\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-partners-with-ehs-for-digital-advertising-representation-20210416",title:"IntechOpen Partners with EHS for Digital Advertising Representation"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3708",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies Modern UWB antennas and equipment",title:"Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies",subtitle:"Modern UWB antennas and equipment",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:null,isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-7619-67-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6420-3",doi:"10.5772/210",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"microwave-and-millimeter-wave-technologies-modern-uwb-antennas-and-equipment",numberOfPages:500,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:null,bookSignature:"Igor Minin",publishedDate:"March 1st 2010",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3708.jpg",numberOfDownloads:104344,numberOfWosCitations:21,numberOfCrossrefCitations:20,numberOfDimensionsCitations:26,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:67,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:null,dateEndSecondStepPublish:null,dateEndThirdStepPublish:null,dateEndFourthStepPublish:null,dateEndFifthStepPublish:null,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"123258",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Minin",slug:"igor-minin",fullName:"Igor Minin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/123258/images/1782_n.jpg",biography:"Igor V. Minin is a full Professor in the Department of Information Protection at Novosibirsk State Technical University (NSTU), Russia. Dr. Minin received a B.A. in Physics from the Novosibirsk State University, a PhD in Physics from Leningrad Electro-Technical University in 1986. and a Doctor of science from NSTU in 2002. Dr. Minin has over twenty years of international industrial and academic experience and has played key roles in a number of projects including 3D millimeter wave real-time imaging and antiterrorism applications. He is the author or coauthor of approximately 350 research articles, seven monographers (including Diffractive optics of millimeter waves (IOP Publisher, Boston-London, 2004), Basic Principles of Fresnel Antenna Arrays (Springer, 2008)), and has been awarded 24 patents and inventions. 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The term management culture is new and has been in a continuing process so far as a highly topical and controversial phenomenon. Discussion, when analyzing corporate social responsibility issues, as well as the management of organizations in general, may be formulated on this basis, too—is it generally necessary to introduce a new term if it is clear from the organizational culture discipline, what does it give to us and if it does not cause unnecessary confusion? Our study shows that such management culture isolation from the organizational culture concept requires instrumental approach when during planning of the changes we are talking about the situation in the organization’s management chains and solutions with the help of which we want to change the situation.
There are a number of theoretical and empirical studies where corporate social responsibility is analyzed in a very broad context of the organizational culture. Organizational culture, as a whole, is undoubtedly the undisputed element of corporate social responsibility in practice. This factor is of dual, integrally related, nature with the feedback relation when we talk about the influence of this complex on corporate social responsibility and how social responsibility is expressed in the culture of the organization. However, while examining corporate social responsibility issues and the impact of organizational culture on social responsibility development and implementation in practice, we missed a greater and more focused attention to the ‘hardest’ or purely functional, formal management aspects that are named here as management culture.
Management culture is part of an organizational culture that includes both formal and informal elements of the organizational culture. Management culture reflects the level of the organization’s managerial system development, modernity, efficiency and functionality. It depends on this level how innovations will be implemented in the organization’s management and whether they will be implemented at all, and how effectively the objectives will be solved and the aims will be implemented. There are four management culture assessment criteria identified: management staff culture, managerial processes of the organization culture, the culture of working conditions and culture of documentation system. The most important elements are considered to be knowledge and moral–social managerial staff competence and the level of development of which determines the efficiency of social responsibility concept instilling and implementation processes. Ethical and legal compliance shows the level of personal culture and awareness and organic self-perception in the social system. Society, undergoing political and social transformations, formulates new requirements for business organizations to assess management culture as the instrument ensuring the functionality of the organization. Experience reflection and concentrated investment in improving the management culture development level is one of the key tasks for organizations that operate under the conditions of changes and initiate them themselves.
The processes that predetermined the development of management and organizational culture concepts are closely related to corporate social responsibility development, which is adjusted by both the peculiarities of social and cultural development of different states and global changes. Corporate social responsibility is named as a moral regulatory mechanism oriented to the socially balanced market. Stemming not so much from the institutional power, but from the will and expectation of a civil society, what, for example, is denoted as valuable differences highlighted in the research and European and the USA approaches to corporate social responsibility goals. In this respect, the scientists analyzing corporate social responsibility have not achieved unanimous conclusions, because not only the interests of shareholders and other stakeholders are different but also the valuable criteria of societies and approaches to corporation power and regulatory mechanisms. While many recognize that corporate social responsibility reduces tension and risk and affects the favorable image of an organization which facilitates the operation in the market, however, there still remain unclear social exchange principles, and corporate social responsibility institutionalization, taken by the authorities, can be described as ‘soft power’ means threatening social relations dynamics based on morality, ethical values and trust. Corporate social responsibility is a valuable category that cannot be measured in a specific practical case completely by using part of charged profit or contribution to environmental protection, but it can be felt and appreciated by people that make up and surround the organization. Corporate social responsibility is twofold, consisting of organization, that is, managers and shareholders, social responsibility awareness and public social responsibility. The following corporate social responsibility assessment criteria should be identified: behavior of a socially responsible employee and behavior of a socially responsible organization. Behavior of a socially responsible employee is symptomatically associated with the behavior of a socially responsible organization. While forming the question of organizational responsibility, it is necessary to assess how much responsibility the society itself is ready to accept. It is equally worthy to give a wider debate to the question, how much ordinary employees of the organizations (not only the managers) that are set to become socially responsible are interested in fostering social responsibility values in their daily activities. In the society, which lacks strict moral criteria, moral conformism is vigorous and faster development of social responsibility in the organizations is stopped. And there can appear social responsibility simulation, manipulating stakeholder expectations in a Machiavellian way and trying to achieve higher profits. In this case, it is important to assess the ideas discussed at both the business and public sector levels. For example, the discussed 3E model with respect to the public sector is completed by a social justice category (4E), but 4E model applicability proposed to the public sector should be considered in the concept of social responsibility of private sector organizations, because a socially unjust organization cannot be socially responsible. A social justice issue is revealed in particular relevance in relation with the company’s employees: stakeholders who do not always receive adequate attention in organizations where corporate social responsibility is increasingly used as a component part of the marketing strategy.
In terms of the main corporate social responsibility criteria, in empirical studies carried out in Lithuania, a shortage of detailed studies on different criteria was determined. Research interest is often theoretical in nature or quite often focuses on corporate communication, profit and charity relationship problems. Although more than 10 years ago, an increased scientific attention to the problems of social responsibility coinciding with the increased interest of companies in social responsibility ideas was noticed, slow tendencies mentioned by the author remain relevant for the second decade of the twenty-first century. This is shown not only by the sluggish interest in a wider range of problems of corporate social responsibility aspects but also by the number of companies which declare to be socially responsible that has not changed for a long time. It is valid for both the companies where private shareholders’ management dominates and the companies whose shares are owned by the government or the municipalities. First, it shows that the company’s shareholders measure retroactive benefits more often by investment in philanthropy and other activities in relation to received earnings. This debate on the direct return has been relevant for several decades in other European countries and the countries in other continents, too. Second, the tendencies in business practice illustrate still little confidence in research and education authority when it comes to indirect and long-term benefits of social changes. Third, there is a very clear superiority of public initiatives or pressures against private initiatives of the companies.
When stating that one of the key interferences of corporate social responsibility development are commercial expectations of organizations and focus on the short-term effect, it must be acknowledged that they are significantly impacted by the society cultural values, determining business culture. Similar trends, by the way, as well as the limited development of corporate social responsibility in general, are apparent not only in Lithuania but also in post-Soviet countries having a similar historical experience, where civil process remains still complicated and continuing to form. It can be stated that poor civil society activity influences such examples that some of the parent companies based in the Nordic countries apply different standards of responsibility in the region. At the same time, it shows a certain simulation of values of organizations providing double standards. The symptoms encourage to rethink, discuss and assess how much corporate social responsibility manifests as a natural value of the organization, and how much it is influenced by the external pressure, which, in case of weakening, changes the standards applied in company activities. Not undermining the influence of external stakeholders, in our view, management culture and its level role, performing the shaping function, have a significant impact on the stable policy of both local and international companies’ activities. That is, the higher the management culture, the more consistent compliance with corporate social responsibility values, the smaller the differences among the same group of companies. The management culture and corporate social responsibility relations set in our study show that social responsibility does not create new values in the organization, but it is distinguished by orientation to the traditional values that are important to harmonious human relationships in society and within the organization; they aggregate and transform them at the extent how and to what extent it is necessary to the particular organization. In response to the controversial question what role of management culture is aiming to implement corporate social responsibility, first of all it should be noted that the management culture concept identifies the mechanisms of the organization as a social system interaction and cause-effect relationships related to social responsibility. Second, strengthening management culture, that is, consistently developing managerial and human relations competence, with emphasis on ethical and moral leadership, the conditions are created enabling more effective and integral implementation of the principal values of social responsibility, that is, using and promoting internal managerial personnel potential. Therefore, in order to implement corporate social responsibility in practice, it is necessary to assess the state of management culture according to individual criteria describing it and to change it purposefully. Many of the authors participating in the study maintain that corporate social responsibility is an integral part of the organizational culture, which requires a strong management culture to develop and maintain it as an instrument. We have identified the following relevant criteria: leadership with regard to stakeholder interests and in line with company goals, preparation of exact regulations, requirements, implementation and supervision of decision-making, formulation and enforcement of moral principles, self-development, wise organization and management of the processes using the functional systems and provision of necessary human, technical and other resources.
Management culture’s theoretical concept can be seen as a methodological basis for organically systematic integration of social responsibility concept in the companies’ practice. In order to check the new theoretical concept and relationship with corporate social responsibility criteria, a new empirical research instrument was created. When testing it, high requirements for psychometric characteristics were raised and expert insights and exploratory study results were assessed. The questionnaire test results may differ in the case of different size samples, but the results of this study confirm the success of the questionnaire forming process and the availability for other research where management culture and corporate social responsibility relationships are analyzed. Although the calculated indicators in some positions show lower results, they conform to the scientifically accepted questionnaire validity and reliability requirements. So, the received high coefficient values indicate that the statements of management culture and social responsibility scales and subscales, included in the instrument, are closely related. The instrument can be applied to determine management culture development level in the companies which aim to become socially responsible and lack knowledge to assess the discharging situation and anticipate directions of changes.
It was determined that the management culture development level and corporate social responsibility relation are especially evident in the context of obligations. Social responsibility principles, such as civic responsibility, compliance with laws, ethics and profitability represent the stakeholders’ expectations in the organization, both internally and externally, that is, in meso and macro environments. The organization’s responsibilities arise from the perception of internal and external stakeholders’ expectations. Management culture plays a triple role: instrumental, structural and ethical. Management culture development makes it possible to construct and develop an effective organizational structure to ensure its functionality in accordance with ethical and moral imperatives to reconcile divergent interests.
The functionality of the model of management culture level determination is confirmed by the results of the research aiming to implement corporate social responsibility, which depends on the organization of evaluation processes in determining corporate social responsibility, management culture structural components interaction and its quality. The proposed process of change implementation is organized on the basis of the logic of four interrelated steps: information collection, processing and evaluation, decision making and organization of changes. In the course of the process management culture and social responsibility strengths, weaknesses and threats are determined that may be significant to the implementation of the changes. Although the model can be applied in public sector organizations having in mind the companies and institutions established by the state and municipal institutions, it is adapted for private sector organizations. It should be noted that the use of the model and the efficiency of the decisions depend very much on such factors as the will of the owners of the organization, the organization’s responsible management staff qualifications and ability to rationally use external advisory resources. The model is constructed considering the fact that private sector organizations have to define the quality standards of management personnel (to use the already formulated guidelines and/or adjust the changes in accordance with the operational specifics), these standards are purified in the evaluation process and become the basis for renewed and systematized management culture policy that is directly related to the company’s social responsibility policy and practice. The model proposed by the authors of this monograph creates preconditions to answer the problem question: at what level of management culture development, the organization can be considered prepared to pursue the implementation of corporate social responsibility. It shows the relationship between the strength level of the management culture and opportunities for successful organization of corporate social responsibility standards implementation. The weaker the management culture, the greater changes and the costs of their implementation will be required. The model is not limited to a particular type of organization, but it can be especially valuable for medium and large companies which are characterized by the abundance and variety of structures, and to assess the activities which require higher expenses of organizational activities expenses.
Empirical research has determined that employees evaluate corporate social responsibility activities negatively and the administration evaluates it positively, and this indicates that social responsibility program, maybe, is implemented formally, stakeholder expectations are not assessed and considered sufficiently, feedback is not made certain. Consequently, there is no effective social responsibility strategy and its implementation audit system. Summarizing various research results achieved in different countries, it is revealed that large companies are not always inclined to coordinate their activities with the stakeholders relating to their institutional weakness and inflexibility. Although corporate social responsibility activities are understood as organization’s investment into greater economic benefits through social interaction and sustainability, because of the mentioned institutional social structures of weakness there still remain unfilled gaps that prevent effective balance relations with all stakeholders, which leads to additional risks that investment concentrated on external corporate environment will not produce the expected returns. The conclusions of the research performed in other countries confirmed that organizations assess not all of the corporate social responsibility aspects, and this is influenced by insufficiently strong institutional capacity of the employees as one part of the stakeholders. The results of the carried out quantitative study base the finding that the administration of the two groups of companies involved in the study assess corporate social responsibility activities inadequately; there is no guarantee feedback and there is lack of concern for the relationship with employees, their physical environment and psychological well-being. The ability to achieve a balance between the physical and socio-psychological environment in the workplace by management actions is an important sustainability indicator of corporate social harmony principles. Our study found that there is no effective management culture and social responsibility auditing system which should be developed while ensuring feedback, and corporate social responsibility has not become the property of organizational culture.
Having evaluated the weaknesses of groups of companies management culture and social responsibility characteristics, as well as positive trends, it could be stated that: first, management culture development level has a significant impact aiming for corporate social responsibility; second, corporate social responsibility can be regarded as an integral part of management culture derivative, realized in organizations management practice. However, there are also differences among the company groups involved in the study, which may be considered as significant examples of different organizational cultures, deriving from management culture differences. For example, the established amounts of management staff’s personal culture and significant management knowledge estimates related to different points of view towards other management work criteria according to which the management culture condition is determined. A clearer dynamics of indicator estimates in the second group of companies (as it is conditionally named in the study) confirms that the management culture is still continuing to shape, but without clear direction vectors. The processes are not clearly focused and are uncoordinated. The existing standards and regulations are not sufficiently linked to performance practice, that is, why they do not guarantee the optimality of processes. This showed differences with the first group of companies where there is a well-established distinctive management culture although the estimates of indicators diagnosing its level are not particularly high. In such a situation of investment in managerial modernization, optimization issues of operational processes remain relevant, unsolved and their payback effectiveness still remains questionable. In the policy of management of both enterprises groups, human resources are not assessed sufficiently in order to create favourable conditions for their efficient use, however, the problems of functionality of inter-personal relationship and communication remain. Organizations (larger problems are determined in the second group of companies) are not adequately prepared to implement corporate social responsibility at an organizational dimension because the management job is not optimally organized, the management personnel lacks knowledge and skills of working with human resources. Even in the evaluation of formal aspects of corporate social responsibility standards implementation possibilities, the situation existing in corporate groups and the organizational capacity of the managers would prevent them from being realized systematically and effectively. In this case, corporate social responsibility values would stay in a more declarative form rather than the property of the organization’s management culture, and the way of natural, balanced functionality of processes based on this philosophy. Although in the second group of companies there is more vivid dynamics according to individual management culture parameters, the apparent orientation to performance modernization suggests a more open innovation culture, the elimination of weaknesses, purposeful development of which can serve corporate social responsibility implementation more effectively.
In various studies while assessing corporate social responsibility, very often the opinions of external stakeholders or individuals managing companies are considered. In the first case, the communicative flow created by the companies can influence the reactions of the researched and in the second case the interests of the companies’ representatives themselves. Such a sensitive indicator as the company’s employees is rarely used. Therefore, this study raised the question what the expression of management culture, as the formal and informal part of organizational culture, is when striving for implementation of corporate social responsibility with respect to the staff. Although between the two groups of companies involved in the study reliable, statistically significant differences were identified according to individual test steps, however, the tendencies of estimates show that both groups of companies focus most attention on the quality of the product and its presentation to the society, and this orientation is more noticeable in the second group. In the first group of companies, feedback information in relations with the consumer, as an interested entity, is evaluated insufficiently. The errors of processes organization, standards fragmentation and installation quality are significant while implementing corporate social responsibility principles. Lack of balanced criteria forming management culture and lack of stability determine the attitude of organizations to realization of social responsibility. In both groups of companies emerged declarative social responsibility policy tendencies meant to influence the consumer object the actual practice of social responsibility in relations both to the organization’s internal and external stakeholders. In part, this confirms the theoretical insights provided in both Lithuanian and other countries scientific works, which emphasize the trend of marketing corporate social responsibility as a general cultural dominant. The results of the research lead to the conclusion that organizations lack basic knowledge on corporate social responsibility and motivation to realize them in practice, and high clustering and internal corruption level hinders social responsibility transfer to a strategic level. Lack of dialog about the development of culture among stakeholders (subjects), highlighted in management culture problem areas, can be a formidable obstacle implementing both individual social responsibility initiatives and installing in a complex way. This is relevant in the sense that the policy of the organization oriented to public corporate social responsibility communication does not have the general support of the employees, and the procedures are carried out in a superficial way and have a formal character. Corporate social responsibility is a valuable category of organization’s internal culture, but the base is not strong enough and is imbalanced. Therefore, corporate social responsibility can be considered as still developing and the category that has not obtained clear forms yet.
The interview with group managers conducted in the scope of this survey answers the problematic question, what management culture as a formal part of organizational culture expression is aiming to implement corporate social responsibility in terms of top-level managers. It also reaffirms management decisions orientation to technological and production quality assurance aspects. Corporate social responsibility aspects are only partially reflected in management culture, which indicates that management culture is relatively narrowly conceived and its development prospects are not clearly defined. It can be stated that all this leads to a very critical attitude of employees towards corporate social responsibility aspects in practices of company activities. This once again confirms that highlighting the position of employees, as stakeholders, may be considered to be a significant part of corporate social responsibility diagnostics at the company level. Managerial staff responses indicate that despite insignificant differences that emerged in both corporate groups, management culture and corporate social responsibility are perceived in very narrow aspects, and their development is not part of the organizations’ strategic goals. In such cases, there are necessary systemic changes in management culture and corporate social responsibility, as a component of a strategic aim, actualization, which would allow developing social responsibility principles in a complex way and would gain employee support. This study established the management culture, as a formal part of the organizational culture, expression aiming to implement corporate social responsibility in terms of managers. It explains different assessments of the employees according to both company groups and enables to anticipate dimensions of changes and remove obstacles while implementing corporate social responsibility. With regard to strategies, corporate social responsibility is perceived eclectically, that is, it is not clearly formulated in the strategies of organizations and realized by groups of companies’ managers; there is a risk that social responsibility principles will not be clearly and exhaustively communicated to the employees and realized in practice. Although managers of groups of companies recognize the importance of corporate social responsibility, only higher sales are emphasized in the organizational structure and its changes, not institutionalizing the coordination of relations with stakeholders. The assessment according to identified management culture characteristics showed that management culture of both groups of companies is oriented only to part of social responsibility aspects: economic and legal responsibilities (including compliance with environmental regulations), under the limited liability in relation with other stakeholders: employees and communities. However, management culture of the second group of companies assessing the processes, standards and systems is more favorable for installation of corporate social responsibility principles in the group.
We raised the question, what management solutions could help change management culture in order to prepare for the implementation of corporate social responsibility. Having assessed both the theoretical and empirical research results, the structured management decisions implementation process is proposed, providing a logical sequence of steps, which consists of five steps: (1) organizational, (2) diagnostic, (3) analytical, (4) decision and (5) change. The proposed model integrates solutions oriented to changes that are used for developing management culture and increasing corporate social responsibility level. The model is intended for organizations that pose the aim to diagnose the state of management culture and corporate social responsibility and to develop plans for changes. It is based on the principles of integrity, organizational uniqueness, practicality, human capital and structural development, openness and feedback. By using a diagnostic instrument, the possibility is created to apply scientific theoretical managerial knowledge to a specific organization, designing and developing a unique management culture. This makes it possible to strengthen and develop the moral and instrumental foundations for the development of corporate social responsibility, by improving the management of the company and ensuring employee loyalty and engagement at the same time. The organizations’ management practitioners who aim at greater social responsibility, regardless of markets and cultures they function in, first of all should better assess and reflect on the values and expectations of the employees in their companies. Second, they should assess how strong management culture is in subdivisions and branch establishments in order to implement the intended tasks and avoid unwanted crisis.
Among the linguistic theories and approaches, the discussion of language acquisition and second language learning has been conducted for a span of a few decades by two groups of theorists: the Chomskyan linguistic generative structuralists and the functional psychologists’ cognitive linguistics. Generative linguists believe in the existence of autonomous modules for language acquisition in the mind and claim that most of the grammar is not learned from the environment and communication, but arises from an innate universal grammar (UG). In contrast, functional theorists state that grammar is not transferable to the child or anyone else but arises from the functions of the language. Associating with the concepts underlying forms of a language, cognitive linguistics claims that knowledge of a particular language results from language use and that grammar is understood by conceptualization. Cognitive development includes all skills a child attains throughout his life. Cognitive skills matter because they lead to thinking and learning. Without skills such as remembering, numeracy, thinking, learning, reasoning, problem-solving, comparison-making, and decision-making, a child is at risk of falling behind. Cognitive developments matter from childhood to adulthood.
\nAs two different approaches in theoretical linguistics, usage-based and universal grammar-based (UG-based) are two theories in language learning from various perspectives: the former focuses on the influence of experience, input, and frequency in language learning (i.e., cognitive linguistics), while the latter emphasizes the existence of an innate universal grammar and a set of rules as underlying basis for the formation of correct grammatical sentences (i.e., generative grammar).
\nBased on generative linguistics, language acquisition emerges from a combination of rules which will form grammatical sentences. Generative grammar (proposed by Chomsky in 1950s) arises from an innate universal grammar. Generativists believe that environmental input and language use has no effect on learning grammar. [1] further explains “acquisition, thus, became a matter of the ‘setting’ of ‘parameters’ provided by Universal Grammar, something which, it was assumed, would be possible on only minimal exposure to data” (pp. 573–4). Believing in the existence of an innate system of rules, generativists claim that universal grammar provides “the possible parameters for language and uses parameter-setting approach depending on which specific language is involved” (pp. 1141–2) [2]. It is claimed that language function is analytically separate from language structures.
\nUG-based approach claims that children have got a prior language knowledge “… which enables them to achieve an adult grammar on the basis of limited evidence” (p. 2) [3]. However, [3] points out, since 1990s, another model of input-driven approach was formed, usage-based theory of language learning, and it became so popular that UG-based approach was considered an outdated theory.
\nAligning to cognitive linguistics, a usage-based linguistics (proposed by [4]) is “a form of linguistic analysis, that is, that takes into account not just grammatical structure, but that sees this structure as arising from and interacting with actual language use (p. 17) [5]. Based on this theory “… input is a rich source of information for identifying grammatical regularities and children have a remarkable ability to perform complex computations over statistical information displayed in the input” (p. 3) [3]. This theory argues that linguistic structures result from experience [6]. Tomasello [7] (as cited in [8]) states that language and language acquisition are usage-based and its structure emerges from using language.
\nKang [3] points out that empiricists do not believe in the innate knowledge of language; supporting the input-driven language learning approach, they claim that language learning is based on sense and experience. They also state that child’s input is systematic and regular which helps him/her to understand the system of the target language by the use of inductive reasoning. Frequency of language input is a major factor in providing the child with the information she/he needs in learning a target language: “…the more frequently a certain linguistic expression is available to the child, the easier it is for the child to learn it [9, 10, 11, 12]” (p. 1) [3].
\nKemmer and Barlow [13] also discusses two traditions that focus on language use that are usage-based: (1) firthian tradition, emphasizing on the role of context and social aspects, and (2) enunciativist linguistics, focusing on the speech act. “A Usage-Based model is one in which the speaker’s linguistic system is fundamentally grounded in ‘usage events’ instances of a speaker’s producing and understanding language” (p. iix) [13]. Langacker [14] (as cited in [13]) characterizes usage-based model with three features: maximality, non-reductivity, and being bottom-up. Accordingly, the mind is capable of analyzing complex structures in multiple ways, resulting in the production of both specific and general patterns through usage. The first two features imply the redundancy and massiveness of the grammar, and the bottom-up feature determines that general patterns emerge from specific ones and specific patterns are the result of experience.
\nAs [13] points out, usage-based accounts are experience-driven, and frequency of items is an important factor and an inseparable part of language learning, especially in forming and understanding structures and operations; “… Usage-Based events play a double role in the system: they both result from and also shape the linguistic system itself in a kind of feedback loop” (p. viii). In usage-based accounts, language is learned by data observation in the actual use of language. From Langacker’s [4] viewpoint, in usage-based model “substantial importance is given to the actual use of the linguistic system and a speaker’s knowledge of this use; grammar is held responsible for a speaker’s knowledge of the full range of linguistic conventions (p. 494)” (p. 2) [13]. Kemmer and Barlow [13] claims that “through repetition, even a highly complex event can coalesce into a well-rehearsed routine that is easily elicited and reliably executed” (p. 3).
\nFrom Croft’s [15] point of view, in usage-based models language use specifies grammatical representations: “the Usage-Based model is a model of grammatical representation in which language use determines grammatical representation. Specifically, frequency of use and similarity of form and meaning are the determining factors for the structure of grammatical knowledge in the mind” (p. 499). According to Langacker, usage-based model “focuses on the actual use of the linguistic system and a speaker’s knowledge of this use …, it claims that linguistic units are abstracted from usage events, that is, the actual instance of language use” (p. 1142) [2].
\nIn usage-based models, frequency of usage plays a big role in the production, language comprehension, and grammaticality of the patterns. The two mentioned types of frequency are token and type frequency. Token frequency “is how often particular words or specific phrases appear in the input” (p. 166) [16]. As [15] defines “Token frequency is the frequency of occurrence in language use of individual tokens of a grammatical type, such as English regular past tense forms” (p. 499). Quoting from [17, 15] states that how much a form like irregular word forms entrenches in the learner’s mind is a token frequency function. Type frequency is defined as “how many different lexical items can be applied to a certain pattern, paradigm or construction” (p. 166) [16], or it is referred as “the frequency of word types that conform to a schema” (p. 499) [15]. The regular past inflection is mentioned to have high type frequency because it is applicable to a large number of different verbs [15, 16].
\nAccording to [18], usage-based approaches are input-dependent, and in this theory, “frequency” is considered as the language rule which results from structure analysis in language input. Zyzik [18] states that there must be enough input so that the learner can learn whatever she/he needs: “… it must be abundant enough for the learner to abstract regularities from concrete exemplars of language use” (p. 54), such as native competence which is gained after lifetime attention to the L1 input. Ellis [16] (cited in [18]) points out that in order to achieve native fluency at the L2, there must be huge amounts of language input so that the learners can choose and analyze the words and sequences they prefer. In input-based accounts, children are expected to follow input patterns by experience and environmental effects [19], and the grammatical relations result from the co-occurrence of language functions and forms [20].
\nZyzik [18] also states that based on usage-based theory, insufficient input and little access to abundant and implicit input like L1 are the reasons that ultimate attainment cannot be achieved by L2 learners. She points out that “lack of exposure to sufficiently rich and varied input” (p. 56) is the cause of poverty of stimuli. She mentions that very few studies have been conducted on the quality and quantity of input in instructed settings. She claims that with the help of input frequency, the L2 learner should be able to pick up the abstract regularities from the exposure to the abundant and rich input. According to her, in SLA settings, high-frequency items (i.e., the forms and structures that abundantly emerge in the language input) cause no learning problems; the focus should be on the low-frequency forms in the input.
\nThere is this conflict between the supporters and the opponents of these two approaches (i.e., UG- and usage-based) whether language learning is done on the basis of the input exposure and experience or by the help of the innate knowledge of learners, and still it is not clear whether grammatical learning is usage-based.
\nThere are a number of studies that contrasted usage-based and UG-based conditions in empirical studies.
\nTo compare usage-based and UG-based approaches, Kang [3] studied scrambling and multiple nominative case marking as the two syntactic structures among Korean children. The results of his study showed that child’s speech to a great extent resembles adult’s; both mentioned structures were used very little in the children’s speech because their frequencies in parents’ speech were low which shows that child’s grammar is a reflection of the adult’s. This frequency match between child and adult’s speech supports the input-driven approach. But examining the same idea in the experimental group showed that though scrambling was absent in the children’s input, it was eventually used and learnt, and this rejected the role of input-driven approach. Hence, [3] proposes the existence of an innate knowledge among children which is in support of the UG-based approach.
\nTo delve into the acquisition process in the two theories of UG and usage-based theory, Zyzik [18] studies some problematic linguistic structures in both first and second languages (such as want-to contraction, yes/no formation, and pronoun interpretation) and synthesizes some input constructs (such as frequency effects, the poverty of stimuli, and other cases). According to her, input is not enough for learning some complex structures. In addition to input, learners must have grammatical competence (“innately intuitive knowledge”). She says that learners cannot gain ultimate attainment when the input they receive is impoverished or insufficient. Then by rejecting the poverty of stimuli idea of the usage-based theory, she concludes that “…the input is rich enough for children to acquire all the properties of language if mechanisms such as item-based learning, competition among forms, indirect negative evidence and sensitivity to frequency are given serious consideration” (p. 57). She proposes UG-based as competing approach in the L2 acquisition.
\nRothman and Guijarro-Fuentes [21] studied the role of input quality in naturalistic (UG-based) and instructional (usage-based) settings. They state that there is a difference between age of acquisition and the critical period hypothesis. At the age of acquisition process, the focus is on input. Since input causes acquisition, when to be exposed to the significant input is of great importance. They point out that there is a correlation between age of exposure to the native input and age of the first significant exposure, no matter whether the input comes from a naturalistic or instructed context.
\nRothman and Guijarro-Fuentes [21] further states that clearly learners in L2 instructed settings receive less amount of input than those who are learning the target language in a naturalistic language learning setting because in naturalistic settings, learners have access to the native speakers outside the class. Thus, as they claim, the quality of input is introduced as one of the main variables which shows the differences between the two learning settings: different amounts of input result in different competence outcomes. However, as they claim learners in instructed settings receive better input quality; the input includes syntactically, semantically, and morphologically accurate structures, while in naturalistic settings learners receive nonstandard input. This highlights the importance of the instructed input in formal classes in foreign language learning settings. They point out that some of the linguistic properties are not acquired from input due to the poverty of the stimuli. These properties are obtained by language universals. Another point raised is that in instructed language learning settings, teachers themselves are L2 learners which are very common in non-English speaking countries. They emphasized that age of acquisition is neglected among different variables in adult language acquisition. It is decided that input quality causes differences in naturalistic and instructional settings.
\nFrancis [22] investigated the role of the foreign language learners’ attention and awareness on their language acquisition. He considered one of the input enhancement techniques, “input flooding”, which bombards learners with great amounts of target items. It was used to explore the extent of the acquisition of two of the copulative verbs in Spanish. The participants were divided into experimental and control groups and were tested by these tasks: grammaticality judgment, written production, and picture description. T-tests were used for analyzing the data, and the scores between and within groups were compared. Data analysis revealed that input flood had no significant effect on the acquisition of the two mentioned verbs. He believes that to come to a final conclusion, the input flood on the acquisition of these two verbs was not sufficient. It is suggested to consider simple structures in input flood and in longer treatment periods; being exposed to more structures of the target forms can make a big change on the effect of the input flood on the learners’ proficiency level.
\nYet another study contrasted UG-based and usage-based in the case of [23] where she studies the correction feedback in L2 speech production from the viewpoints of the two opposing theories: cognitive-interactionist and nativist. According to nativists, language acquisition device (LAD) is inherent in all human beings, and positive evidence is vital for studying the development of a second language. Nativists believe language acquisition is purely implicit, and by corrective feedback learners are informed which structures are unacceptable, while according to cognitive interactionists, learning is both explicit and implicit, and “the information obtained through feedback may serve as input data for explicit rule-learning or subsequent implicit learning” (p. 2) [23]. Li discusses different ways of error correction and defines explicit correction and recast as the ‘input-providing feedback’, while repetition, elicitation, metalinguistic clue and clarification are identified as ‘output-prompting feedback’. In conclusion, [23] provides useful types of feedback to the teachers; for teaching new linguistic structures, input-driven feedbacks such as recasting is suggested, while in teaching previously learned linguistic structures, where deep cognitive processing is involved, output-prompting feedback like self-correction is recommended.
\nNativists and cognitivists could not provide sufficient evidence and proofs to specify which approach controls syntax acquisition process, so in [24], Al-Balushi presents a new avenue. He claims that looking at the syntax acquisition from second language learning perspective shows the accessibility of UG by adult L2 learners by using analytical and verbal abilities. He suggests researchers examine the structures and constructions which are neither found in the learner’s L1 grammar nor in L2 input. Then it would be easier to find out whether learners’ performance is based on experience or not. As [24] addresses, there are still remaining questions about the involvement of UG in language acquisition process and its extent. The role of linguistic data or language input in language acquisition and whether UG can be a compensation for the impoverished input are the topics yet to be studied and investigated.
\nIn a study by [24] on child language acquisition process, it was further discussed that children use strategies, mechanisms, and pragmatic inferences to comprehend lexical symbols of adults. As he points out, cognitive and social processes both assist children because there are similar semantic relations (like action and agent) in all cultures. Exposure to linguistic input enables children to formulate word classes of nouns and verbs in positions they have not experienced before. As a result, cognitivists believe language is acquired by more cognitive components. However, since the language of a child is a reflection of caregiver or experimental learning situations, syntax acquisition can be referred to usage-based and experience-based approaches [24]. This has implications on future research in second language acquisition.
\nThere are various studies relating to input exposure and effective factors in second language learning and acquisition. The next section is a review of studies focusing on the effect of early input, the effect of late input, and the effect of environmental input.
\nSome researchers believe that receiving language input at an early age has positive effects on the learning process. Borovsky [25] believes that early language input has a great influence on increasing lexical proficiency level and having less linguistic input exposure causes learning problems. She states that because of the effect of receiving early input, cognitive mechanism of children is different in the word learning process; children find the relationship between words and their usage by the use of categorization. She also mentions that an increase in the linguistic input has a positive effect on the children’s vocabulary learning process.
\nKharkhurin [26] hypothesizes that in the early years, cognitive process of the bilingual children causes mental construction which results in cognitive advantages later in their lives. When a target language is learnt early, better underlying concepts are formed, and there will be a better relationship between learner’s linguistic and conceptual knowledge.
\nHuttenlocher et al. [27] points out that normal children learn basic syntactic structures at early ages, but there are variations in the rate and course of acquisition especially when the structures are more complex. They also mention that there is a relation between language input and learners’ skills in some parts of syntax. They hypothesized that some skills which were not related to language input at early ages can be influential later.
\nIt is believed that when the L1 is more established at the time of first exposure to the L2, it will interfere more with the L2 production. Flege [28] (as cited in [29]) states that the problems that adults encounter in the learning process is not because of “normal neural maturation” but because of the L1 interference. Iverson et al. [30] (as cited in [29]) mentions when the L1 becomes more developed, the learner faces more problems. So they suggest an early start of the L2 because till L1 categories are not fully established, the L2 learner will have an easier learning process.
\nKrashen et al.[31] (as cited in [32]) claims that starting younger makes learners more successful and can result in native-like performance. Nevertheless, as they mention, late learners learn faster.
\nMunoz [33] states that since late starters have a faster rate of development, further exposure allows them to catch up with the early starters especially regarding literacy-related skills. Late starters achieve similar proficiency levels in shorter periods of time.
\nFrediani [34] studied the effect of the age of onset and the amount of instruction on EFL learners’ proficiency in Argentina. 7–8-year-olds were compared with 12–13-year-olds. Considering the instructional time, the study shows that though late starters had fewer instruction hours, their cognitive maturity helped them to overcome the problems in language learning.
\nIt is believed that being exposed to the target language outside the formal situations influences the learning process. Borovsky [25] states that early linguistic experience of children at home is correlated with their linguistic input ability at school: when their home environment is linguistically enriched, they learn new words faster.
\nThe results of the study by [27] show that child’s syntax is highly related to the input variations; there is a critical relationship between teacher’s and parents’ syntactic input and child’s syntactic growth. The effect of the teacher’s input is significant not at the beginning of the school year, but over the years, and those who provide language input for the child as a learner play a big role in the learning process of syntax. They found individual differences between children’s skills and a correlation between these differences and parents’ complexity of speech.
\nAukrust [35] states that “children can and do learn language as well as other socio-cognitive skills from keenly observing the interactions of others and listening in on talk” (p. 18). Beals [36] (as cited in [35]) points out that children whose mothers used more words in conversations had a bigger size of the vocabulary.
\nA brief look at relevant studies to input exposure as most studies indicated usage-based has significant links to second language acquisition.
\nTitle | \nAuthor(s) | \nResults | \n
---|---|---|
The effect of early input | \nBorovsky [25] | \nEarly language input has a great influence on increasing lexical proficiency, and less input causes learning problems | \n
Kharkhurin [26] | \nBy learning a target language early, underlying concepts are formed and a better relationship shapes between learners’ linguistic and conceptual knowledge | \n|
Huttenlocher et al. [27] | \nThere is a relationship between language input and learners’ skills in some parts of syntax | \n|
Fledge ([28] cited in [29]) | \nAdults’ learning problems are because of L1 interference | \n|
Iverson et al. ([30] cited in [29]) | \nTo have an easier L2 learning process before L1 categories are fully established, an early L2 start is suggested | \n|
Krashen, Long, and Scarcella ([31] cited in [32]) | \nStarting younger makes learners more successful and can result in native-like performance | \n|
The effect of late input | \nMunoz [33] | \nSince late learners have a faster rate of development, further exposure allows them to gain better literacy skills in shorter periods of time | \n
Frediani [34] | \nLate starters, with fewer instruction hours, overcome language learning problems because of their cognitive maturity | \n|
The role of environmental input | \nBorovsky [25] | \nA linguistically enriched environment helps learning new words faster | \n
Huttenlocher et al. [27] | \nThere is a critical relationship between teacher’s and parents’ syntactic input and child’s syntactic growth which arises over years | \n|
Aukrust [35] | \nChildren learn language like other socio-cognitive skills by observing and listening to the interaction of others | \n|
Age influence in language learning | \nPenfield and Roberts [37] | \nLanguage learning is under the influence of an influential period in early childhood called critical period (i.e., CP) | \n
Bettoni-Techio [38] | \nThere is no fixed agreement on the onset and offset of language learning, but puberty is the offset | \n|
Perani et al. [39] | \nAge is an influential factor in language learning, and late learners are less proficient than early ones | \n|
Singleton [40] | \nNative-like level can be gained before age 7 | \n|
Dimroth [41] | \nStarting at lower levels in primary schools is suggested to increase better learning/acquisition attainment. | \n|
Larson-Hall [42] | \nEarly starting age can be advantageous only if individuals acquire a significant amount of input | \n|
Huang [43] | \nLearners’ first exposure to English and school teaching time is significantly correlated with their accuracy of the studied vowels. In addition, the formal instruction of English at an earlier age is suggested | \n|
The ineffectiveness of critical period | \nMunoz ([44] cited in [42]) | \nNo advantage for earlier starters was observed in this study; attitudes and motivation were the only advantageous parts for early starters | \n
Bialystok and Hakuta [45] | \nOlder learners transfer more than younger ones, and they can gain native-like attainment | \n|
Slabakova [46] | \nCritical period has no effect on semantics | \n|
Burstall ([47] cited in [42]) | \nNo effective age influence was found on the performance of early starters in this study | \n
Language input has been studied from various perspectives to clarify its role in the teaching and learning process so that better learning contexts will be provided for language learners. The amount and length of receiving linguistic input can have a determining role in better learning, especially in foreign language settings that are mostly input-dependent.
\nThere is tension between the supporters and the opponents of these two approaches (i.e., UG- and usage-based) on whether language learning is done on the basis of the input exposure and experience or by the help of the innate knowledge of learners, and still it is not clear whether grammatical learning is usage-based or universal grammar-based. What is certain, at this juncture, is that it is worthwhile investigating the following parameters and variables: the role of different types of frequency of L2 input (such as type and token frequency), the role of L1 transfer, the impact of L1 frequency on the learners’ performance data, L1 and L2 co-occurrence probabilities, the interaction of the L1 in L2 input, and the impact of L1 on L2 proficiency levels. For reliable results, learners should be selected from different age groups and language learning settings (both second language learning settings and foreign language learning settings). It cannot be overly emphasized that sufficient numbers of participants should be considered for these studies as well to have valid outcomes that can be applicable to other contexts and situations. These considerations will certainly help scholars in the pursuit of an answer to the usage-based or universal grammar-based debate. On whether the success of second language acquisition is a result of the innate knowledge or is a result of usage-based experience, the positive effect of the length of exposure shows that grammatical learning can be claimed to be usage-based, but further research by larger groups of learners with early exposure are needed to support this.
\nWe would like to thank the Malaysian Ministry of Education for providing the financial support for the research and authorship of this article. Research grant coded FRGS/1/2018/SS09/UKM/02/.
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