That is why suction of the airway, while having little relevance in the OR can be a game changer in emergency intubation.
Good oxygenation throughout the procedure is paramount in brain injured patients, so meticulous attention should be paid to optimizing precondition. A recent study [30] has shown that when intubation is attempted in a patient with a SpO2 < 93%, there is almost 100% incidence of severe hypoxemia while incidence goes down to 17% if SpO2 is 95% or more. While optimizing oxygenation status may take some time, it certainly pays off in terms of patient outcome.
Last but not least a close monitoring during intubation is mandatory. Studies have shown that episodes of hypoxemia during intubation attempts often go unrecognized, both in the field and in the ER. Furthermore, after intubation attention should be taken to avoid hyperventilation as it can cause hypocapnia and thus cerebral vasoconstriction; it also can impair venous return leading to hypotension. As trivial as it might seem, having a team member watching the vital signs is an important factor in the intubation process.
In the following section medication for pretreatment, induction, paralysis and sedation for endotracheal intubation in the presence of TBI are discussed.
There is currently no evidence to support the use of intravenous lidocaine as an intubation pretreatment for RSI in patients with TBI [23]. High-dose fentanyl (at 2–3 mcg/kg) can help to blunt the sympathetic stimulation of intubation and is currently recommended for neuroprotection in patients with increased ICP.
In TBI the induction with etomidate is popular all over the world because of its mild hemodynamic profile. Particularly, in TBI a drop in mean arterial pressure (MAP) and the subsequent decrease in cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) may have devasting consequences. It’s important to be aware that etomidate has no analgesic properties, and neuroexcitation may need to be addressed separately.
Ketamine for induction is a good option, with the additional benefit of analgesic properties. The concern of sympathetic stimulation, leading to an increase in ICP is no longer valid. On the contrary, ketamine may, in fact, be neuroprotective due to an increase in MAP and CPP [31], without an increase in cerebral oxygen consumption or reducing regional glucose metabolism [32]. Ketamine may best be used for induction in the presence of hypotension because of for the described effect of increasing MAP and CPP [33].
For paralysis succinylcholine or rocuronium can be utilized [34]. Succinylcholine, as a depolarizing neuromuscular blocking agent has the advantage of rapid onset and offset properties, which is beneficial in TBI patients regarding early neurological examinations. Rocuronium on the other hand can lead to delays in proper neurological examinations due to prolonged paralysis. A retrospective study of 2016 compared 233 TBI patients requiring intubation in the ER. RSI was either performed with succinylcholine or rocuronium. Overall mortality rate was similar between the two groups. However, for patients with a high head AIS score (4–6), succinylcholine was associated with increased mortality compared with rocuronium (44% vs. 23%, odds ratio (OR) 4.10, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.18–14.12; p = 0.026). Prospective studies are need to clarify these findings.
Propofol in TBI patients for post-intubation sedation is widely used and has the advantage of rapid onset of action and short duration of action. However, since it has no analgesic effect, it needs to be combined with medication for pain control. Furthermore, care should be taken in hypotensive patients because it may lower the MAP and subsequently the CPP. For post-intubation continuous sedation, a combination of propofol and fentanyl in the normotensive or hypertensive patient is therefore recommended. Fentanyl is a potent analgesia without appropriate sedation properties. While the hemodynamic properties of fentanyl are relatively stable, a decrease in MAP and HR frequently occur due to the cessation of the sympathetic stimulus triggered by pain. In addition, an increase in ICP has been described in several studies. A minimal appropriate dose for TBI patients is therefore recommended.
In hypotensive patients a combination of midazolam and fentanyl or ketamine alone is a good option. Midazolam as a sedative has the additional benefit of anxiolytic and anticonvulsant properties. Compared to propofol the effect on ICP and CPP are comparable. However, it’s important to have in mind that the onset and offset action of midazolam is initially relatively fast but tissue accumulation over time may be associated with delayed awakening. This is particularly disadvantageous in patients with TBI, as rapid clinical assessment after cessation of the drug is wanted.
A relatively new approach for emergency intubation is the delayed sequence induction (DSI) technique described by Weingart and colleagues [35]. In contrast to RSI, the technique of delayed sequence intubation temporally separates administration of the induction agent from the administration of the muscle relaxant to allow adequate pre-intubation preparation. This technique uses ketamine sedation to optimize preoxygenation with CPAP or assisted ventilation before muscle relaxant is given and intubation performed. Recent studies have shown an improved safety profile in emergency intubation using this technique. A ketamine-only breathing intubation, in which ketamine is used without a paralytic is another promising alternative. In this case the patient continues to breathe spontaneously, while ketamine provide hemodynamic benefits compared to standard RSI and is also a valuable agent for post-intubation analgesia and sedation. When RSI is not an optimal airway management strategy, ketamine’s unique pharmacology can be harnessed to facilitate alternative approaches that may increase patient safety [36].
Airway control is particularly important for patients with TBI because hypoxemia and hypercarbia may cause secondary brain damage.
In a prehospital setting the indication to establish an airway depends on multiple factors such as (a) severity of patients’ condition including the presence of hypoxia, (b) the training and skills of the EMS personnel including the available equipment, (c) the safety and environment on scene.
In the presence of a TBI a diminished level of consciousness with the concern for the loss of airway control is very common and likely the most frequent indication for intubation. Traditionally patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been managed by prehospital or ER endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. There is evidence that intubation according to a strict GCS threshold is associated with risks and adverse events that may outweigh the potential benefits of intubation in TBI patients. Future research should focus on defining more adequate clinical parameters to identify patients requiring immediate intubation and should avoid fixed GCS threshold. Furthermore, less invasive airway management strategies such as BVM ventilation or the use of SGA devices may be equally effective and potentially associated with less complications. The cornerstone of prehospital airway management should focus on aggressive prevention and treatment of hypoxemia, hypotension, and, if the patient receiving positive pressure ventilation, prevention of hyperventilation. If an intubation is performed in a TBI patient induction with etomidate or ketamine in the presence of hypotension is recommended. For paralysis succinylcholine or rocuronium can be used. Recommendations for post-intubation continuous sedation medications include a combination of propofol and fentanyl in the normotensive or hypertensive patient. A combination of midazolam and fentanyl or ketamine alone should be considered in the hypotensive patient. Delayed sequence induction (DSI) or a ketamine-only intubation, in which ketamine is used without a paralytic are very promising options for emergency intubation and may become the standard of care in the future. The benefit of these strategies compared to RSI need to be confirmed in large randomized clinical trials.
We thank Clerc EMS Monthey, Switzerland for providing Figure 1.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\n\nIn instances where permission is obtained from the publisher for reusing or republishing the Book, or significant parts of the Book, all of the following conditions apply:
\n\nEvery single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please write to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nIndividual Works originally published in IntechOpen books are licensed under Creative Commons licenses and can be freely used under terms of the respective CC license, if properly attributed. In order to properly attribute the Work you must respect all the conditions outlined below:
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\n\nIntechOpen does not have any claims on newly created copyrighted Works, but the Works originally published by IntechOpen must be properly attributed.
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Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1406",title:"Mineralogy",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences-soil-science-mineralogy",parent:{id:"108",title:"Soil Science",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences-soil-science"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:20,numberOfWosCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfDimensionsCitations:20,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"1406",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"6236",title:"Contributions to Mineralization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"82b66946017dcdc1ea6ac17e0bf766a4",slug:"contributions-to-mineralization",bookSignature:"Ali Ismail Al-Juboury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6236.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58570",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Ismail",surname:"Al-Juboury",slug:"ali-al-juboury",fullName:"Ali Al-Juboury"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"57250",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71335",title:"Trace Elements in Coal Gangue: A Review",slug:"trace-elements-in-coal-gangue-a-review",totalDownloads:1227,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Coal gangue is one of the largest industrial residues. It has high ash content, low carbonaceous content, and heating value. Meanwhile, it has some trace elements. Large quantities of coal gangue cause serious environmental problems by polluting the air, water, and soil as well as occupying a tremendous amount of land. Now, coal gangue utilization is a matter of great concern and has attracted wide interest. However, some toxic trace elements in coal gangue should be paid more attention during the utilization of coal gangue. In this article, the modes of occurrence and the leaching characters of trace elements in coal gangue were introduced according to the result of the sequential extraction method and the leaching method. The release character of trace elements during combustion of coal gangue and the environmental implication of trace elements in coal gangue were also discussed. The sulfide-bound trace elements are dominant form in coal gangue. Leaching behavior of trace elements from coal gangue is affected by many factors. Different trace elements presented different transformation behaviors. Trace elements in coal gangue could release out and produce environmental implication in various degrees, depending on the type of trace elements.",book:{id:"6236",slug:"contributions-to-mineralization",title:"Contributions to Mineralization",fullTitle:"Contributions to Mineralization"},signatures:"Shaoqing Guo",authors:[{id:"209067",title:"Prof.",name:"Shaoqing",middleName:null,surname:"Guo",slug:"shaoqing-guo",fullName:"Shaoqing Guo"}]},{id:"57241",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71187",title:"Petrology, Geochemistry and Mineralogy of Greisens Associated with Tin-Tungsten Mineralisation: Hub Stock Deposit at Krásno–Horní Slavkov Ore District, Czech Republic",slug:"petrology-geochemistry-and-mineralogy-of-greisens-associated-with-tin-tungsten-mineralisation-hub-st",totalDownloads:1626,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The greisens evolved in the apical part of the Hub stock, formed by weakly greisenised topaz granites, are predominantly represented by Li-mica-topaz and topaz-Li-mica greisens. These greisens, relative to weakly greisenised topaz granites, are enriched in Ca, F, Fe, Li, Si, Sn and W and depleted in Al, K, Mg, Na, Ti, Y, Zr and ΣREE. Weakly greisenised topaz granites show convex tetrads in the normalised REE patterns. Compared to topaz granites, the greisens display lower ΣREE concentrations, partly higher negative Eu anomaly, high Y/Ho and low Zr/Hf ratios. Li-micas occurring in greisens are represented by zinnwaldite. Chemical composition of cassiterite is near to ideal SnO2 (>99 wt.% SnO2). The wolframite is represented by manganoan ferberite.",book:{id:"6236",slug:"contributions-to-mineralization",title:"Contributions to Mineralization",fullTitle:"Contributions to Mineralization"},signatures:"Miloš René",authors:[{id:"142108",title:"Dr.",name:"Miloš",middleName:null,surname:"René",slug:"milos-rene",fullName:"Miloš René"}]},{id:"57812",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71674",title:"Geology, Textural Study, Ore Genesis and Processing of the Tabuaço Tungsten Deposit (Northern Portugal)",slug:"geology-textural-study-ore-genesis-and-processing-of-the-tabua-o-tungsten-deposit-northern-portugal-",totalDownloads:1631,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The Tabuaço tungsten deposit (Northern Portugal) is hosted in the Cambrian Douro Group metasediments, at the northern margin of the Beira-Tabuaço granitic complex. The hosting schisto-calcareous Lower Cambrian Bateiras Formation underwent a contact metamorphism induced by the intrusion of the granitic complex. The skarnification led to the crystallisation of scheelite (CaWO4). Two different skarn facies are encountered: ‘Lower Skarn’ and ‘Main Skarn’ both corresponding to the exoskarn. The ‘Main Skarn’ is mainly composed of vesuvianite (Ca10Mg2Al4(SiO4)5(Si2O7)2(OH)4), feldspars and fluorite. Zoisite, grossular, fluorapatite and scheelite are also present, as well as malayaite and cassiterite. Scheelite is disseminated and often occurs in association with fluorite, albite and vesuvianite. The ‘Lower Skarn’ level contains predominantly diopsidic pyroxene, quartz, zoisite, grossular and feldspars. Scheelite appears both laminated and disseminated, in association with fluorite and vesuvianite in minor proportions. The ‘Main Skarn’ is located in the Garnet, Pyroxene zone, while the ‘Lower Skarn’ corresponds to the Pyroxene, Garnet zone. Pyroxene has a global hedenbergite Hd40 composition. A major phase of albitisation destabilised fluorite, scheelite, vesuvianite, garnet and pyroxene. A late stage of chloritisation is associated with the exhumation. The processing of the Tabuaço ore has been adapted to the Ca-bearing rich paragenesis and to the scheelite mean size.",book:{id:"6236",slug:"contributions-to-mineralization",title:"Contributions to Mineralization",fullTitle:"Contributions to Mineralization"},signatures:"Yann Foucaud, Bénédicte Lechenard, Philippe Marion, Inna\nFilippova and Lev Filippov",authors:[{id:"212457",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Yann",middleName:null,surname:"Foucaud",slug:"yann-foucaud",fullName:"Yann Foucaud"},{id:"212458",title:"Prof.",name:"Lev",middleName:null,surname:"Filippov",slug:"lev-filippov",fullName:"Lev Filippov"},{id:"214497",title:"Dr.",name:"Inna",middleName:null,surname:"Filippova",slug:"inna-filippova",fullName:"Inna Filippova"},{id:"220945",title:"Prof.",name:"Philippe",middleName:null,surname:"Marion",slug:"philippe-marion",fullName:"Philippe Marion"},{id:"220947",title:"Mrs.",name:"Bénédicte",middleName:null,surname:"Lechenard",slug:"benedicte-lechenard",fullName:"Bénédicte Lechenard"}]},{id:"58190",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71607",title:"Statistical Approach to Mineral Engineering and Optimization",slug:"statistical-approach-to-mineral-engineering-and-optimization",totalDownloads:1946,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Mineral depositions are basic sources for obtaining metal production. Increasing metal demand based on increasing world population and decreasing grade value of mineral deposition make the evaluation to mineral processing more important, so that all metal production stages must be economical. Because of this important requirement, many researchers and practitioners have focused to the optimization of all processes. The optimization of metal production processes provide some advantages such as reducing the influence of experimental errors, statistical analysis, determining important parameters and trivial parameters, and measuring interactions between parameters. Although there are many design methods, choosing the most appropriate method is of great importance in terms of the results to be achieved. In this chapter, presumed experimental data about hydrometallurgical copper extraction accompanied by three parameters were applied to two different design models to compare the results.",book:{id:"6236",slug:"contributions-to-mineralization",title:"Contributions to Mineralization",fullTitle:"Contributions to Mineralization"},signatures:"Mehmet Deniz Turan",authors:[{id:"212505",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"M. Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Turan",slug:"m.-deniz-turan",fullName:"M. Deniz Turan"}]},{id:"58500",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72560",title:"Zechstein-Kupferschiefer Mineralization Reconsidered as a Product of Ultra-Deep Hydrothermal, Mud-Brine Volcanism",slug:"zechstein-kupferschiefer-mineralization-reconsidered-as-a-product-of-ultra-deep-hydrothermal-mud-bri",totalDownloads:1669,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The Kupferschiefer is a copper-, polymetallic-, hydrocarbon-bearing black shale of the lowermost Zechstein Group of Permo-Triassic age (252 Ma) in Germany and Poland. It is usually 1 m thick and underlies 600,000 km2, extending from Great Britain to Belarus for a distance of over 1500 km. At a district scale, copper has been mined for over 800 years since its discovery circa 1200 A.D. Mineralogical, chemical, and geological analyses of the combined Zechstein-Kupferschiefer show strong chemical and paragenetic relationships between the Zechstein salines, Kupferschiefer, and Weissliegend sandstones that lead to a broader, more unified, genetically linked model related to deep-sourced, hot, hydrothermal, mud-brine volcanism. The overall Zechstein-Kupferschiefer chemical stratigraphy suggests density-/composition-driven fractionation of deep-sourced, metal-rich, alkali-rich, silica-aluminum-rich, halogen-rich, high-density brines. The ultimate brine source is interpreted to be serpentinized peridotite in the lower crust near the Moho transition to the mantle. Dehydration of the serpentinite source to talc (steatization) by mantle heat during failed, intra-continental rifting of the Pangaea supercontinent at the end of Permian time released vast amounts of element-laden, high-density brines into deep-basement fractures, depositing them into and above the Rotliegend Sandstone in the shallow Kupferschiefer Sea, which is analogous to the modern northern Caspian Sea.",book:{id:"6236",slug:"contributions-to-mineralization",title:"Contributions to Mineralization",fullTitle:"Contributions to Mineralization"},signatures:"Stanley B. Keith, Volker Spieth and Jan C. Rasmussen",authors:[{id:"209366",title:"Dr.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Rasmussen",slug:"jan-rasmussen",fullName:"Jan Rasmussen"},{id:"209499",title:"Dr.",name:"Volker",middleName:null,surname:"Spieth",slug:"volker-spieth",fullName:"Volker Spieth"},{id:"209500",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanley",middleName:null,surname:"Keith",slug:"stanley-keith",fullName:"Stanley Keith"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58500",title:"Zechstein-Kupferschiefer Mineralization Reconsidered as a Product of Ultra-Deep Hydrothermal, Mud-Brine Volcanism",slug:"zechstein-kupferschiefer-mineralization-reconsidered-as-a-product-of-ultra-deep-hydrothermal-mud-bri",totalDownloads:1669,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The Kupferschiefer is a copper-, polymetallic-, hydrocarbon-bearing black shale of the lowermost Zechstein Group of Permo-Triassic age (252 Ma) in Germany and Poland. It is usually 1 m thick and underlies 600,000 km2, extending from Great Britain to Belarus for a distance of over 1500 km. At a district scale, copper has been mined for over 800 years since its discovery circa 1200 A.D. Mineralogical, chemical, and geological analyses of the combined Zechstein-Kupferschiefer show strong chemical and paragenetic relationships between the Zechstein salines, Kupferschiefer, and Weissliegend sandstones that lead to a broader, more unified, genetically linked model related to deep-sourced, hot, hydrothermal, mud-brine volcanism. The overall Zechstein-Kupferschiefer chemical stratigraphy suggests density-/composition-driven fractionation of deep-sourced, metal-rich, alkali-rich, silica-aluminum-rich, halogen-rich, high-density brines. The ultimate brine source is interpreted to be serpentinized peridotite in the lower crust near the Moho transition to the mantle. Dehydration of the serpentinite source to talc (steatization) by mantle heat during failed, intra-continental rifting of the Pangaea supercontinent at the end of Permian time released vast amounts of element-laden, high-density brines into deep-basement fractures, depositing them into and above the Rotliegend Sandstone in the shallow Kupferschiefer Sea, which is analogous to the modern northern Caspian Sea.",book:{id:"6236",slug:"contributions-to-mineralization",title:"Contributions to Mineralization",fullTitle:"Contributions to Mineralization"},signatures:"Stanley B. Keith, Volker Spieth and Jan C. Rasmussen",authors:[{id:"209366",title:"Dr.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Rasmussen",slug:"jan-rasmussen",fullName:"Jan Rasmussen"},{id:"209499",title:"Dr.",name:"Volker",middleName:null,surname:"Spieth",slug:"volker-spieth",fullName:"Volker Spieth"},{id:"209500",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanley",middleName:null,surname:"Keith",slug:"stanley-keith",fullName:"Stanley Keith"}]},{id:"57241",title:"Petrology, Geochemistry and Mineralogy of Greisens Associated with Tin-Tungsten Mineralisation: Hub Stock Deposit at Krásno–Horní Slavkov Ore District, Czech Republic",slug:"petrology-geochemistry-and-mineralogy-of-greisens-associated-with-tin-tungsten-mineralisation-hub-st",totalDownloads:1626,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The greisens evolved in the apical part of the Hub stock, formed by weakly greisenised topaz granites, are predominantly represented by Li-mica-topaz and topaz-Li-mica greisens. These greisens, relative to weakly greisenised topaz granites, are enriched in Ca, F, Fe, Li, Si, Sn and W and depleted in Al, K, Mg, Na, Ti, Y, Zr and ΣREE. Weakly greisenised topaz granites show convex tetrads in the normalised REE patterns. Compared to topaz granites, the greisens display lower ΣREE concentrations, partly higher negative Eu anomaly, high Y/Ho and low Zr/Hf ratios. Li-micas occurring in greisens are represented by zinnwaldite. Chemical composition of cassiterite is near to ideal SnO2 (>99 wt.% SnO2). The wolframite is represented by manganoan ferberite.",book:{id:"6236",slug:"contributions-to-mineralization",title:"Contributions to Mineralization",fullTitle:"Contributions to Mineralization"},signatures:"Miloš René",authors:[{id:"142108",title:"Dr.",name:"Miloš",middleName:null,surname:"René",slug:"milos-rene",fullName:"Miloš René"}]},{id:"57812",title:"Geology, Textural Study, Ore Genesis and Processing of the Tabuaço Tungsten Deposit (Northern Portugal)",slug:"geology-textural-study-ore-genesis-and-processing-of-the-tabua-o-tungsten-deposit-northern-portugal-",totalDownloads:1631,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The Tabuaço tungsten deposit (Northern Portugal) is hosted in the Cambrian Douro Group metasediments, at the northern margin of the Beira-Tabuaço granitic complex. The hosting schisto-calcareous Lower Cambrian Bateiras Formation underwent a contact metamorphism induced by the intrusion of the granitic complex. The skarnification led to the crystallisation of scheelite (CaWO4). Two different skarn facies are encountered: ‘Lower Skarn’ and ‘Main Skarn’ both corresponding to the exoskarn. The ‘Main Skarn’ is mainly composed of vesuvianite (Ca10Mg2Al4(SiO4)5(Si2O7)2(OH)4), feldspars and fluorite. Zoisite, grossular, fluorapatite and scheelite are also present, as well as malayaite and cassiterite. Scheelite is disseminated and often occurs in association with fluorite, albite and vesuvianite. The ‘Lower Skarn’ level contains predominantly diopsidic pyroxene, quartz, zoisite, grossular and feldspars. Scheelite appears both laminated and disseminated, in association with fluorite and vesuvianite in minor proportions. The ‘Main Skarn’ is located in the Garnet, Pyroxene zone, while the ‘Lower Skarn’ corresponds to the Pyroxene, Garnet zone. Pyroxene has a global hedenbergite Hd40 composition. A major phase of albitisation destabilised fluorite, scheelite, vesuvianite, garnet and pyroxene. A late stage of chloritisation is associated with the exhumation. The processing of the Tabuaço ore has been adapted to the Ca-bearing rich paragenesis and to the scheelite mean size.",book:{id:"6236",slug:"contributions-to-mineralization",title:"Contributions to Mineralization",fullTitle:"Contributions to Mineralization"},signatures:"Yann Foucaud, Bénédicte Lechenard, Philippe Marion, Inna\nFilippova and Lev Filippov",authors:[{id:"212457",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Yann",middleName:null,surname:"Foucaud",slug:"yann-foucaud",fullName:"Yann Foucaud"},{id:"212458",title:"Prof.",name:"Lev",middleName:null,surname:"Filippov",slug:"lev-filippov",fullName:"Lev Filippov"},{id:"214497",title:"Dr.",name:"Inna",middleName:null,surname:"Filippova",slug:"inna-filippova",fullName:"Inna Filippova"},{id:"220945",title:"Prof.",name:"Philippe",middleName:null,surname:"Marion",slug:"philippe-marion",fullName:"Philippe Marion"},{id:"220947",title:"Mrs.",name:"Bénédicte",middleName:null,surname:"Lechenard",slug:"benedicte-lechenard",fullName:"Bénédicte Lechenard"}]},{id:"58223",title:"Mineralization: Evidence from Fission Track Thermochronology",slug:"mineralization-evidence-from-fission-track-thermochronology",totalDownloads:1279,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Ore deposits were the product of the Earth’s material movement in a certain historical stage and tend to experience different forms and different degrees of change until being found, exploited and utilized. We should attach importance to conservation and changes of ore deposits besides metallogenic environment, ore deposit model and origin research. The conservation is closely related to uplifting and denudation so that to recover histories of uplifting and denudation for ore districts could reveal conservation and changes of mineral deposits. By applying fission track thermochronology, this chapter presents a research sample to discuss the issue, especially the relative technical method, and provides evidences for both deep ore prospecting and mineralizing potentiality evaluation. Meanwhile, dating mineralizing age is another frontier topic in the world. The author successfully applied fission track thermochronology to determining the mineralizing ages and epochs of the hydrothermal deposits. Steps and methods of achieving these goals are shown in detail. Geologists could take this chapter as a reference tool.",book:{id:"6236",slug:"contributions-to-mineralization",title:"Contributions to Mineralization",fullTitle:"Contributions to Mineralization"},signatures:"Wanming Yuan and Ke Wang",authors:[{id:"16797",title:"Prof.",name:"Wanming",middleName:null,surname:"Yuan",slug:"wanming-yuan",fullName:"Wanming Yuan"},{id:"220230",title:"Dr.",name:"Ke",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"ke-wang",fullName:"Ke Wang"}]},{id:"58502",title:"Expected Return on Capital in Mining Industry",slug:"expected-return-on-capital-in-mining-industry",totalDownloads:1425,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Capital is a necessary element of each economic activity. In the enterprises functioning in capital-consuming industries, such as mining industry, the problem of capital becomes more complex and is followed by a number of problems. Investors (both owners and creditors) expect the return on invested capital, taking into consideration the risk level connected with the activity that is to be financed by them. The problem raised in this work is related to the determination of the ways of calculation of the expected return on capital from the point of view of capital provider, with the inclusion of the specificity of mining industry. The universal calculation methods in use are difficult to be applied in the enterprises from mining industry because of the specific character of risk emerging in these enterprises, unique character, and high capital consumption. The author suggests modification of one of the most popular methods and presents her own, new solutions in this area, adjusted to the specificity of mining enterprises. The solutions presented allow a more realistic look on the issue of financing mining activity.",book:{id:"6236",slug:"contributions-to-mineralization",title:"Contributions to Mineralization",fullTitle:"Contributions to Mineralization"},signatures:"Aneta Michalak",authors:[{id:"213401",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Aneta",middleName:null,surname:"Michalak",slug:"aneta-michalak",fullName:"Aneta Michalak"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1406",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:13,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 20th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:28,paginationItems:[{id:"83185",title:"Perspective Chapter: Design and Characterization of Natural and Synthetic Soft Polymeric Materials with Biomimetic 3D Microarchitecture for Tissue Engineering and Medical Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106471",signatures:"Ching-Cheng Huang and Masashi Shiotsuki",slug:"perspective-chapter-design-and-characterization-of-natural-and-synthetic-soft-polymeric-materials-wi",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biomimetics - Bridging the Gap",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11453.jpg",subseries:{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics"}}},{id:"83092",title:"Novel Composites for Bone Tissue Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106255",signatures:"Pugalanthipandian Sankaralingam, Poornimadevi Sakthivel and Vijayakumar Chinnaswamy Thangavel",slug:"novel-composites-for-bone-tissue-engineering",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biomimetics - Bridging the Gap",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11453.jpg",subseries:{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics"}}},{id:"82800",title:"Repurposing Drugs as Potential Therapeutics for the SARS-Cov-2 Viral Infection: Automatizing a Blind Molecular Docking High-throughput Pipeline",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105792",signatures:"Aldo Herrera-Rodulfo, Mariana Andrade-Medina and Mauricio Carrillo-Tripp",slug:"repurposing-drugs-as-potential-therapeutics-for-the-sars-cov-2-viral-infection-automatizing-a-blind-",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Molecular Docking - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11451.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82582",title:"Protecting Bioelectric Signals from Electromagnetic Interference in a Wireless World",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105951",signatures:"David Marcarian",slug:"protecting-bioelectric-signals-from-electromagnetic-interference-in-a-wireless-world",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6692",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6692.jpg",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",publishedDate:"July 4th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Robert Koprowski",hash:"e75f234a0fc1988d9816a94e4c724deb",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",editors:[{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7218",title:"OCT",subtitle:"Applications in Ophthalmology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7218.jpg",slug:"oct-applications-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",hash:"e3a3430cdfd6999caccac933e4613885",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"OCT - Applications in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",biography:"Michele Lanza is Associate Professor of Ophthalmology at Università della Campania, Luigi Vanvitelli, Napoli, Italy. His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. He has also edited two international books and authored more than 150 communications or posters for the most important international and Italian ophthalmology conferences.",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. 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Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"1",type:"subseries",title:"Oral Health",keywords:"Oral Health, Dental Care, Diagnosis, Diagnostic Imaging, Early Diagnosis, Oral Cancer, Conservative Treatment, Epidemiology, Comprehensive Dental Care, Complementary Therapies, Holistic Health",scope:"\r\n\tThis topic aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest trends in Oral Health based on recent scientific evidence. Subjects will include an overview of oral diseases and infections, systemic diseases affecting the oral cavity, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, as well as current clinical recommendations for the management of oral, dental, and periodontal diseases.
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