\r\n\t* Swarm-based and market-based algorithms for controlling collectives of robots. \r\n\t* Control and task allocation with real restrictions like, for example, temporal constrains (deadlines) or communication restrictions. \r\n\t* Motion control algorithms, including formation and multi-robot obstacle avoidance. \r\n\t* New real applications of multi-robots systems to fill the gap between simulations and real robots.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-459-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-458-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-460-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"16b80587d8850186816a202aa630f76b",bookSignature:"Dr. José Guerrero and Dr. Oscar Valero",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10086.jpg",keywords:"real applications, temporal restrictions, communication restrictions, field robotics, bio-inspired approaches, swarm intelligence, auctions-based algorithms, optimization, agent-based systems, mathematics fundations, formation control, obstacle avoidance",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 2nd 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 23rd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 21st 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 11th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 10th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"16 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"14262",title:"Dr.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero",slug:"jose-guerrero",fullName:"José Guerrero",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14262/images/system/14262.jpg",biography:'José Guerrero Sastre received a degree in Computer Science from the University of the Balearic Islands (UIB). In 2012, he completed his PhD in computer science at UIB with a thesis entitled "New Methodologies for allocating tasks and coalition formation in multi-robot systems". Since 2002 he is a member of the Department of Mathematics and Computer Science at the University of the Balearic Islands (UIB) , where he is currently a lecturer and postdoctoral researcher. He is also a member of the Systems, Robotics and Vision Group (SRV) since 2002, and since 2016 a collaborator of the Models for Information Processing (MOTIBO) research group. His research interests include multi-robot and multi-agent task allocation mechanisms with auction, swarm-like coordination mechanisms and possibility theory.',institutionString:"University of the Balearic Islands",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of the Balearic Islands",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"116937",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Valero",slug:"oscar-valero",fullName:"Oscar Valero",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116937/images/system/116937.jpg",biography:"Oscar Valero Sierra received a BS degree and a Ms degree in Mathematics at the University of Valencia in 2000. Later on, in 2003, he received a Ph.D. in Mathematics at the Polytechnical University of Valencia. He was a visiting researcher at 'Center for Efficiency-Oriented Languages' which belongs to the Computer Science Department at National University of Ireland. He is currently an Associate Professor in the Department of Mathematics and Computer Science at Balearic Islands University. So far, he has taught lectures on bachelor's degrees in Engineering, Business Administration, Economics and Mathematics. His research activity focuses on Mathematical Models applied to Computer Science, Artificial Intelligence, Engineering and Economics.",institutionString:"University of the Balearic Islands",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of the Balearic Islands",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"22",title:"Robotics",slug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology-robotics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"304289",firstName:"Rebekah",lastName:"Pribetic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"rebekah@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3794",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Focus on Ant and Particle Swarm Optimization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5332a71035a274ecbf1c308df633a8ed",slug:"swarm_intelligence_focus_on_ant_and_particle_swarm_optimization",bookSignature:"Felix T.S. Chan and Manoj Kumar Tiwari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3794.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"252210",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",surname:"Chan",slug:"felix-chan",fullName:"Felix Chan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"48018",title:"High Throughput Quantum Dot Based LEDs",doi:"10.5772/59092",slug:"high-throughput-quantum-dot-based-leds",body:'
1. Introduction
Today lighting and energy savings is an important part of life and traditional methods of lighting are inefficient, while the light emitting devices (LEDs) can be used in technologies applications for saving energy [1].LEDs produce light using a fundamentally different principle than those used by incandescent, neon, fluorescent, or high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps. Traditional light sources produce light by heating a filament to incandescence and this is inefficient but LEDs emit light from a small semiconducting chip when a current is applied. So controlling equipment and techniques is one of the most cost-effective and significant opportunities for reduce energy waste and improve output light quality. Researches have also provided new structures to improve the efficiency of LED devices. Conjugated polymers offer many advantages as materials for use in light-emitting diodes [2]. Because of the advantages of quantum dots and their application in optoelectronic devices such as LEDs, researches fabricated quantum dot light emitting diode with improvement efficiency; which was replaced with traditional light sources. Quantum dot light emitting diodes use in energy-efficient, high-color-quality thin-film display and solid-state lighting applications [3].
In 1907, H. J. Round found the effect of electroluminescence, so the notion of light emitting diode was introduced [4]. III-V materials were discovered in the 1950s, and by using of these materials the first p-n junctions GaAs LED, with epitaxial growth was made [5, 6]. In 1962 GaAsP LED with visible red light was realized by Holonyak [7]. In 1992, the first blue LED based on GaN with efficiency of 1 % was introduced by Akasaki et al [8], also green LEDs could be made using GaInN with improvement efficiencies up to 10% [9]. The possibility of color displays with blue, red, and green LEDs was successfully realized [10]. Different LEDs can have different characteristics, so they have different application in related technologies. According to the importance of LEDs in new technologies, in recent years there are so motivations by doing a lot of researches to improve the quality of LEDs, so recently they introduced quantum dot based light emitting diodes (QD-LEDs) [3, 11]. According to improvement of QD-LEDs the efficiency of this kind of LEDs has increased from 0.01% to 18%, in 1994 [3]. Nano crystals also known as quantum dots (QDs), are nano-sized semiconductor particles, by the synthetic method, the QDs can be classified into epitaxial and colloidal QDs. Colloidal QDs are chemically synthesized and consist of small inorganic semiconductor core (1–10 nm in diameter) and a wider-band gap inorganic semiconductor shell, and a coating of organic passivation ligands [3]. Original QDs contain a core; however, the optical properties of QDs can be improved by coating higher band gap materials or passivation of the surface of the core [12]. Colloidal QDs exhibit some advantages such as larger excitonic interaction between the electrons and holes, stronger carrier confinement, high quantum yield, narrow emission spectrum. Therefor colloidal QDs have the potential to change the way that electronic devices, including solar cells and LEDs, are manufactured [13, 14]. QDs exhibit quantum confinement effect, because of their radius which is smaller than the characteristic Bohr exciton radius, so the carriers in all three directions confined and the density of states will change. According to quantum confinement effect, the optical properties such as absorption and emission can be changed [12]. Band gap is tunable by controlling the size of the QDs during the synthesis process and cheap solution processability of them makes colloidal quantum-dot a promising candidate for optoelectronic devices [3, 15]. The color emitted from QDs and the wavelength of emission, depends on the size of the QDs. According to changing in the size of QDs, the emission wavelength can be changed, so the color of light emission can be changed, also QDs have the high photo-luminescence efficiency; therefore these advantages make colloidal QDs candidates for making quantum-dot light emitting diodes [3, 12]. Figure 1 shows the size changing of QDs and band gap of them.
Figure 1.
Increasing of energy gap by decreasing of the size of the QDs
QD-LEDs are multilayer structures, consist of hole transport layer (HTL), electron transport layer (ETL) and QD layer as an emissive layer. In this type of LEDs, Indium tin oxide (ITO) (as an anode) and Al (as a cathode) are used as usual electrodes [3, 16]. At first QD-LEDs presented in the form of hybrid organic/inorganic light emitting diodes by Colvin et al [16]. For the hybrid diodes, the QDs were fabricated from inorganic semiconductors and the transport layers from organic semiconductors. This kind of LEDs was later improved by Coe-Sullivan et al [16]. However organic transport layers have stability problems and these layers are sensitive to air, because of these problems the efficiency of hybrid organic/inorganic LEDs decreases [3, 16]. Therefore, inorganic semiconductor transport layers were developed and used in QD-LEDs. Using of inorganic charge transport layers lead to device stability in air [16]. Nevertheless the advantages of QD-LEDs and using them in optoelectronic devices like thin film displays, which cause the improvement in color saturation in this kind of displays, there are some problems limit the applicability of QD LEDs which can be listed as follows:
Efficient non-radiative Forster resonant energy transfer (FRET) of excitons within the inhomogeneous size distribution of QDs to non-luminescent sites, where they have non-radiative recombine, cause self-quenching phenomenon.
Quenching in photoluminescence (PL) of QDs by the surrounding conductive metal oxides because of carrier imbalance (due to a large hole or electron injection barrier between the p or n type metal oxides and the QDs) [3, 17].
Using of inorganic charge-transport materials is desirable because they can facilitate charge carrier injection and transport to the QD layer and also improve the charge confinement in the QD luminescent layer. As a result it is expected that HTL and ETL make the LEDs less susceptible to the problems [18]. Nowadays NiO and ZnO are common materials to use as charge transport layers, which NiO is a p-type material as a HTL and ZnO is a n-type material as an ETL [16, 18]. Engineering the defect energy levels in the structure of p and n type metal oxides can improve their charge transport properties. These defects levels can be engineered using synthesis methods and also by doping of different atoms in the structure of materials. These defect levels act as a radiative recombination center, therefore photon production probability will be increased [19]. The other way to increasing intensity of emitted light of LEDs is Forster resonance energy transfer (FRET). In this way inorganic materials act as core and organic molecules as capping materials. FRET is an energy transfer between these organic and inorganic materials, which one of them is as electron donor and the other one is as electron acceptor [20].
2. Physics and theory of LEDs and QD-LEDs
LEDs are pn-junction diodes which have many applications in displays and lighting. These LEDs made from III-V semiconductors. Figure 2 shows pn-junction and energy level of it, which indicate pn-junction under zero bias and forward bias. The junction between p-type and n-type is non-conductive, because of moving of electrons by diffusion from the n-type region into the p-type region and combine with the acceptors. So this causes to formation of depletion zone or space charge region. According to Figure2, EV and EC indicate valence band and conduction band of energy level diagram respectively, which shows under forward bias, the potential barrier between p-type and n-type reduces. Also EF and WD indicate Fermi level and depletion width respectively. By current injection and applying a voltage in the forward direction of the device, electrons and holes are pushed to the junction, so the electron-hole pairs appear and recombine together, this result in the formation of light. The electroluminescence phenomenon causes the generation of light in LEDs. The wavelength of generated light depends on used materials as a p-type and n-type [21, 22].
Figure 2.
P-N junction and energy diagram, a) without bias b) under forward bias
In semiconductors electrons and holes recombine together radiative or non-radiative, which radiative recombination creates light (photon) and non-radiative recombination creates phonon. Figure 3 illustrates radiative and non-radiative recombination [21, 22].
Figure 3.
a) Radiative recombination b) non-radiative recombination
Because of the presence of electron and hole in recombination process, this process is called bimolecular recombination. The recombination rate, R is given by:
R=−dndt=−dpdt=BnpE1
\n\t\t\t
where B is bimolecular recombination coefficient and R is proportional to the density of electron-hole pairs. In light emitting diodes non-radiative recombination is unwanted, because this process creates phonon, so the phonons causes to increase heat and heating of the material has harmful effects on emitted light and lifetime of device [21, 22]. QD-LEDs are another structure of LEDs that have multilayers and QD layer is an active layer. This LEDs consist of hole transport layer (HTL), electron transport layer (ETL) and QD layer as an emissive layer. In this type of LEDs, Indium tin oxide (ITO) (as an anode) and Al (as a cathode) use as usual electrodes. The HTL is contacted by ITO and ETL is contacted by Al, which acts as an injector [16]. In this device by applying forward bias and current injection, the holes and electrons are injected from anode and cathode respectively, and they are travel through of HTL and ETL to the QD layer, then they recombine together in QD layer [3, 16]. Figure 4 indicates QD-LEDs structure, energy level diagram, and physical performance of QD-LEDs. Forster resonant energy transfer (FRET) is excitation mechanism of QDs in close proximity to small organic molecules and inorganic layers. In FRET mechanism, in the charge transport layers formed electron-hole pairs transfer energy non-radiative to the QD layer by dipole-dipole coupling. Direct charge injection is the efficient method of injection carriers [3].
Figure 4.
a) QD-LED structure, b) Energy level diagram, c) physical performance of QD-LED
For explain the performance of QD-LEDs, these devices consist of five parts which listed as follow [16]:
Carrier injection from the electrodes
By assuming of position (0 and w), and ohmic contacts at anode and cathode, the carrier concentrations inside the transport layers are equal to the equilibrium carrier concentrations that are given in Eq. 2.
p(0)n(0)=ni2(0)p(W)n(W)=ni2(W)E2
\n\t\t\t
At the electrodes, there is no space charge, so we have the following condition (Eq. 3).
Nd(0)−Na(0)+p(0)−n(0)=0Nd(W)−Na(W)+p(W)−n(W)=0E3
\n\t\t\t
where n and p are electron and hole concentrations respectively, ni is intrinsic carrier concentration, and Nd is the donor concentration and Na is the acceptor concentration. At the electrodes, the electrostatic potential is given by the following equations (Eqs. 4 and 5).
ψ(0)=V−KTqln[p(0)ni(0)]E4
\n\t\t\t
ψ(W)=KTqln[n(W)ni(0)]−(ΔEc+ΔEv2)E5
\n\t\t\t
According to Anderson’s rule, the last term in equation, accounts for the discontinuities in the conduction band and valence band.
Transport in the ETL and HTL
The equations used to describe the transport in the HTL and ETL are similar to the bulk drift and diffusion equations, which is given as follows (Eqs. 6-10).
dpdt=−1qdJpdx+G−UE6
\n\t\t\t
dndt=1qdJndx+G−UE7
\n\t\t\t
d2ψdx2=−qε(Nd−Na+p−n)E8
\n\t\t\t
Jp=−qDpdpdx−qpμpdψdxE9
\n\t\t\t
Jn=qDndndx−qnμndψdxE10
\n\t\t\t
G indicates generation parameter which is assumed to be negligible and U is recombination rate and given by Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) recombination, which will be described in (e) section.
Carrier injection from transport layers into the QD layers
Assuming that the QD layer adjacent to the HTL, the nearest QDs are considered to be traps for holes. In equilibrium and using detailed balance, the rate of emission is equal to the rate of captured holes by these QDs, so, we have (Eq. 11):
e0p0(0)=c0p0(0−)[NT−p0(0)]E11
\n\t\t\t
p(0) and p(0-) are hole density in the QD layer and HTL, which adjacent together, respectively. NT is the density of trap states in the QD layer (each QD can only accommodate one hole). e and c are emission rate coefficient and the capture rate coefficient for the trap states, respectively. Also subscript (0) is used for equilibrium condition. The ratio of emission and capture coefficients is given by Eq. 12 as follows.
c0e0=p0(0)[NT−p0(0)]p0(0−)E12
\n\t\t\t
The difference of capture and emission can be describes the rate of change of carrier concentration under non-equilibrium conditions, thus, we have (Eq. 13):
dpdt=cp(0−)[NT−p(0)]−ep(0)E13
\n\t\t\t
The capture and emission coefficients can be taken to be the same as for equilibrium, if device is close to equilibrium. Also if the carrier concentration is non-degenerate, the following equation manage rate of carrier change (Eq. 14) as:
dpdt=1τp1[p(0−)p0(0−)p0(0)−p(0)]E14
\n\t\t\t
where τpl is capture/emission time constant and equals to 1e, also τpl depends on the used material. At the interface of ETL and QD layer, which are adjacent together, equations for electrons are entirely similar to holes.
Transport among the quantum dot layers
The QDs can be assumed semiconductor particles with a surrounded insulating layer. The transport from one QD to another occurs by direct tunneling process. In this case the QDs act as potential wells and the insulating layer acts as tunnel barriers. Using a one-dimensional WKB approximation, the tunneling probability from QD layer 1→2, is given by Eq. 15:
T12=e−2κ(2dins)E15
\n\t\t\t
where κ is the inverse characteristic length for tunneling and dins is the thickness of the insulating layer around the QDs. The electron is “oscillating” in the well with “frequency” ϑ=ϑth2d. ϑth is the thermal velocity of electron, d is the diameter of the QD, and it has probability of T12 to making a transition to the neighboring QD layer. The total density of electrons per second tunneling from 1 →2 assuming an unoccupied layer 2 are:
N1→2=n1ϑT12E16
\n\t\t\t
where n1 is the number of electrons in layer 1. Because of the same size of the particles and temperature in layer 1 and 2, so the total number of electrons per second tunneling from 2 →1, assuming an unoccupied layer 1, is given by Eq. 17 as:
N2→1=n2ϑT21E17
\n\t\t\t
Therefore the flow of electrons from layer 1 to layer 2 is given by Eq. 18 as:
N1→2−N2→1=ϑ(T12n1−T21n2)E18
\n\t\t\t
If n10andn20 are equilibrium concentrations of electrons in layers 1 and 2 respectively, and w12=ϑT12, so the net exchange is given by Eq. 19 as:
N1→2−N2→1=W12(n1−n10n20n2)E19
\n\t\t\t
The equations of transporting of holes in QDs are similar to electrons equations.
Recombination in the QDs
In QD-LEDs like LEDs there are two types of recombination, radiative and non-radiative. If the recombination of electrons and holes are radiative, photons are emitted, and the wavelength of photon is independent to the charge transport layers and only depends on the QDs. According to doping of QDs, the radiative recombination can be either monomolecular or bimolecular. Monomolecular recombination occurs in doped quantum dots and the rate of recombination depends on minority carrier density. If the quantum dots are undoped, the recombination rate depends on both of the carriers, so this kind of recombination is bimolecular. Bimolecular recombination is given by Eq. 20 as:
Ur=γ(np−ni2)E20
\n\t\t\t
where Ur is recombination rate, γ is recombination rate coefficient, n and p are electron and hole concentrations respectively, ni is intrinsic carrier concentration. Also non-radiative recombination is given by Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) recombination, as follow (Eq. 21).
Unr=pn−ni2τn(p+ni)+τp(n+ni)E21
\n\t\t\t
where Unr is non-radiative recombination rate, n and p are electron and hole concentrations respectively, ni is intrinsic carrier concentration, also τnandτp are electron and hole recombination lifetimes.
3. Experimental
This section provides materials synthesis and fabrication methods of QD-LED devices that are realized by our research group. All of the fabricated devices consist of p-type and n-type materials as HTL and ETL, respectively. Synthesis of these materials will be explained in this section.
3.1. Synthesis of materials
3.1.1. P-type materials
3.1.1.1. Processing of NiO
NiO synthesized by electrochemical and sol-gel methods which is used in the structure of QD-LED, also ZnO:Cu is another material which is used as a HTL.
NiO film is fabricated using two electrode system at a deposition temperature of 50 °C. An indium tin oxide ITO/glass and a Pt wire were used as the cathode and anode, respectively. The electrolyte was an aqueous solution containing 5mmol nickel nitrate and 5mmol hexamethylenetetramine (HMT). The voltage during deposition was-2.2 V and the deposition time was 30 min [23].
The NiO sol–gel precursor was prepared by dissolving 0.01mol nickel nitrate in 20ml acetic acid and in a separate beaker 3ml tri-ethyleneamine dissolved in 30ml methanol and was added under stirring to the improve sol stability. The prepared gel were then placed immediately into a tube furnace and annealed under air at 600 °C for 2 hours, after that the gel changed to powder form. 0.01 g of obtained NiO dispersed in 2 ml methanol and the dispersed solution were deposited on the ITO substrate at 100°C.
3.1.1.2. Processing of ZnO:Cu
ZnO:Cu synthesized by sol-gel method by the following manner. For preparing of this material, 3.1g of zinc acetate and 0.18g of CuSO4,were dissolved in 40ml distilled water, then 1.5g of citric acid and 1.5g of polyethylene glycol was added under stirring to the improve sol stability. The prepared gel were then placed immediately into a tube furnace and annealed under air at 600 °C for 15 hours, after that the gel changed to powder form.
3.1.2. N-type materials
The ZnO sol–gel precursor was prepared by dissolving 3.27g zinc acetate in 40ml distilled water, then 1.5g of citric acid and 1.5g of polyethylene glycol was added under stirring to the improve sol stability. The prepared gel were then placed immediately into a tube furnace and annealed under air at 500 °C for 15 hours, after that the gel changed to powder form.
ZnO:Ga was synthesized by solvothermal method using the following manner. In a typical experiment to synthesis Zn0.95Ga0.05O nanoparticles, NaOH (1mmol), tri-octylphosphineoxide (TOPO, 5mmol), Zn(CH3CO2)2(H2O)2 (0.95 mmol), Ga(NO3)3H2O (0.05mmol), were mixed in 75ml 2-propanol and the mixture was transferred into autoclave. The autoclave was sealed and maintained at 180°Cfor 24 hour, then allowed to cool to room temperature naturally. The obtained powder material is centrifuged by distilled water, ethanol and 2-propanole for several times.
ZnO:Nd was synthesized by sol-gel method using the following manner. For preparing of Zn0.95Nd0.05O, 3.1g of zinc acetate and 0.26g of NdCl3(6H2O), were dissolved in 40ml distilled water, then 1.5g of citric acid and 1.5g of polyethylene glycol was added under stirring to the improve sol stability. The prepared gel were then placed immediately into a tube furnace and annealed under air at 600 °C for 15 hours, after that the gel changed to powder form.
3.1.3. Quantum dots
We utilized CdSe\\ZnS core\\shell structures as quantum dots in the fabricated QD-LED. For synthesis of CdSe QDs, Cd (NO3)2(3.24 mmol) and Oleic acid (5ml) were mixed together under vacuum conditions at 100°C. Then Se (1.62mmol) dispersed in the 2-propanol (5ml) and 7mmol NaBH4 added in it and the obtained colorless solution were injected to the mixture of Cd(NO3)2 and oleic acid and heated at 100°C for 30min. The obtained material was centrifuged with n-hexane, ethanol and acetone for several times. The obtained CdSe capped with oleic acid was dried at 70°C.Then 0.63g of CdSe and 0.37g of Zinc acetate solved in 10 ml n-hexane and 10ml 2-propanol at 100°C under vacuum conditions. 0.02g NaOH and 0.05g thioacetamide solved in 15ml 2-propanol and was added to the solution and the reaction was done for 30 min at 120°C. The obtained material was centrifuged with n-hexane, ethanol, acetone and distilled water for several times.
CdS is another quantum dot, which has been used in the fabrication of QD-LED. For synthesis of CdS QDs, CdO (1mmol) and TOPO (0.3g) and chloroform (30ml) were mixed together under vacuum conditions at 100°C. Then S (2mmol) dispersed in 2ml of Tri-tert-butylphosphine and this solution was injected to the mixture of CdO (1mmol) and TOPO (0.3g) and chloroform (30ml) at 100°C for 30min. The obtained material was centrifuged with n-hexane, ethanol and acetone for several times.
Surface of the synthesized CdS QDs for applying in QD-LEDs should be improved. For this purpose we got help from FRET mechanism and capping molecules for using as surface modification, selected based on enhancement of illumination of CdS using FRET mechanism. So we carried out surface modification of QDs by organic molecules, which listed as follow:
One of the materials for modification of QD surface is Thioacetamide (TAA). For preparing of CdS with TAA ligands, CdS (0.01g) capped with TOPO (synthesized QD) and TAA (0.01) and 2-propanol (5ml) were mixed together under stirring for 24 hours, after that the obtained material was centrifuged with 2-propanol, n-hexane, ethanol and distilled water for several times.
Ammonium hexafluorophosphate (F6H4NP) is another material which used as surface modification of QD. For preparing of CdS with this molecule, CdS (0.01g) and F6H4NP (0.01g) and 2-propanol (5ml) were mixed together under stirring for 24 hours, after that the obtained material was centrifuged with 2-propanol, n-hexane, ethanol and distilled water for several times.
Mercaptoacetic acid (MAA) is used as surface modification of CdS too. For preparing of CdS with Mercaptoacetic acid, NaOH (1mmol) and Mercaptoacetic acid (0.01 g) and 2-propanol (5ml) were mixed together. Then the obtained solution was added on 0.01 g of the CdS and 5ml 2-propanol and the mixture stirred at room temperature for 24 hours; then the obtained material was centrifuged with 2-propanol, n-hexane, ethanol and distilled water for several times.
3.2. Device fabrication
This section provides seven kinds of QD-LEDs by using p-type, n-type and quantum dots materials which the synthesis of them were explained above. For fabrication of first, second and third QD-LEDs, ITO coated glasses with a sheet resistance of 20ohm/sq was purchased from Aldrich. Also For fabrication of fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh, flexible ITO which was coated on PET was utilized. For fabrication of all of the devices, traditional physical method and solution processed method were utilized.
For fabrication of first QD-LED, NiO synthesized by sol-gel method as HTL layer was used. In this case CdSe/ZnS QD layer used as emissive layer and ZnO:Ga as ETL. All of applied materials dispersed in 2-propanole and coated by spin coating method.
For fabrication of second QD-LED, electrochemically synthesized NiO was deposited on ITO and CdSe/ZnS QD layer and ZnO:Ga as ETL layer were deposited on it by spin coating method respectively.
For fabrication of third QD-LED, ZnO:Cu as HTL layer was deposited on ITO and CdSe/ZnS QD layer was fabricated by spin coating method and ZnO:Nd as ETL layer was deposited on it by spin coating method respectively.
For fabrication of fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh QD-LED, sol-gel NiO as HTL, QD layer, ZnO:Nd ETL were all deposited by spin coating method. The QD layer in fourth QD-LED is CdS capped with TAA molecule and in fifth QD-LED the QD layer consist of CdS capped with F6H4NP molecule, also the QD layer in sixth QD-LED is CdS capped with MAA, in seventh QD-LED the QD layer consists of CdS-TOPO.
In all seven devices, the Al cathode was deposited by the electron beam evaporation technique.
3.2.1. Spectroscopic studies and structural characterization
In this chapter all the measurements and characterizes carried out by the following devices:
Photoluminescence (PL) measurements were carried out by a Perkin-Elmer LS45 luminescence spectrophotometer. UV-Vis absorption spectra were recorded using a PG instrument T70 UV/V is spectrophotometer. Surface morphology and distribution of the particles were studied via a TESCAN model MIR3 scanning electron microscope (SEM), and by a Dual-scope C26 scanning probe and microscope DME atomic force microscope (AFM) operating in tapping mode. The crystal structure of nanoparticles were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) on a Siemens D500 using Cu-kα radiation (λ=1.541 A°). X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was carried out by Surface Science Instruments (SSX-101 M-Probe ESCA).
4. Results
4.1. Increasing efficiency
Because of the importance of light quality and lifetime of QD-LEDs, nowadays increasing efficiency of QD-LEDs is very considerable; therefore our group (OIC) by introducing new structures of QD-LEDs and using solution process method for fabrication of QD-LEDs has several works for improving of efficiency of this type of LEDs. In this way, crystal engineering and effects of FRET in QD-LED were investigated, which both of them improve quality of QD-LEDs [24].
4.1.1. Crystal engineering
This section is based on trap level engineering in inorganic materials to achieve improved QD based LEDs. For this purpose, we investigate three types of QD-LEDs which in two types of them NiO applied as transparent, conductive hole transport layer (HTL) and CdSe/ZnS QDs as luminescent layer and ZnO:Ga as electron transport layer (ETL). The arrangement of the layers that form the QD-LED is illustrated in Figure 5. As Figure 5a shows, there is an energy barrier for hole injection from ITO to the p-NiO layer and from p-NiO layer to the QD layer. Such a barrier is not present for electron injection and transportation. This causes a carrier density imbalance in QDs that prevents efficient recombination of electron-hole pairs. This phenomenon causes self-quenching in QD-LEDs. One way to solve this problem is synthesis of NiO nanoparticles with a wider band gap to decreasing energy barrier between p-NiO and QDs. To improve hole injection from ITO to the p-NiO layer, trap levels in the band gap of NiO are created that results in a much lower barrier for hole injection. As mentioned previously, engineering these trap energy levels is possible with considering different methods for nano structure synthesis. For this purpose, we investigate two types of NiO synthesized via sol–gel and electrochemical methods.
Figure 5.
Energy level diagram of fabricated Quantum-dot light emitting diode
The purity and crystallinity of the NiO nanoparticles synthesized by sol-gel and electrochemical methods were examined using powder X-ray diffraction (XRD). XRD pattern of nanoparticles synthesized by sol-gel method is shown in Figure 6 which is similar to the pattern for material synthesized by electrochemical method. This figure shows narrow diffraction peaks which indicate high crystallinity of the synthesized materials and the peaks appeared at 2θ=37.39°, 43.38°, 62.94° are related to (111), (200), (220) crystal planes of the synthesized NiO which crystallizes in cubic system. Metal-Oxides like NiO usually contain a large number of defects and these defects convert the NiO to conductive material. In equilibrium defect chemistry, NiO usually has an oxygen excess accommodated by nickel vacancies [25, 26]. To preserve the overall electrical neutrality in the crystal, some Ni2+ ions must be converted to Ni3+ ions, which are responsible for conduction in NiO. Lattice defects are not well-defined in NiO films synthesized by different methods. On the other hand, the vacancy model is little discussed with regard to NiO films prepared by different methods. Due to its uncertain mechanism most papers use nickel vacancy and/or interstitial oxygen to explain the electrical properties of the NiO films [26].
Figure 6.
XRD pattern of NiO nanoparticles
The PL spectra of the synthesized materials are studied for characterization of trap levels, formed in the structures. Figure 7 shows strong narrow bands appeared in UV and visible ranges for both spectra. A strong UV emission at 350 nm for electrochemically synthesized NiO and 335nm for NiO synthesized by sol-gel method are generally originated from the direct recombination of the free excitons through an exciton-exciton collision process which is called near band edge emission. It is believed that the visible emission is due to the crystalline defects in the NiO structures and is related to intrinsic defects and Ni2+ vacancies play a key role for it.
As figures show, intensity of the emission bands appeared in visible range for the material synthesized by sol-gel method is higher than electrochemical method that indicates density of trap levels in the material synthesized by so-gel method is high. Absorption spectra for synthesized materials show broad bands in the range of 190-350 nm for the material synthesized by electrochemical method which is narrower in the material synthesized by sol-gel method. This result indicates high uniformity of the particles synthesized by sol-gel method. On the other hand appearing the band at 335 nm for the material synthesized by sol-gel method shows a blue shift rather than electrochemically synthesized material which this peak appears at 350 nm. This result shows creation of wide band gap material with sol-gel method.
Figure 7.
PL spectra of the synthesized NiO by: a) electrochemical and b) sol-gel methods
Figure 8.
UV-Vis spectra of NiO synthesized by a) electrochemical and b) sol-gel methods.
Figure 9.
SEM images of NiO synthesized by a) sol-gel b) electrochemical methods.
Figure 10.
AFM images of NiO synthesized by a) sol-gel and b) electrochemical methods.
Figure 9 shows the scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the synthesized NiO using sol-gel and electrochemical methods which indicates uniform and smaller size of particles for NiO synthesized by sol-gel method. AFM images (Figure 10) confirm smooth surface and uniform size of NiO synthesized by sol-gel method.
Intrinsic defects are created during crystallization process of ZnO and by this way n-type ZnO can obtain [27-30]. In previously reported devices ZnO with intrinsic n-type defects has been used. We tried to fabricate such devices with extrinsic defects that are created by Ga or Nd doping in the structure of ZnO. The reason for choosing these atoms as dopant atoms will describe in DFT calculation section. Since ZnO is crystalizes as n-type semiconductor, the number of p-type ZnO is limited and synthesis of this type of ZnO is not usual. Here we describe the devices based on Cu doped ZnO as the HTL beside devices based on p-type NiO which is applied as HTL layer in these structures.
Figure 5a shows, electron injection between Al (as electrode)-ZnO and ZnO-QD depends on electronic structure of ZnO. Although there is a small energy barrier in this case, increasing electronic levels in conduction band of ZnO can improve electron transport between layers. As calculations show, with doping of Ga3+ in the structure of ZnO electronic levels are created in the band structure of ZnO which these new levels appears inside the conduction band (Figure 11).
Figure 11.
a) Band structure a) bare and b) Ga doped ZnO
However, from view point of crystal structure, Ga3+ is expected to cause only a small lattice distortion because of their similar tetrahedral radii. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of ZnO: Ga nanoparticles are shown in Figure 12 which peak positions correspond to crystalline ZnO with the hexagonal wurtzite structure. The morphology of the ZnO: Ga analyzed by SEM and AFM images (Figure 13). These images confirm the small size of ZnO:Ga nanoparticles which are about 50nm.The surface composition of films was determined using XPS technique. The XPS spectra of the ZnO: Ga films (Figure 14) show that the binding energy (BE) of each constituent element was positioned at 1117.72 eV (Ga 2p3/2), 1022.23 eV (Zn 2p3/2) and 530.9 eV (O1s) as calibrated to 285.43 eV (C1s). The Ga-doped ZnO sample prepared using the 5 wt. % Ga (NO3)3 reveals 4.75% Ga on the surface of the films. The broadening of oxygen spectrum (Figure 13) is believed to be composed of two components located around 531 eV and 532 eV respectively. The low BE component is ascribed to covalently bonded oxygen in ZnO structure (lattice oxygen) while the high BE is attributed to the adsorbed oxygen. The higher binding energy at 532 eV is usually attributed to chemisorbed or dissociated oxygen or OH species on the surface of the ZnO thin film, such as adsorbed H2O or adsorbed O2[31].
Figure 12.
XRD pattern of ZnO:Ga nanoparticles
Figure 13.
a) AFM b) SEM images of synthesized ZnO:Ga nanoparticles
Figure 14.
XPS spectra of the ZnO: Ga films
PL study of this thin ZnO film indicates high degree of surface and structural trap levels characterized by visible-region fluorescence (Figure 15).
Figure 15.
PL spectra of the synthesized ZnO:Ga nanoparticles
Nd doped ZnO has been synthesized previously by Zheng and coworkers [32]. DFT calculations show, doping of Nd in the structure of ZnO increases electronic levels in conduction band of ZnO (Figure 16) and these levels are more than levels in Ga doped ZnO structure which is expected that this structure will improve the efficiency of LED more than previous structure.
Figure 16.
Band structure of Nd doped ZnO
Figure 17 shows the X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of ZnO: Nd nanoparticles. Peak positions correspond to crystalline ZnO with the hexagonal wurtzite structure. For Zn0.95Nd0.05O, diffraction peaks become broader and weaker compared to undoped ZnO which shows decreasing of crystallinity of the structure by increasing in doping concentration. The morphology of the ZnO: Nd analyzed by AFM images (Figure 18). The grain sizes of the nanoparticles were 50-70nm.
Figure 17.
XRD pattern of ZnO: Nd nanoparticles
Figure 18.
AFM images of ZnO:Nd
For making improvement in HTL layer, a structure based on Cu doped ZnO (instead of p-type NiO) is fabricated. Doping of Cu2+ has effect on photoluminescence (PL) and structure of ZnO [33]. Calculation results indicate that with doping of Cu2+ in the structure of ZnO electronic levels are created in the band structure of ZnO which these new levels appears inside the valence band. Since electronic configuration in Cu2+ is d9, so, there is a level in created levels that is half full and can act as hole transfer. Figure 19 indicates the band structure of ZnO: Cu.
Figure 19.
Band structure of Cu doped ZnO
To get the information about the morphology and size of the ZnO:Cu nanoparticles, AFM studies had been carried out. It is observed from the AFM images, shape of the nanoparticles are spherical type. Figure 20 shows AFM image of ZnO: Cu. Nanoparticles size are about 10-40nm.
Figure 20.
AFM images of ZnO:Cu
Figure 21 shows photoluminescence spectra of ZnO: Cu and ZnO: Nd which confirm the defects created in the structure of doped materials (visible region emission). According to Figure 21 in both of the doped (Cu and Nd) ZnO there is a peak in the UV region which shows band edge of ZnO.
Figure 21.
a) PL of ZnO:Cu b) PL of ZnO:Nd
The colloidal QDs employed in our synthesized structures contain a core/ shell; CdSe/ZnS. Figure 22 shows PL spectra of CdSe/ZnS nanoparticles that demonstrate high emission peak at 600 nm. The absence of other peaks in the spectrum and relatively narrow emission band at 600 nm show uniformity of particles and good passivation of the surface of CdSe using ZnS shell. The SEM image of synthesized CdSe/ZnS core/shell material is illustrated in Figure 23 in which the diameter of particles is about 30nm.
Figure 22.
PL spectrum of the synthesized CdSe/ZnS
The PL spectra of QD-LEDs are shown in Figure 24 and indicate that electron–hole recombination is occurring predominantly in the QD layer, as required for optimal device operation. I-V behavior of the devices is illustrated in Figure 25 which confirms PL and EL emission results. Turn-on voltage for the devices based on NiO nano-materials is about 1V which is higher than the device based on ZnO: Cu. This turn-on voltage demonstrates that an ETL such as ZnO: Ga and ZnO: Nd and NiO HTL or ZnO: Cu facilitate effective electron and hole injection into the QD conduction and valence bands. According to Figure 25a and 25b measurements of the EL emission intensity yield a peak brightness of 500 cdm-2 and 340 cdm-2 at an applied operating bias of 5 V for fabricated LEDs based on materials synthesized by sol-gel and electrochemical methods respectively, which is considerable compared with other recently reported QD-LEDs. This brightness is 700cdm-2 for the device based on ZnO: Nd (as ETL layer) and ZnO: Cu (as HTL layer) which the result confirms by I-V curve. As we can see in Figure 25 the current for it is higher than others. Also the current for the device based on NiO synthesized by sol-gel method is higher than NiO synthesized by electrochemical method. This shows that by engineering in the structure of QDLEDs their performance can be improved.
Figure 23.
SEM images of synthesized CdSe/ZnS QDs
Figure 24.
PL spectra and observed light for fabricated QD-LEDs a) with NiO synthesized by sol-gel b) with NiO synthesized by electrochemical methods c) with ZnO:Cu HTL and ZnO:Nd ETL
Figure 25.
I-V characteristics of QD-LEDs a) based on NiO synthesized by sol-gel b) based on NiO synthesized by electrochemical methods as HTL c) based on ZnO:Cu HTL and ZnO:Nd ETL
4.1.2. Effects of FRET in QD-LEDs
4.1.2.1. Effects of organic molecules as shell around QDs
The emitted light and efficiency of QD-LEDs can be increased by Forster resonance energy transfer (FRET); in this way organic materials act as capping molecules for inorganic QDs. FRET is an energy transfer between two molecules, which one of them is a donor and the other is an acceptor. In the FRET process, first a donor material absorbs the energy and then transfer absorbed energy to a nearby acceptor and this process occurs through long-range dipole-dipole interactions [20, 34]. So, FRET mechanism leads to enhancement in the emission of fabricated QD-LEDs when QDs use as acceptor. Also in FRET process there are some important factors for transfer energy between acceptor and donor, such as the distance between the donor and acceptor molecules and the extent of spectral overlap [34]. Figure 26 shows FRET mechanism.
D+hϑ→D*D*+A→D+A*(D is Donor and A is Acceptor)A*→A+hA′
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Figure 26.
Energy diagram illustrating the FRET process
In the devices with luminescent species like inorganic semiconductors and organics molecules which in close proximity to the QDs, FRET is a mechanism that is unique to these devices. So, at first in the luminescent species, an exciton formed, and then the excitons energy is transferred to a QD non-radiative by dipole–dipole coupling [3]. QDs exhibit tune able emission by controlling their size and structure, therefor the spectral tune ability of QDs with quantum confinement effect allows to control FRET energy flow [35]. In our research group we utilized different capping organic molecules synthesized for surface passivation of synthesized QDs and these materials used as an active layer in the fabrication of QD-LEDs. The PL spectra of these materials indicate enhancement of emitted light via FRET mechanism. Figure 27 shows PL spectra of CdS QD and modified CdS QDs.
Figure 27 shows Intensity of emitted light for the CdS passivated by Ammonium hexaflurophosphate is higher than TAA and the PL intensity of CdS passivated by TAA is higher than CdS passivated by MAA. In this structure organic molecules are as donors and QDs are as acceptors. In FRET process the suitable distance for transmission of energy is about 1 to 10 nm, so for generating of an energy gradient structure and occurring of FRET mechanism the donor organic molecules should be close to the acceptors (QDs). The trapped exciton can be transferred to the nearby QD and a fraction of the migrated excitons from trapped states can contribute to the acceptor luminescence by radiative recombination. So, this leads to enhancement in the emission. Figure 28 illustrates I-V behavior of the devices, fabricated by capped QDs; turn on voltage of three devices is about 1V, however, for the device based on CdS: TAA the turn on voltage is 1.5 volt, which is more than the other devices. This is while; the PL result of QD capped by TAA is higher than others.
Figure 27.
PL spectra of a)CdS b)CdS passivated by Ammonium hexafluorophosphate c) CdS passivated by TAA d) CdS passivated by MAA
Figure 28.
I-V behavior of a) CdS b) CdS passivated by Ammonium hexafluorophosphate c) CdS passivated by TAA d) CdS passivated by Mercaptoacetic acid
The PL and EL results of fabricated QD-LEDs based on FRET mechanism indicate high intensity of emitted light. It is necessary to be mentioned that in the structure of FRET based QDLEDs, ZnO:Nd acts as ETL and NiO synthesized by sol-gel method is used as HTL layers.
5. Conclusions and perspectives
In this section design and fabrication of QD-LEDs and solution of their problems including self-quenching and carrier injection have been described. All of described devices are fabricated by solution-processed methods. The base is finding the materials with suitable defect levels for achieving improved QD based LEDs. For this purpose, we investigated three types of QD-LEDs, which in both of them NiO applied as the transparent, conductive hole transport layer (HTL), and in the other one ZnO:Cu is the HTL. However, in one device, the synthesis route of NiO was sol-gel, whereas in the other, the electrochemical synthesis route is used. Characterization of NiO synthesized by sol-gel and electrochemical methods showed that different trap levels are created in the crystalline structures of NiO. Also DFT calculations indicate doping of Gallium and Neodymium atoms in the structure of ZnO increases electronic levels in the conduction band of ZnO. These calculations confirm experimental results. The obtained structure facilitates electron injections, and doping of Copper atoms in ZnO causes this material acts as a p-type, so facilitates hole injections, when that used as HTL. Fabrication of FRET based QD-LEDs could introduce suitable organic capping molecules for fabrication of high performance LEDs. In this way Ammonium hexafluorophosphate as capping molecule acts the best performance from view point of PL and EL results. Increasing in drive voltage and created heating in the light emitting diodes cause that the intensity of output light decrease and this is inefficient. In this work by introducing novel structures and improvement in the optical properties of materials used in devices, drive voltage and so, creating of heating in the fabricated devices is decreased so the light efficiency increases.
Acronym list
Light emitting devices; LEDs
high-intensity discharge; HID
Quantum dots; QDs
Hole transport layer; HTL
Electron transport layer; ETL
Indium tin oxide; ITO
Forster resonant energy transfer; FRET
Shockley-Read-Hall; SRH
Photoluminescence; PL
Scanning electron microscope; SEM
Atomic force microscope; AFM
X-ray diffraction; XRD
X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy; XPS
Binding energy; BE
Polyethylene terephthalate; PET
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/48018.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/48018.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48018",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48018",totalDownloads:1464,totalViews:637,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 9th 2014",dateReviewed:"September 1st 2014",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 22nd 2015",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/48018",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/48018",book:{slug:"energy-efficiency-improvements-in-smart-grid-components"},signatures:"P. Amini, M. Dolatyari, G. Rostami and A. Rostami",authors:[{id:"4761",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Rostami",fullName:"Ali Rostami",slug:"ali-rostami",email:"rostami@tabrizu.ac.ir",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Tabriz",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"172301",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahboubeh",middleName:null,surname:"Dolatyari",fullName:"Mahboubeh Dolatyari",slug:"mahboubeh-dolatyari",email:"m.dolatyari@tabrizu.ac.ir",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Tabriz",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"172313",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghasem",middleName:null,surname:"Rostami",fullName:"Ghasem Rostami",slug:"ghasem-rostami",email:"gh.rostami@tabrizu.ac.ir",position:null,institution:null},{id:"172314",title:"Ms.",name:"Pegah",middleName:null,surname:"Amini",fullName:"Pegah Amini",slug:"pegah-amini",email:"amini.p1001@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Physics and theory of LEDs and QD-LEDs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Experimental",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Synthesis of materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1. P-type materials",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_4",title:"3.1.1.1. Processing of NiO",level:"4"},{id:"sec_3_5",title:"3.1.1.2. Processing of ZnO:Cu ",level:"5"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.2. N-type materials",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.1.3. Quantum dots",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.2. Device fabrication",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.2.1. Spectroscopic studies and structural characterization",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.1. Increasing efficiency",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.1.1. Crystal engineering",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.1.2. Effects of FRET in QD-LEDs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_4",title:"4.1.2.1. Effects of organic molecules as shell around QDs",level:"4"},{id:"sec_17",title:"5. Conclusions and perspectives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Acronym list",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Mills E., “The $230-billion global lighting energy bill”. In Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Energy-Efficient Lighting, Nice., France., May 2002.'},{id:"B2",body:'Yang Y., Pei Q., and Heeger A.J., “Efficient blue light-emitting diodes from a soluble poly (para-phenylene): internal field emission measurement of the energy gap in semiconducting polymers”. Synthetic Metals. 1996; 78: 263-267.'},{id:"B3",body:'Shirasaki Y., Supran G. J., Bawendi M. G., and Bulović V., “Emergence of colloidal quantum-dot light-emitting technologies”. Nat. Photonics. 2013; 7: 13-23.'},{id:"B4",body:'Round H. J., “A note on carborundum”. Electr. World. 1907; 47: 309.'},{id:"B5",body:'Hall R. N., Fenner G.E., Kingsley J., Soltys T. J., and Carlson R. O., “Coherent light emission from GaAs junctions”. Phys. Rev. Lett., 1962; 9: 366.'},{id:"B6",body:'Nathan M., Dumke W., Burns G., Jr F. D., and Lasher G., “Stimulated Emission of Radiation from GaAs pn Junctions”. Appl. Phys. Lett., 1962; 1: 62-64.'},{id:"B7",body:'Jr N. H., and Bevacqua S., “Coherent (visible) light emission from Ga (AsP) junctions”. Appl. Phys. Lett., 1962; 1: 82.'},{id:"B8",body:'Akasaki I., Amano H., Itoh K., Koide N., and Manabe K., “GaN based UV/blue light-emitting devices, GaAs and Related Compounds conference”. Inst. Phys. Conf. Ser., 1992; 127: 851.'},{id:"B9",body:'Nakamura S., Senoh M., Iwasa N., and Nagahama S., “High-brightness In-GaN blue, green and yellow light-emitting diodes with quantum well structures”. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., Part 2, 1995; 34:797.'},{id:"B10",body:'Muthu S., Schuurmans F. J. P., and Pashley M. D., “Red, Green, and Blue LEDs for White Light Illumination”. IEEE J. Quantum Electron., 2002; 8: 333-338.'},{id:"B11",body:'Qasim Kh., Lei W., and Li Q., “Quantum Dots for Light Emitting Diodes”. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol., 2013; 13: 3173-3185.'},{id:"B12",body:'Kim S., Im S. H., and Kim S.W., “Performance of light-emitting-diode based on quantum dots”. Nanoscale, 2013; 5: 5205–5214.'},{id:"B13",body:'Sionnest P. G., “Electrical transport in colloidal quantum dot films”. J. Phys. Chem. Lett., 2012; 3:1169-1175.'},{id:"B14",body:'Sun K., Vasudev M., Jung H.S., Yang J., Kar A., Li Y., Reinhardt P., Snee K., Stroscio M. A., and Dutta M., “Applications of colloidal quantum dots”. Microelectron. J., 2009; 40: 644-649.'},{id:"B15",body:'Bae W. K., Park Y.S., Lim J., Lee D., Padilha L. A., McDaniel H., Robel I., Lee Ch., Pietryga J. M., and Klimov V. I., “Controlling the influence of Auger recombination on the performance of quantum-dot light-emitting diodes”. Nat. Commun., 2013; 4: 1-8.'},{id:"B16",body:'Kumar B., Campbell S. A., and Ruden P. P., “Modeling charge transport in quantum dot light emitting devices with NiO and ZnO transport layers and Si quantum dots”. J. Appl. Phys., 2013; 114: 044507.'},{id:"B17",body:'Kim J., Park Y. J., Kim Y., Kim Y.H., Han Ch. J., Han J. I., and Oh M. S., “Effects of Oxide Electron Transport Layer on Quantum Dots Light Emitting Diode with an Organic/Inorganic Hybrid Structure”. Electron. Mater. Lett., 2013; 9: 779-782.'},{id:"B18",body:'Mashford B. S., Nguyen T. L., Wilsonb G. J., and Mulvaney P., “All-inorganic quantum-dot light-emitting devices formed via low-cost, wet-chemical processing”. J. Mater. Chem., 2010; 20: 167-172.'},{id:"B19",body:'Amini E., Dolatyari M., Rostami A., Shekari H., Baghban H., Rasooli H., and Miri S., “Solution-Processed Photoconductive UV Detectors Based on ZnO Nanosheets”. IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett., 2012; 24: 1995-1997.'},{id:"B20",body:'Willard D. M., Carillo L. L., Jung J., and Orden A. V., “CdSe−ZnS Quantum Dots as Resonance Energy Transfer Donors in a Model Protein−Protein Binding Assay”. Nano Lett., 2001; 1: 469-474.'},{id:"B21",body:'Schubert E. F., “Light-Emitting Diodes”. Cambridge University Press, Second edition 2006.'},{id:"B22",body:'Thorseth A., “Characterization, Modeling, and Optimization of Light-Emitting Diode Systems”. Ph.D. Thesis, DTU Fotonic, 2011.'},{id:"B23",body:'Xi Y. Y., Hsu Y. F., Djurišić A. B., Ng A. M. C., Chan W. K., Tam H. L., and Cheah K. W., “NiO/ZnO light emitting diodes by solution-based growth”. Appl. Phys. Lett., 2008; 92: 113505.'},{id:"B24",body:'Amini P., Rostami A., Dolatyari M., Rostami G., Torabi P., Mathur S., Singh T., “High performance Solution Processed Inorganic Quantum Dot LEDs” IEEE, J. Nanotech., 2014; submitted.'},{id:"B25",body:'Irwin M. D., Servaites J. D., Buchholz D. B., Leever B. J., Liu J., Emery J. D., Zhang M., Song J.H., Durstock M. F., Freeman A. J., Bedzyk M. J., Hersam M. C., Chang R. P. H., Ratner M. A., and Marks T. J., “Structural and Electrical Functionality of NiO Interfacial Films in Bulk Heterojunction Organic Solar Cells”. Chem. Mater., 2011; 23: 2218-2226.'},{id:"B26",body:'L. Jang W., Lu Y. M., Hwang W.S., Hsiung T. L., and Wang H. P., “Point defects in sputtered NiO films”. Appl. Phys. Lett., 2009; 94: 062103.'},{id:"B27",body:'Oh M. S., Hwang D.K., Seong D. J., Hwang H.S., Park S.J., and Kim E.D., “Improvement of Characteristics of Ga-Doped ZnO Grown by Pulsed Laser Deposition Using Plasma-Enhanced Oxygen Radicals”. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2008; 155: D599-D603.'},{id:"B28",body:'Gonc A. S. ¸ alves, Davolos M. R., Masaki N., Yanagida S., Morandeira A., Durrant J. R., Freitasd J. N., and Nogueira A. F., “Synthesis and characterization of ZnO and ZnO:Ga films and their application in dye-sensitized solar cells”. Dalton Trans., 2008; 1487–1491.'},{id:"B29",body:'Aneesh P. M., Vanaja K. A., and Jayaraj M. K., “Synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles by hydrothermal method”. Nanophotonics Mater., 2007; 6639: 66390J1-9.'},{id:"B30",body:'Khan Z. R., Khan M. Sh., Zulfequar M., and Khan M. Sh., “Optical and Structural Properties of ZnO Thin Films Fabricated by Sol-Gel Method”. Mater. Sci. Appl., 2011; 2: 340-345.'},{id:"B31",body:'Rao T.P., and Kumar M. C. S., “Resistivity Stability of Ga Doped ZnO Thin Films with Heat Treatment in Air and Oxygen Atmospheres”. J. Cryst. Process Technol., 2012; 2: 72-79.'},{id:"B32",body:'Zheng J. H., Song J. L., Zhao Z., Jiang Q., and Lian J. S., “Optical and magnetic properties of Nd-doped ZnO nanoparticles”. Cryst. Res. Technol., 2012; 1-6.'},{id:"B33",body:'Sahare P. D., and Kumar V., “Optical and Magnetic Properties of Cu-Doped ZnO Nanoparticles”. International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering, 2013; 3: 16-21.'},{id:"B34",body:'Sapsford K. E., Berti L., and Medintz I. L., “Materials for Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer Analysis: Beyond Traditional Donor–Acceptor Combinations”. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 2006; 45: 4562-4588.'},{id:"B35",body:'Nizamoglu S., Sari E., Baek J. H., Lee I. H., Sun X. W. and Demir H. V., “FRET-LEDs involving colloidal quantum dot nanophosphors”. Journal of Light Emitting Diodes., 2010; 2: 1-5.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"P. Amini",address:null,affiliation:'
OIC Research Group, School of Engineering-Emerging Technologies, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
OIC Research Group, School of Engineering-Emerging Technologies, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"4482",title:"Energy Efficiency Improvements in Smart Grid Components",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Energy Efficiency Improvements in Smart Grid Components",slug:"energy-efficiency-improvements-in-smart-grid-components",publishedDate:"April 22nd 2015",bookSignature:"Moustafa M. Eissa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4482.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"35245",title:"Prof.",name:"Moustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Eissa",slug:"moustafa-eissa",fullName:"Moustafa Eissa"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"48332",title:"Egyptian Wide Area Monitoring System (EWAMS) Based on Smart Grid System Solution",slug:"egyptian-wide-area-monitoring-system-ewams-based-on-smart-grid-system-solution",totalDownloads:2918,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"M.M. Eissa, Mahmoud M. Elmesalawy, Ahmed Soliman, Ahmed A.\nShetaya and Mahmoud Shaban",authors:[{id:"35245",title:"Prof.",name:"Moustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Eissa",fullName:"Moustafa Eissa",slug:"moustafa-eissa"}]},{id:"47642",title:"Focus on Energy Efficiency Through Power Consumption Disaggregation",slug:"focus-on-energy-efficiency-through-power-consumption-disaggregation",totalDownloads:1151,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Rodrigo M. Bacurau, Luís F. C. Duarte and Elnatan C. Ferreira",authors:[{id:"144572",title:"Dr.",name:"Luís",middleName:"Fernando Caparroz",surname:"Duarte",fullName:"Luís Duarte",slug:"luis-duarte"},{id:"144624",title:"Dr.",name:"Elnatan",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",fullName:"Elnatan Ferreira",slug:"elnatan-ferreira"},{id:"171322",title:"MSc.",name:"Rodrigo",middleName:null,surname:"Bacurau",fullName:"Rodrigo Bacurau",slug:"rodrigo-bacurau"}]},{id:"47871",title:"Improving Energy Efficiency in Manufacturing Systems — Literature Review and Analysis of the Impact on the Energy Network of Consolidated Practices and Upcoming Opportunities",slug:"improving-energy-efficiency-in-manufacturing-systems-literature-review-and-analysis-of-the-impact-on",totalDownloads:1245,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Miriam Benedetti, Vittorio Cesarotti and Vito Introna",authors:[{id:"98408",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Introna",fullName:"Vito Introna",slug:"vito-introna"},{id:"171110",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Miriam",middleName:null,surname:"Benedetti",fullName:"Miriam Benedetti",slug:"miriam-benedetti"},{id:"171111",title:"Prof.",name:"Vittorio",middleName:null,surname:"Cesarotti",fullName:"Vittorio Cesarotti",slug:"vittorio-cesarotti"}]},{id:"47639",title:"Energy Efficiency Improvements in a Distribution Network based on Local Voltage Control using Energy Storage Systems and Active Loads",slug:"energy-efficiency-improvements-in-a-distribution-network-based-on-local-voltage-control-using-energy",totalDownloads:1360,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Lucian Mihet-Popa and Voicu Groza",authors:[{id:"28225",title:"Prof.",name:"Lucian",middleName:null,surname:"Mihet-Popa",fullName:"Lucian Mihet-Popa",slug:"lucian-mihet-popa"},{id:"172692",title:"Prof.",name:"Voicu",middleName:null,surname:"Groza",fullName:"Voicu Groza",slug:"voicu-groza"}]},{id:"47786",title:"Efficiency Boosting for PV Systems- MPPT Intelligent Control Based",slug:"efficiency-boosting-for-pv-systems-mppt-intelligent-control-based",totalDownloads:1419,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Farhat Maissa and Sbita Lassâad",authors:[{id:"172707",title:"Prof.",name:"Lassaad",middleName:null,surname:"Sbita",fullName:"Lassaad Sbita",slug:"lassaad-sbita"}]},{id:"47720",title:"Energy Efficiency of Electric Vehicles – Energy Saving and Optimal Control Technologies",slug:"energy-efficiency-of-electric-vehicles-energy-saving-and-optimal-control-technologies",totalDownloads:1608,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Guoqing Xu, Chunhua Zheng, Yanhui Zhang, Kun Xu and Jianing\nLiang",authors:[{id:"12762",title:"Prof.",name:"Guoqing",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",fullName:"Guoqing Xu",slug:"guoqing-xu"},{id:"147472",title:"Dr.",name:"Kun",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",fullName:"Kun Xu",slug:"kun-xu"},{id:"171057",title:"Dr.",name:"Chunhua",middleName:null,surname:"Zheng",fullName:"Chunhua Zheng",slug:"chunhua-zheng"},{id:"171198",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianing",middleName:null,surname:"Liang",fullName:"Jianing Liang",slug:"jianing-liang"},{id:"173248",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanhui",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Yanhui Zhang",slug:"yanhui-zhang"}]},{id:"47494",title:"Optimization of Hybrid Energy Efficiency in Electrical Power System Design",slug:"optimization-of-hybrid-energy-efficiency-in-electrical-power-system-design",totalDownloads:1164,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Kenneth E. Okedu, Roland Uhunmwangho, Ngang Bassey Ngang\nand Richard Azubuike John",authors:[{id:"172580",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenneth Eloghene",middleName:null,surname:"Okedu",fullName:"Kenneth Eloghene Okedu",slug:"kenneth-eloghene-okedu"},{id:"172664",title:"Dr.",name:"Roland",middleName:null,surname:"Uhunmwangho",fullName:"Roland Uhunmwangho",slug:"roland-uhunmwangho"}]},{id:"47648",title:"Increasing Energy Efficiency by Reducing Losses and Promoting Value Propositions",slug:"increasing-energy-efficiency-by-reducing-losses-and-promoting-value-propositions",totalDownloads:848,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Rune Gustavsson and Leif Marcusson",authors:[{id:"119892",title:"Prof.",name:"Rune",middleName:"E",surname:"Gustavsson",fullName:"Rune Gustavsson",slug:"rune-gustavsson"},{id:"173171",title:"Dr.",name:"Leif",middleName:null,surname:"Marcusson",fullName:"Leif Marcusson",slug:"leif-marcusson"}]},{id:"47979",title:"Heuristic Optimization Method for Power System Protection Coordination — An Intelligent Tool for Energy Efficiency Improvement",slug:"heuristic-optimization-method-for-power-system-protection-coordination-an-intelligent-tool-for-energ",totalDownloads:1253,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Rabah Benabid and Mohamed Boudour",authors:[{id:"113243",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabah",middleName:null,surname:"Benabid",fullName:"Rabah Benabid",slug:"rabah-benabid"},{id:"173270",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Boudour",fullName:"Mohamed Boudour",slug:"mohamed-boudour"}]},{id:"47647",title:"Recent Developments on Silicon Based Solar Cell Technologies and their Industrial Applications",slug:"recent-developments-on-silicon-based-solar-cell-technologies-and-their-industrial-applications",totalDownloads:2343,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Jiahe Chen",authors:[{id:"123054",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiahe",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Jiahe Chen",slug:"jiahe-chen"}]},{id:"48018",title:"High Throughput Quantum Dot Based LEDs",slug:"high-throughput-quantum-dot-based-leds",totalDownloads:1464,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"P. Amini, M. Dolatyari, G. Rostami and A. Rostami",authors:[{id:"4761",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Rostami",fullName:"Ali Rostami",slug:"ali-rostami"},{id:"172301",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahboubeh",middleName:null,surname:"Dolatyari",fullName:"Mahboubeh Dolatyari",slug:"mahboubeh-dolatyari"},{id:"172313",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghasem",middleName:null,surname:"Rostami",fullName:"Ghasem Rostami",slug:"ghasem-rostami"},{id:"172314",title:"Ms.",name:"Pegah",middleName:null,surname:"Amini",fullName:"Pegah Amini",slug:"pegah-amini"}]},{id:"47418",title:"Experimental Research on Development Energy Efficiency of Non-Thermal Plasma Technology",slug:"experimental-research-on-development-energy-efficiency-of-non-thermal-plasma-technology",totalDownloads:903,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Tao Zhu",authors:[{id:"171042",title:"Dr.",name:"Tao",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",fullName:"Tao Zhu",slug:"tao-zhu"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2197",title:"Energy Efficiency",subtitle:"The Innovative Ways for Smart Energy, the Future Towards Modern Utilities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1ecdf08655667a5b3d6936b6ede62aab",slug:"energy-efficiency-the-innovative-ways-for-smart-energy-the-future-towards-modern-utilities",bookSignature:"Moustafa Eissa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2197.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"35245",title:"Prof.",name:"Moustafa",surname:"Eissa",slug:"moustafa-eissa",fullName:"Moustafa Eissa"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"40210",title:"Load Management System Using Intelligent Monitoring and Control System for Commercial and Industrial Sectors",slug:"load-management-system-using-intelligent-monitoring-and-control-system-for-commercial-and-industrial",signatures:"M.M. Eissa, S.M. Wasfy and M.M. Sallam",authors:[{id:"35245",title:"Prof.",name:"Moustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Eissa",fullName:"Moustafa Eissa",slug:"moustafa-eissa"}]},{id:"40214",title:"Environmental Design in Contemporary Brazilian Architecture: The Research Centre of the National Petroleum Company, CENPES, in Rio de Janeiro",slug:"environmental-design-in-contemporary-brazilian-architecture-the-research-centre-of-the-national-petr",signatures:"Joana Carla Soares Gonçalves, Denise Duarte,\nLeonardo Marques Monteiro, Mônica Pereira Marcondes and Norberto Corrêa da Silva Moura",authors:[{id:"143770",title:"Prof.",name:"Joana",middleName:null,surname:"Goncalves",fullName:"Joana Goncalves",slug:"joana-goncalves"}]},{id:"40209",title:"Energy Efficient Mobility Management for the Macrocell – Femtocell LTE Network",slug:"energy-efficient-mobility-management-for-the-macrocell-femtocell-lte-network",signatures:"Dionysis Xenakis, Nikos Passas, Ayman Radwan, Jonathan Rodriguez and Christos Verikoukis",authors:[{id:"19443",title:"Dr.",name:"Christos",middleName:null,surname:"Verikoukis",fullName:"Christos Verikoukis",slug:"christos-verikoukis"},{id:"141076",title:"MSc.",name:"Dionysis",middleName:null,surname:"Xenakis",fullName:"Dionysis Xenakis",slug:"dionysis-xenakis"},{id:"145705",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikos",middleName:null,surname:"Passas",fullName:"Nikos Passas",slug:"nikos-passas"},{id:"145707",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayman",middleName:null,surname:"Radwan",fullName:"Ayman Radwan",slug:"ayman-radwan"},{id:"150701",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez",fullName:"Jonathan Rodriguez",slug:"jonathan-rodriguez"}]},{id:"40204",title:"Tools and Solution for Energy Management",slug:"tools-and-solution-for-energy-management",signatures:"Soib Taib and Anwar Al-Mofleh",authors:[{id:"71933",title:"Prof.",name:"Soib",middleName:null,surname:"Taib",fullName:"Soib Taib",slug:"soib-taib"}]},{id:"40205",title:"High Efficiency Mix Energy System Design with Low Carbon Footprint for Wide-Open Workshops",slug:"high-efficiency-mix-energy-system-design-with-low-carbon-footprint-for-wide-open-workshops",signatures:"Tomas Gil-Lopez, Miguel A. Galvez-Huerta, Juan Castejon-Navas and Paul O’Donohoe",authors:[{id:"142253",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Gil-Lopez",fullName:"Tomas Gil-Lopez",slug:"tomas-gil-lopez"},{id:"144313",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel A.",middleName:null,surname:"Galvez-Huerta",fullName:"Miguel A. Galvez-Huerta",slug:"miguel-a.-galvez-huerta"},{id:"144337",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Castejon-Navas",fullName:"Juan Castejon-Navas",slug:"juan-castejon-navas"},{id:"155420",title:"Mr.",name:"Paul G.",middleName:null,surname:"O'Donohoe",fullName:"Paul G. O'Donohoe",slug:"paul-g.-o'donohoe"}]},{id:"40213",title:"Energy Efficient Control of Fans in Ventilation Systems",slug:"energy-efficient-control-of-fans-in-ventilation-systems",signatures:"Bjørn R. Sørensen",authors:[{id:"146401",title:"Dr.",name:"Bjorn R",middleName:null,surname:"Sorensen",fullName:"Bjorn R Sorensen",slug:"bjorn-r-sorensen"}]},{id:"40201",title:"Increasing the Energy Efficiency in Compressed Air Systems",slug:"increasing-the-energy-efficiency-in-compressed-air-systems",signatures:"Dragan Šešlija, Ivana Ignjatović and Slobodan Dudic",authors:[{id:"142441",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:null,surname:"Seslija",fullName:"Dragan Seslija",slug:"dragan-seslija"},{id:"145589",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Ivana",middleName:null,surname:"Ignjatović",fullName:"Ivana Ignjatović",slug:"ivana-ignjatovic"},{id:"145591",title:"MSc.",name:"Slobodan",middleName:null,surname:"Dudić",fullName:"Slobodan Dudić",slug:"slobodan-dudic"}]},{id:"40212",title:"Pumped-Storage and Hybrid Energy Solutions Towards the Improvement of Energy Efficiency in Water Systems",slug:"pumped-storage-and-hybrid-energy-solutions-towards-the-improvement-of-energy-efficiency-in-water-sys",signatures:"H.M. Ramos",authors:[{id:"140680",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Ramos",fullName:"Ramos",slug:"ramos"}]},{id:"40218",title:"Energy Measurement Techniques for Energy Efficiency Programs",slug:"energy-measurement-techniques-for-energy-efficiency-programs",signatures:"Luís F. C. Duarte, Elnatan C. Ferreira and José A. Siqueira Dias",authors:[{id:"144572",title:"Dr.",name:"Luís",middleName:"Fernando Caparroz",surname:"Duarte",fullName:"Luís Duarte",slug:"luis-duarte"},{id:"144622",title:"Dr.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Siqueira Dias",fullName:"José Siqueira Dias",slug:"jose-siqueira-dias"},{id:"144624",title:"Dr.",name:"Elnatan",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",fullName:"Elnatan Ferreira",slug:"elnatan-ferreira"}]},{id:"40207",title:"Comparing the Dynamic Analysis of Energy Efficiency in China with Other Countries",slug:"comparing-the-dynamic-analysis-of-energy-efficiency-in-china-with-other-countries",signatures:"Chenchen Yang, Feng Yang, Liang Liang and Xiping Xu",authors:[{id:"146333",title:"Prof.",name:"Liang",middleName:null,surname:"Liang",fullName:"Liang Liang",slug:"liang-liang"},{id:"149913",title:"Dr.",name:"Chenchen",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Chenchen Yang",slug:"chenchen-yang"},{id:"149914",title:"Prof.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Feng Yang",slug:"feng-yang"},{id:"149915",title:"MSc.",name:"Xiping",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",fullName:"Xiping Xu",slug:"xiping-xu"}]},{id:"40203",title:"The Reliability Design and Its Direct Effect on the Energy Efficiency",slug:"the-reliability-design-and-its-direct-effect-on-the-energy-efficiency",signatures:"Seong-woo Woo, Jungwan Park, Jongyun Yoon and HongGyu Jeon",authors:[{id:"147403",title:"Dr.",name:"Seongwoo",middleName:null,surname:"Woo",fullName:"Seongwoo Woo",slug:"seongwoo-woo"},{id:"150964",title:"Dr.",name:"Jungwan",middleName:null,surname:"Park",fullName:"Jungwan Park",slug:"jungwan-park"},{id:"150965",title:"Dr.",name:"HongGyu",middleName:null,surname:"Jeon",fullName:"HongGyu Jeon",slug:"honggyu-jeon"},{id:"151661",title:"Dr.",name:"Jongyun",middleName:null,surname:"Yoon",fullName:"Jongyun Yoon",slug:"jongyun-yoon"}]},{id:"40217",title:"Data Processing Approaches for the Measurements of Steam Pipe Networks in Iron and Steel Enterprises",slug:"data-processing-approaches-for-the-measurements-of-steam-pipe-networks-in-iron-and-steel-enterprises",signatures:"Luo Xianxi, Yuan Mingzhe, Wang Hong and Li Yuezhong",authors:[{id:"141056",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Xian-Xi",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",fullName:"Xian-Xi Luo",slug:"xian-xi-luo"},{id:"144411",title:"Prof.",name:"Mingzhe",middleName:null,surname:"Yuan",fullName:"Mingzhe Yuan",slug:"mingzhe-yuan"},{id:"144412",title:"Prof.",name:"Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Hong Wang",slug:"hong-wang"},{id:"157210",title:"Dr.",name:"Li",middleName:null,surname:"Yuezhong",fullName:"Li Yuezhong",slug:"li-yuezhong"}]},{id:"40211",title:"Transport Intensity and Energy Efficiency: Analysis of Policy Implications of Coupling and Decoupling",slug:"transport-intensity-and-energy-efficiency-analysis-of-policy-implications-of-coupling-and-decoupling",signatures:"Rafaa Mraihi",authors:[{id:"140686",title:"Dr",name:"Rafaa",middleName:null,surname:"Mraihi",fullName:"Rafaa Mraihi",slug:"rafaa-mraihi"}]},{id:"40208",title:"Tools for Categorizing Industrial Energy Use and GHG Emissions",slug:"tools-for-categorizing-industrial-energy-use-and-ghg-emissions",signatures:"Teuvo Aro",authors:[{id:"149510",title:"MSc.",name:"Teuvo",middleName:null,surname:"Aro",fullName:"Teuvo Aro",slug:"teuvo-aro"}]},{id:"40206",title:"Hierarchical Adaptive Balanced Routing Protocol for Energy Efficiency in Heterogeneous Wireless Sensor Networks",slug:"hierarchical-adaptive-balanced-routing-protocol-for-energy-efficiency-in-heterogeneous-wireless-sens",signatures:"Said Ben Alla, Abdellah Ezzati and Ahmed Mohsen",authors:[{id:"142233",title:"PhD.",name:"Said",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Alla",fullName:"Said Ben Alla",slug:"said-ben-alla"}]},{id:"40202",title:"Street Lighting System Based on Wireless Sensor Networks",slug:"street-lighting-system-based-on-wireless-sensor-networks",signatures:"Rodrigo Pantoni, Cleber Fonseca and Dennis Brandão",authors:[{id:"54127",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Pantoni",fullName:"Pantoni",slug:"pantoni"},{id:"126309",title:"Prof.",name:"Dennis",middleName:null,surname:"Brandao",fullName:"Dennis Brandao",slug:"dennis-brandao"}]},{id:"40219",title:"Energy Efficiency in the ICT - Profiling Power Consumption in Desktop Computer Systems",slug:"energy-efficiency-in-the-ict-profiling-power-consumption-in-desktop-computer-systems",signatures:"Giuseppe Procaccianti, Luca Ardito, Antonio Vetro’ and Maurizio Morisio",authors:[{id:"140864",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Procaccianti",fullName:"Giuseppe Procaccianti",slug:"giuseppe-procaccianti"},{id:"145826",title:"MSc.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Ardito",fullName:"Luca Ardito",slug:"luca-ardito"},{id:"145827",title:"MSc.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Vetrò",fullName:"Antonio Vetrò",slug:"antonio-vetro"},{id:"145828",title:"Prof.",name:"Maurizio",middleName:null,surname:"Morisio",fullName:"Maurizio Morisio",slug:"maurizio-morisio"}]},{id:"40220",title:"Energy Efficiency in Cooperative Wireless Sensor Networks",slug:"energy-efficiency-in-cooperative-wireless-sensor-networks",signatures:"Glauber Brante, Marcos Tomio Kakitani and Richard Demo Souza",authors:[{id:"13847",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard Demo",middleName:null,surname:"Souza",fullName:"Richard Demo Souza",slug:"richard-demo-souza"},{id:"141158",title:"Dr.",name:"Glauber",middleName:null,surname:"Brante",fullName:"Glauber Brante",slug:"glauber-brante"},{id:"142430",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Tomio Kakitani",fullName:"Marcos Tomio Kakitani",slug:"marcos-tomio-kakitani"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"67977",title:"Thyroid Disorders and Osteoporosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87129",slug:"thyroid-disorders-and-osteoporosis",body:'
1. Introduction
The skeletal system maintains a dynamic characteristic throughout its life by continuously undergoing bone modeling and bone remodeling processes [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. Both bone modeling and remodeling processes include bone resorption mediated by osteoclasts and bone formation mediated by osteoblasts. Bone modeling is the predominant event during childhood, whereas in adults bone remodeling is the principal event [8]. In the case of bone modeling, both bone resorption and bone formation lead to major cur independently of one another at different sites of the skeletal system and lead to major change in the skeletal framework, whereas in the case of bone remodeling, both the processes of bone resorption and formation are closely related both in terms of time and site so that bone volume and density both remain more or less unchanged. The continuous process of bone remodeling repairs micro fractures, prevents formation of brittle bones, and balances calcium and phosphate homeostasis [6, 7, 8].
A number of systemic and local factors regulate the process of bone remodeling. Whenever the tightly coupled processes of bone resorption and bone formation in bone remodeling are disturbed, bone mineral diseases occur, excessive bone resorption leads to osteoporosis, and excessive bone formation leads to osteopetrosis [9].
Osteoblasts and osteoclasts are the two key players of bone remodeling; other cells involved in the process are osteocytes (derived from osteoblasts and acting as mechanosensor) and the bone lining cells [9]. The process of bone remodeling increases with aging; in both perimenopausal and menopausal women, the remodeling is faster than premenopausal women [9].
There are a number of factors which are responsible for the development, maturation, and normal functioning of the skeletal system; these are genetic factors, maintenance of hormonal and metabolic harmony, adhering to balanced diet, exercise, etc. Any change in the abovementioned factors might lead to skeletal abnormality including restricted stature, deformity, osteoporosis, etc. [8, 10].
Osteoporosis leads to poor bone mass along with increased risk of fracture. Osteoporosis has emerged as a global healthcare problem with an estimated huge economic burden. Around 40% of women and 13–22% of men above 50 years will experience at least one episode of fracture (usually of spine, femur, or forearm) due to underlying osteoporosis in his or her lifetime [11]. Besides postmenopausal women and men above 50 years of age, the risk of secondary osteoporosis has increased in younger people as well [11].
Due to the increase in the number of patients with osteoporosis, all the secondary risk factors attributed to osteoporosis should be thoroughly investigated.
A number of factors are responsible for maintenance and development of the skeletal system; these are genetic factors, adequate hormonal and metabolic functions, intake of balanced diet, and exercise (mechanical load) [11]. Any type of imbalance among the abovementioned factors might lead to severe consequences like short stature, bony deformities, and fractures. The final outcome depends upon age, type, severity, and duration of the underlying imbalance. Although not all of the abovementioned factors can be modified (like genetic factors), some of them can be modified [11, 12].
A rising number of new osteoporosis cases both in elderly and in young patients warrant the need for thorough investigations to identify all other secondary conditions that might affect the disease negatively. Of all the secondary conditions, hormonal conditions are the most important ones that can lead to or aggravate osteoporosis [12]. Most commonly implicated endocrinological conditions are Cushing’s syndrome, hyperthyroidism, hypogonadism, acromegaly, diabetes mellitus, etc. Fortunately, majority of the negative effects of these hormonal disorders on the skeletal system can be modified [10, 11, 12].
1.1 Osteoblasts
Osteoblasts, the bone-forming cells in bone remodeling process, are derived from the pluripotent mesenchymal stem cells. Osteoblasts are also responsible for the secretion of Type I collagen which in turn is the major bone matrix protein. Besides the abovementioned functions, osteoblasts are also responsible for adequate mineralization of the new bone (osteoid). Bone mineralization occurs due to the locally released phosphates from the osteoblast-derived vesicles located within the osteoid. Extracellular calcium also contributes to the process of bone formation by the production of hydroxyapatite crystals. Maintenance of correct balance between bone matrix and minerals is the key factor for ensuring the right amount of rigidity and flexibility of the skeletal structure. Adult human cortical bones consist of 60% mineral, 20% organic material, and 20% water [8, 9].
1.2 Osteoclasts
These are micronucleated cells that are derived from the mononuclear monocyte-macrophage cells. Osteoclasts, the only bone-resorbing cells, depend on two cytokines, colony-stimulating factor-1 or the macrophage colony-stimulating factor (CSF-1) and receptor activator of NF-kB ligand (RANKL), for production, expansion, and survival. Osteoprotegerin (OPG) acts as a decoy receptor for RANKL and inhibits the action of RANKL; hence the ration of RANKL to OPG determines the extent of osteoclast maturation and expansion [8, 9].
2. Physiology of thyroid hormones
The level of thyroid hormones in the circulation is controlled by the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis (HPT axis) [13]. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) is produced and secreted from the medial neurons of the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus. TRH in turn regulates both production and secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary cells. Next, TSH through action on its receptor (TSHR) located on the follicular cells of the thyroid gland stimulates synthesis and secretion of the thyroid hormones. There are two types of thyroid hormones, 3,5,30,50-L-tetraiodothyronine (T4), the pro-hormone, and 3,5,30-L-triiodothyronine (T3), the active hormone [14].
Thyroid hormones exert negative feedback effect on TRH and TSH and thus inhibit own synthesis and secretion.
Thus the HPT axis maintains a balanced relationship between the circulating thyroid hormones and their regulators like TSH and TRH. The set point for adequate functioning of the HPT axis is partly determined by genetic factors; there is an estimated genetic variation of 45–65% [13, 14].
2.1 Intracellular T3 supply
Circulating concentrations of both T4 and T3 along with target tissue uptake of the same and local activation or inactivation determine the intracellular supply of T3 (the active hormone). The thyroid gland secretes the pro-hormone T4 in larger proportions which is converted to the active form T3 in the liver and kidney through deiodination of T4 by type 1 iodothyronine deiodinase enzyme (DIO1). A major part (around 90%) of the circulating thyroid hormone remains bound to plasma proteins, and the concentration of free T3 (fT3) exceeds that of free T4 (fT4) by three to four times [13, 14].
There are specific membrane transporters associated with target tissue uptake of thyroid hormones; considered as monocarboxylate transporters (MCT8, MCT10), and organic acid transporter protein-1c1 (OATP1C1) [15]. Activity of T3 inside the cell is regulated by DIO2 and DIO3, as DIO2 converts T4 to T3 and DIO3 blocks the activation of T3 by producing reverse T3 [16].
Thyroid hormones mediate their actions through interaction with thyroid receptors (TRs). Unbound TRs bind with corepressor proteins and bind with thyroid response elements located at the promoter regions of the target genes and suppress transcription. Once thyroid hormone binds with its receptor, the receptor undergoes a conformational change with the unbinding of the corepressor proteins and facilitation of gene transcription following binding with the thyroid response elements at the target genes [14, 15, 16].
3. Thyroid hormone and the skeletal system
Action of T3 hormone on the skeletal system is rather complex and not completely understood. T3 mediates its action on the bones via direct and indirect pathways and affects the different phases of bone remodeling. T3 facilitates both osteoblastic (bone formation) and osteoclastic actions (bone resorption). T3 facilitates osteoblastic activity by promoting production and differentiation of osteoblasts and also increases the expression of osteocalcin, collagen (Type 1), metalloproteins, alkaline phosphatase, etc. Similarly, T3 also facilitates differentiation of osteoclasts through increased expression of interleukin-6 and prostaglandins. It also exhibits synergistic action with hormones facilitating osteoclastic activity (like parathyroid hormone and vitamin D). Moreover, T3 promotes the expression of mRNA of RANKL, stimulates RANK, and thus facilitates osteoclast production [14, 15, 16].
Majority of the TRs expressed in the skeletal system (bone marrow, chondrocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts) are TRβ1 and TRα1. Molecular studies have shown that the expression of TRα1 is far greater than that of TRβ1 in the skeletal system, indicating that T3-mediated action on the skeleton system is mostly carried out through TRα1 receptor [17]. There were no changes in the bone mass following the treatment of adult female rats with TRβ-selective agonist 3,5-dimethyl-4-(4-hydroxy-3-isopropylbenzyl)phenoxy acetic acid (GC-1); however, the administration of supraphysiological dose of T3 led to significant loss of bone mass in the adult female rats [18]. These findings suggest that T3-mediated bone resorption occurs through TRα1 receptors [18]. Animal models with genetic modifications (for TRs) have led to better understanding of the actions of T3 on the skeletal systems. All these studies showed that mice with mutation of either both TRα1 and TRβ1 or only TRα1 had delayed bone growth due to delayed ossification and decreased bone mineralization in early life, whereas increased bone mineralization in later years of life is similar to the effects of hypothyroidism in humans. However, mice with mutation of only TRβ1 receptors had skeletal phenotype similar to thyrotoxic patients characterized by increased mineralization and faster ossification during early life and decreased bone mineralization and poor bone mass in adult life [18].
3.1 Hyperthyroidism and osteoporosis
Thyroid hormones are known to a play key role in the linear growth of the skeletal system, and these hormones are essential to achieve the expected bone mass [19]. However, hyperthyroidism or thyrotoxicosis, a rather rare occurrence in children, if present, leads to accelerated ossification (both intramembranous and endochondral) and rapid linear growth [17]. This accelerated increase in bone age often results in early epiphyseal closure and short stature. In younger children severe degree of thyrotoxicosis might lead to premature closure of cranial sutures and craniosynostosis (impaired growth of brain and skull) with neurological complications [17, 20]. Sometimes severe untreated thyrotoxicosis in mother might lead to craniosynostosis in the growing fetus [20].
In adults hyperthyroidism shorten the bone turnover and poor bone mineralization [11, 17]. Finally there is loss of bone mineral density by around 10–20% especially in the cortical bones [11]. The increased concentration of circulating thyroid hormones causes significant shortening of bone remodeling cycle by about 50%. Normally the average bone remodeling cycle lasts for 200 days; however, with hyperthyroidism it is shortened to an average of 113 days [11, 21, 22]. Hence the balance between bone resorption and bone formation is disturbed; the bone formation phase is severely compromised (the duration is decreased by 2/3) and is ultimately responsible for poor mineralization (loss of about 10% of mineralization of bone per cycle) [11]. All these effects lead to increased risk of osteoporosis and increased chance of fracture.
Another contributory factor for increased risk of osteoporosis in patients of hyperthyroidism is that there is increased circulatory concentration of IL-6 in these patients; IL-6 is known to be an activator for osteoclast production and facilitates action of parathyroid hormone in bones [11, 23]. Hyperparathyroidism is also known to cause negative calcium balance due to hypercalcemia and hypercalciuria. Negative calcium balance further increases the risk of osteoporosis in these already vulnerable patients.
Many researchers since Von Recklinghausen have been conducting researches on the effects of thyroid dysfunction on bones. Svare A and his colleagues conducted a cross-sectional study to assess the relationship between BMD of forearm and TSH level in Norwegian female population (HUNT2 Study) [24]. They found that women with lower TSH (<0.5 mU/L) had lower forearm BMD than the reference category. Similarly, the prevalence of osteoporosis was found to be higher in women with osteoporosis than those without any history of thyroid disorder.
Again, the occurrence of osteoporosis secondary to hyperthyroidism (thyrotoxicosis) is more common in postmenopausal women than premenopausal women. Ercolano MA and his colleagues conducted a non-interventional and cross-sectional study on euthyroid (who had euthyroid for the past 6 months) pre- and postmenopausal women with past history of hyperthyroidism due to Graves’ disease [25]. It was found that BMD was significantly affected only in the postmenopausal group of women who remained euthyroid for the past 6 months and have a past history of Graves’ disease. Again, Tuchendler and Bolanowski conducted a study on premenopausal women with hyper- and hypothyroidism to assess the effects of thyroid dysfunction on osteoporosis [26]. They found that only hyperthyroidism and not hypothyroidism can significantly affect BMD (measured at the femoral neck), and following the treatment for 12 months, a statistically significant increase in BMD in femoral neck was observed in premenopausal women with hyperthyroidism and not hypothyroidism.
Similar study was conducted in men by El Hadidy and his colleagues [27]. The study included males between 23 and 65 years with hyperthyroidism (Graves’ disease or toxic nodular goiter). The researchers found that the men with hyperthyroidism had a significant fall in BMD compared to age-matched healthy men without any thyroid dysfunction. Besides this, the severity and the duration of hyperthyroidism were directly related to the increase in bone turnover markers and the degree of bone loss.
Similar study was conducted by Ale and her colleagues [28]. This cross-sectional study included females and males between 22 and 50 years. It was found that BMD measured in hyperthyroidism was significantly reduced compared to age- and sex-matched healthy controls. Osteoporosis was documented in hyperthyroidism but not in the controls.
Again a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies by Yang and his fellow researchers documented that although both subclinical hypo- and hyperthyroidism are associated with increased risk of fracture, only subclinical hyperthyroidism and not subclinical hypothyroidism showed significant association with low BMD (osteoporosis) [29].
3.1.1 Subclinical hyperthyroidism and osteoporosis
Although medical data describing the relation between subclinical hyperthyroidism and osteoporosis is not much, still there are studies which have explored the relationship between the two. Segna and his colleagues published a study exploring the association between subclinical hyperthyroidism and osteoporosis [30]. They included all the prospective cohort studies (published between 1946 and 2016) in the electronic database (MEDLINE/EMBASE) which provided baseline thyroid hormone status and repeated measurements of BMD. The study found that in adult patients subclinical hyperthyroidism is significantly associated with bone loss in the femoral neck region leading to increased risk of osteoporosis and fracture.
However, some earlier studies as the one conducted by Földes and his colleagues have described that although in premenopausal women with subclinical hyperthyroidism BMD in femoral neck, lumbar spine, and in the midshaft of radius did not decrease significantly, the same condition might contribute to osteoporosis in postmenopausal women especially in the cortical bones [31]. Another study published by Lee and his fellow researchers revealed that both subclinical hypo- and hyperthyroidism are associated with increased risk of hip fracture in elderly men; however, no such association was found with women [32].
Vadiveloo and his colleagues published a retrospective study exploring the long-term consequences of subclinical hyperthyroidism (TEARS study) [33]. The researchers identified suitable patients using population record linkage technology retrospectively between January 1, 1993 and December 31, 2009. They found that patients with endogenous subclinical hyperthyroidism showed an increased risk of osteoporosis-related fracture (hazard ratio being 1.25) when compared with reference population; however, once these patients developed overt hyperthyroidism or euthyroidism and are excluded from the study, this association is lost.
Again, Saler and his colleagues described in their study that in contrast to exogenous subclinical hyperthyroidism, endogenous subclinical hyperthyroidism does not compromise BMD in premenopausal women and therefore do not pose a risk for either osteoporosis or osteopenia [34]. However, Tauchmanovà and her colleagues found that BMD of the femoral neck was significantly decreased in both pre- and postmenopausal women with endogenous subclinical hyperthyroidism (greater in in postmenopausal women). Study of lumbar spine BMD revealed bone loss only in postmenopausal women. Similar findings were documented by Rosario and his colleagues [35].
Thus it can be suggested that the threat of osteoporotic fracture is greater with exogenous subclinical hyperthyroidism especially in postmenopausal women.
3.2 Overt hypothyroidism and osteoporosis
Hypothyroidism is a rather common condition in children and is characterized by delay in the development of the skeletal system, poor growth, and impaired and early endochondral ossification leading to short stature and defective bone maturation. Patients often present with patent skull sutures (delay in closure of skull fontanelles) and typical facial characteristics like flattened nasal bridge and broad face due to defective ossification.
In severe cases postnatal growth can be completely arrested, impaired with skeletal growth characterized by epiphyseal dysgenesis, dislocation of hip joints, scoliosis, persistent patency of the fontanelles, and delay in eruption of tooth. Thyroid hormone replacement therapy in these children leads to “catch-up” growth with achievement of skeletal maturity and improved bone mineralization. Finally in most of the children, normal adult height and bone mineral density are achieved. However, in severely affected children and those with significant delay in receiving thyroid hormone replacement therapy, expected adult stature might not be achieved.
Several studies were conducted in adults to understand the effect of thyroid hormone disorder on adult skeletal system [11]. But several factors like heterogeneity of the study population, the presence of different confounding factors, and different end points for different studies have led to the uniform interpretation of the results obtained from these studies.
Earlier histomorphometric studies have shown that hypothyroidism in adults led to slow bone turnover with both poor bone formation by osteoblasts and decreased bone resorption by osteoclasts. Also increase in the bone remodeling time led to prolonged secondary mineralization of the bone without any change in the existing bone volume. However, all the abovementioned changes are very slow to occur, and there are hardly any clinical data to suggest these findings in adult patients [11].
Although the exact mechanism is not known, hypothyroidism is considered to increase the risk of fracture. Vestergaard and his fellow researchers documented in their study that following diagnosis of primary idiopathic hypothyroidism, the risk of fracture (in forearm) was significantly increased in patients above 50 years [36].
However, González-Rodríguez and his colleagues while assessing the prevalence of thyroid dysfunction in adult female population, from the data collected in the Latin American Vertebral Osteoporosis Study (LAVOS), documented that although there was a high prevalence of hypothyroidism in these females, no association between loss of bone mineral density and hypothyroidism was found [37]. They also found that there was no association between fractures (vertebral or nonvertebral) and hypothyroidism.
3.3 Prolonged treatment with TSH suppressive therapy with supraphysiological dose of levothyroxine (synthetic form of T4) and osteoporosis
Supraphysiological doses of levothyroxine are prescribed in patients of thyroid cancer following surgery and radioactive iodine therapy. Prolonged exposure to levothyroxine therapy might increase the risk of secondary osteoporosis [11].
Heemstra and his colleagues described that, although long-term thyroxine therapy increased the risk of poor BMD and thus osteoporosis, it was not seen in men and in premenopausal women [38].
In the year 2018, Mazziotti and his colleagues published a cross-sectional study conducted mainly on postmenopausal women (178 women were postmenopausal out of 179 of the study participants) [39]. These women underwent thyroidectomy for differentiated thyroid carcinoma and were receiving levothyroxine therapy. Radiological vertebral fractures (VF) are considered as an early indicator of bone fragility. The researchers found that the prevalence of VF was significantly greater in patients with TSH level <1.0 mU/L, duration of levothyroxine therapy, and densiometric diagnosis of osteoporosis.
Thus it can be suggested that the risk of osteoporosis increases with suppression of TSH therapy.
4. Conclusion
Osteoporosis is considered to be one of the most common skeletal disorders affecting both elderly and young patients. Besides the few primary causes (aging and menopause), in most of the cases, osteoporosis occurs due to underlying secondary causes. Common secondary risk factors for osteoporosis include hormonal disorders like Cushing’s disease, hyperthyroidism, diabetes mellitus, hypogonadism, etc. Several studies have established that hyperthyroidism both endogenous (due to Graves’ disease or toxic nodular goiter) and exogenous (due to prolonged levothyroxine therapy especially in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer) increases the risk of osteoporosis profoundly in postmenopausal women. Even subclinical hyperthyroidism especially the exogenous ones might lower BMD and increases the risk of osteoporosis, more commonly in postmenopausal women. Hypothyroidism, on the other hand, although responsible for an array of bone disorders, does not usually contribute to osteoporosis.
Most of the studies, exploring the association between hyperthyroidism (exogenous or endogenous) and osteoporosis, are usually conducted among elderly population (postmenopausal women and elderly men). Hence further studies are to be conducted to explore the association of hyperthyroidism and osteoporosis in younger population (premenopausal women and younger males).
\n',keywords:"bone remodeling, hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, postmenopausal women",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67977.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/67977.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67977",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67977",totalDownloads:137,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 23rd 2019",dateReviewed:"May 29th 2019",datePrePublished:"July 4th 2019",datePublished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Adequate amount of thyroid hormone is an essential requirement for normal development and maturity of bones in the early life as well as for the maintenance of the skeletal system (bone remodeling). Osteoporosis, one of the most common metabolic bone disorders, is strongly associated with hyperthyroidism (endogenous and exogenous), whereas association of the same disease with hypothyroidism is not quite established. Most of the data describing the association between osteoporosis and hyperthyroidism are collected among elderly population (especially postmenopausal women), and only a few studies in literature researched into osteoporosis and hyperthyroidism in <50 years of age; hence further studies are required in the younger population (including premenopausal women and younger males).",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67977",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67977",signatures:"Ayotunde Oladunni Ale",book:{id:"8442",title:"Bone Regeneration",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Bone Regeneration",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Nahum Rosenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8442.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"68911",title:"Dr.",name:"Nahum",middleName:null,surname:"Rosenberg",slug:"nahum-rosenberg",fullName:"Nahum Rosenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Osteoblasts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Osteoclasts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"2. Physiology of thyroid hormones",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.1 Intracellular T3 supply",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Thyroid hormone and the skeletal system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Hyperthyroidism and osteoporosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.1 Subclinical hyperthyroidism and osteoporosis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2 Overt hypothyroidism and osteoporosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.3 Prolonged treatment with TSH suppressive therapy with supraphysiological dose of levothyroxine (synthetic form of T4) and osteoporosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Clarke B. Normal bone anatomy and physiology. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology: CJASN. 2008;3(Suppl 3):S131-S139'},{id:"B2",body:'Oldknow KJ, MacRae VE, Farquharson C. Endocrine role of bone: Recent and emerging perspectives beyond osteocalcin. Journal of Endocrinology. 2015;225:R1-R19'},{id:"B3",body:'DiGirolamo DJ, Clemens TL, Kousteni S. The skeleton as an endocrine organ. Nature Reviews Rheumatology. 2012;8:674-683'},{id:"B4",body:'Mera P, Laue K, Ferron M, et al. Osteocalcin signaling in myofibers is necessary and sufficient for optimum adaptation to exercise. Cell Metabolism. 2017;25:218'},{id:"B5",body:'Mosialou I, Shikhel S, Liu JM, et al. MC4R-dependent suppression of appetite by bone-derived lipocalin 2. Nature. 2017;543:385-390'},{id:"B6",body:'Seeman E, Delmas PD. Bone quality: The material and structural basis of bone strength and fragility. New England Journal of Medicine. 2006;354:2250-2261'},{id:"B7",body:'Manolagas SC. Birth and death of bone cells: Basic regulatory mechanisms and implications for the pathogenesis and treatment of osteoporosis. Endocrine Reviews. 2000;21:115-137'},{id:"B8",body:'Kenkre JS, Bassett J. The bone remodelling cycle. Annals of Clinical Biochemistry. 2018;55:308-327. DOI: 10.1177/0004563218759371. Epub 2018 Mar 4'},{id:"B9",body:'Katsimbri P. The biology of normal bone remodelling. European Journal of Cancer Care. 2017;26:e12740. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ecc.12740. DOI: 10.1111/ecc.12740. Epub 2017 Aug 8'},{id:"B10",body:'Nicholls JJ, Brassill MJ, Williams GR, Bassett JH. The skeletal consequences of thyrotoxicosis. The Journal of Endocrinology. 2012;213:209-221. DOI: 10.1530/JOE-12-0059. Epub 2012 Mar 27'},{id:"B11",body:'Tuchendler D, Bolanowski M. The influence of thyroid dysfunction on bone metabolism. Thyroid Research. 2014;7:12. DOI: 10.1186/s13044-014-0012-0. eCollection 2014'},{id:"B12",body:'Fitzpatrick LA. Secondary causes of osteoporosis. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2002;77:453-468'},{id:"B13",body:'Cardoso LF, Maciel LM, Paula FJ. The multiple effects of thyroid disorders on bone and mineral metabolism. Arquivos Brasileiros de Endocrinologia e Metabologia. 2014;58:452-463'},{id:"B14",body:'Biondi B, Wartofsky L. Treatment with thyroid hormone. Endocrine Reviews. 2014;35:433-512. DOI: 10.1210/er.2013-1083. Epub 2014 Jan 16'},{id:"B15",body:'Van der Deure WM, Peeters RP, Visser TJ. Molecular aspects of thyroid hormone transporters, including MCT8, MCT10, and OATPs, and the effects of genetic variation in these transporters. Journal of Molecular Endocrinology. 2010;44(1):1-11. DOI: 10.1677/JME-09-0042. Epub 2009 Jun 18'},{id:"B16",body:'Bianco AC, Kim BW. Deiodinases: Implications of the local control of thyroid hormone action. The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 2006;116:2571-2579'},{id:"B17",body:'Williams GR, Bassett JHD. Thyroid diseases and bone health. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation. 2018;41:99-109. DOI: 10.1007/s40618-017-0753-4. Epub 2017 Aug 29'},{id:"B18",body:'Freitas FR, Moriscot AS, Jorgetti V, Soares AG, Passarelli M, Scanlan TS, et al. Spared bone mass in rats treated with thyroid hormone receptor TRβ-selective compound GC-1. American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2003;285:E1135-E1141'},{id:"B19",body:'Bassett JH, Williams GR. Role of thyroid hormones in skeletal development and bone maintenance. Endocrine Reviews. 2016;37:135-187. DOI: 10.1210/er.2015-1106. Epub 2016 Feb 10'},{id:"B20",body:'Hüffmeier U, Tietze HU, Rauch A. Severe skeletal dysplasia caused by undiagnosed hypothyroidism. European Journal of Medical Genetics. 2007;50:209-215. Epub 2007 Mar 12'},{id:"B21",body:'Harvey C, O’Shea P, Scott A, Robson H, Siebler T, Shalet S, et al. Molecular mechanisms of thyroid hormone effects on bone growth and function. Molecular Genetics and Metabolism. 2002;75:17-30'},{id:"B22",body:'Murphy E, Williams G. The thyroid and the skeleton. Clinical Endocrinology. 2004;61:285-298'},{id:"B23",body:'Reddy P, Harinarayan C, Sachan A, Suresh V, Rajagopal G. Bone disease in thyrotoxicosis. The Indian Journal of Medical Research. 2012;135:277-286'},{id:"B24",body:'Svare A, Nilsen T, Bjoro T, Forsmo S, Schei B, Bjoro T, et al. Hyperthyroid levels of TSH correlate with low bone mineral density: The HUNT 2 study. European Journal of Endocrinology. 2009;161:779-786'},{id:"B25",body:'Ercolano M, Drnovsek M, Croome M, Moos M, Fuentes AM, Viale F, et al. Negative correlation between bone mineral density and TSH receptor antibodies in long-term euthyroid postmenopausal women with treated graves’ disease. Thyroid Research. 2013;6:11'},{id:"B26",body:'Tuchendler D, Bolanowski M. Assessment of bone metabolism in premenopausal females with hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Endokrynologia Polska. 2013;64:40-44'},{id:"B27",body:'El Hadidy M, Ghonaim M, El Gawd S, El Atta M. Impact of severity, duration, and etiology of hyperthyroidism on bone turnover markers and bone mineral density in men. BMC Endocrine Disorders. 2011;11:15'},{id:"B28",body:'Ale AO, Ogbera AO, Ebili HO, Adeyemo OL, Afe TO. Prevalence, predictive factors, and characteristics of osteoporosis in hyperthyroid patients. International Journal of Endocrinology. 2018;3:1-7. DOI: 10.1155/2018/3540256'},{id:"B29",body:'Yang R, Yao L, Fang Y, Sun J, Guo T, Yang K, et al. The relationship between subclinical thyroid dysfunction and the risk of fracture or low bone mineral density: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Journal of Bone and Mineral Metabolism. 2018;36:209-220. DOI: 10.1007/s00774-017-0828-5. Epub 2017 Mar 29'},{id:"B30",body:'Segna D, Bauer DC, Feller M, Schneider C, Fink HA, Aubert CE, et al. Thyroid Studies Collaboration. Association between subclinical thyroid dysfunction and change in bone mineral density in prospective cohorts. Journal of Internal Medicine. 2018;283:56-72. DOI: 10.1111/joim.12688. Epub 2017 Oct 16'},{id:"B31",body:'Földes J, Tarján G, Szathmari M, Varga F, Krasznai I, Horvath C. Bone mineral density in patients with endogenous subclinical hyperthyroidism: Is this thyroid status a risk factor for osteoporosis? Clinical Endocrinology. 1993;39:521-527'},{id:"B32",body:'Lee J, Buzková P, Fink HA, Vu J, Carbone L, Chen Z, et al. Subclinical thyroid dysfunction and incident hip fracture in older adults. Archives of Internal Medicine. 2010;170:1876-1883'},{id:"B33",body:'Vadiveloo T, Donnan P, Cochrane L, Leese G. The thyroid epidemiology, audit, and research study (TEARS): Morbidity in patients with endogenous subclinical hyperthyroidism. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2011;96:1344-1351'},{id:"B34",body:'Saler T, Ahbab S, Sağlam ZA, Keşkek ŞÖ, Kurnaz S. Endogenous subclinical hyperthyroidism may not lead to bone loss in premenopausal women. Hippokratia. 2014;18(3):240-244'},{id:"B35",body:'Tauchmanovà L, Nuzzo V, Del Puente A, Fonderico F, Esposito-Del Puente A, Padulla S, et al. Reduced bone mass detected by bone quantitative ultrasonometry and DEXA in pre- and postmenopausal women with endogenous subclinical hyperthyroidism. Maturitas. 2004;48:299-306'},{id:"B36",body:'Vestergaard P, Weeke J, Hoeck H, Nielsen H, Rungby J, Rejnmark L, et al. Fractures in patients with primary idiopathic hypothyroidism. Thyroid. 2000;10:335-340'},{id:"B37",body:'Gonzalez-Rodriguez L, Felici-Giovanini M, Haddock L. Thyroid dysfunction in an adult population: A population-based study of Latin American vertebral osteoporosis study (LAVOS): Puerto Rico site hypothyroidism in LAVOS-Puerto Rico site. Health Sciences. 2013;32:57-62'},{id:"B38",body:'Heemstra K, Hamdy N, Romijn J. The effects of thyrotropin-suppressive therapy on bone metabolism in patients with well-differentiated thyroid carcinoma. Thyroid. 2006;16:583-591'},{id:"B39",body:'Mazziotti G, Formenti AM, Frara S, Olivetti R, Banfi G, Memo M, et al. High prevalence of radiological vertebral fractures in women on thyroid-stimulating hormone-suppressive therapy for thyroid carcinoma. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2018;103:956-964. DOI: 10.1210/jc.2017-01986'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ayotunde Oladunni Ale",address:"ayoale2004@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Department of Medicine, Obafemi Awolowo College of Health Sciences, Faculty of Clinical Sciences, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Sagamu campus, Ogun State, Nigeria
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"8442",title:"Bone Regeneration",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Bone Regeneration",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Nahum Rosenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8442.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"68911",title:"Dr.",name:"Nahum",middleName:null,surname:"Rosenberg",slug:"nahum-rosenberg",fullName:"Nahum Rosenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"109675",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Arturo",middleName:null,surname:"Aguirre-Salado",email:"carlos.aguirre@uaslp.mx",fullName:"Carlos Arturo Aguirre-Salado",slug:"carlos-arturo-aguirre-salado",position:null,biography:"B.S. (Forest Engineer) from the Universidad Autónoma Chapingo. \nM.Sc. (Forestry) with Honorable Mention from the Colegio de Postgraduados.\nD.Sc. (Natural Resources) with Summa Cum Laude from the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. \nProfessor at the Faculty of Engineering, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Mexico. My research interests include most aspects of geoinformation science and statistical modeling applied to an ample variety of issues. Professor recognized with PROMEP desirable profile and National Researcher - Level I (SNI). For further contact: carlos.aguirre@uaslp.mx.",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109675/images/2022_n.jpg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of San Luis Potosí",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Desertification-Climate Change Interactions - Mexico's Battle Against Desertification",slug:"desertification-climate-change-interactions-mexico-s-battle-against-desertification",abstract:null,signatures:"Carlos Arturo Aguirre-Salado, Eduardo Javier Treviño-Garza, Oscar Alberto Aguirre-Calderón, Javier Jiménez-Pérez, Marco Aurelio González-Tagle and José René Valdez-Lazalde",authors:[{id:"109675",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Arturo",surname:"Aguirre-Salado",fullName:"Carlos Arturo Aguirre-Salado",slug:"carlos-arturo-aguirre-salado",email:"carlos.aguirre@uaslp.mx"},{id:"111935",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo Javier",surname:"Treviño-Garza",fullName:"Eduardo Javier Treviño-Garza",slug:"eduardo-javier-trevino-garza",email:"ejtrevin@fcf.uanl.mx"},{id:"111937",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar Alberto",surname:"Aguirre-Calderón",fullName:"Oscar Alberto Aguirre-Calderón",slug:"oscar-alberto-aguirre-calderon",email:"oaguirre@fcf.uanl.mx"},{id:"111938",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",surname:"Jiménez-Pérez",fullName:"Javier Jiménez-Pérez",slug:"javier-jimenez-perez",email:"jjimenez@fcf.uanl.mx"},{id:"111940",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Aurelio",surname:"González-Tagle",fullName:"Marco Aurelio González-Tagle",slug:"marco-aurelio-gonzalez-tagle",email:"marcgonza@fcf.uanl.mx"},{id:"111941",title:"Dr.",name:"José René",surname:"Valdéz-Lazalde",fullName:"José René Valdéz-Lazalde",slug:"jose-rene-valdez-lazalde",email:"valdez@colpos.mx"}],book:{title:"Diversity of Ecosystems",slug:"diversity-of-ecosystems",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"103945",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",surname:"Sánchez",slug:"alberto-sandatildeandiexclnchez",fullName:"Alberto Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"104715",title:"Dr.",name:"Raveendra",surname:"Patil",slug:"raveendra-patil",fullName:"Raveendra Patil",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/104715/images/227_n.jpg",biography:"Agronomist with more than 15 years experience in research, teaching and outreach activities on fields like agro-forestry, crop production, plant nutrition, soil fertility and fertilizers management, irrigation water management, fertigation in chilli production, climate change and CCS technology and their environmental risks on agro-ecosystems, soil N cycling, N2O emission and mineral N leaching losses, application of crop models in decision support system and developing gene-based crop model.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"105475",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroshi",surname:"Miyake",slug:"hiroshi-miyake",fullName:"Hiroshi Miyake",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kitasato University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"128465",title:"Mr.",name:"Mitsugu",surname:"Kitada",slug:"mitsugu-kitada",fullName:"Mitsugu Kitada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"128466",title:"Dr.",name:"Toshishige",surname:"Itoh",slug:"toshishige-itoh",fullName:"Toshishige Itoh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"137026",title:"MSc.",name:"Rosa",surname:"Florido",slug:"rosa-florido",fullName:"Rosa Florido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"137027",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel Ángel",surname:"Salcedo",slug:"miguel-angel-salcedo",fullName:"Miguel Ángel Salcedo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"137028",title:"Dr.",name:"Violeta",surname:"Ruiz-Carrera",slug:"violeta-ruiz-carrera",fullName:"Violeta Ruiz-Carrera",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"137030",title:"BSc.",name:"Hugo",surname:"Montalvo-Urgel",slug:"hugo-montalvo-urgel",fullName:"Hugo Montalvo-Urgel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"137031",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Raz-Guzman",slug:"andrea-raz-guzman",fullName:"Andrea Raz-Guzman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"our-story",title:"Our story",intro:"
The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5314},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:4818},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1466},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:9363},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:837},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:14778}],offset:12,limit:12,total:108152},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"18"},books:[{type:"book",id:"7136",title:"Blood-Brain Barrier",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a78e14b6ae2f895c53eca505f0b2fc97",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Megha Bansal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7136.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"305695",title:"Dr.",name:"Megha",surname:"Bansal",slug:"megha-bansal",fullName:"Megha Bansal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7817",title:"Neurorehabilitation (and Neural Repair) - Advanced Diagnosis and Recovery Options",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ae8aea8a335321c74f86d44c73307143",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Denis Larrivee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7817.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7958",title:"Hallucination",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6fdc24db4e3a8f26f2ab95aba724e040",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7958.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8059",title:"Neuromodulation and Neurostimulation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8cc2c649900edf37ff3374fdc96a1586",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Denis Larrivee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8059.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8103",title:"Lymph Nodes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"48382ac3a987abd738e500a9cd344e2a",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8103.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8151",title:"Grey Matter",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bed14b9822f229181057df4f97d92cc7",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8151.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8942",title:"Hippocampus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e3b98380a5f3940fec680ae0d35f7664",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marco Cascella",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8942.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"199335",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",surname:"Cascella",slug:"marco-cascella",fullName:"Marco Cascella"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9637",title:"Schwann Cells",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"499d26b78258d9dae2b57c0190550ce3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Emeritus Prof. Stavros J. Baloyannis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9637.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"156098",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Stavros",surname:"Baloyannis",slug:"stavros-baloyannis",fullName:"Stavros Baloyannis"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9638",title:"Cerebral Cortex",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e15c84025136707d6e9e094b16c27bc0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9638.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9656",title:"Brain Injury",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4b3237689c0f4d9fc4746d9825aa2a4d",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9656.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9667",title:"Neuroimmunology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ed83d79ad237ec09240b04734a5078dc",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9667.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9854",title:"The Science of Flavor",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"356cf9b61a816977cb3027c83be0dd22",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9854.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:35},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:32},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:29},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:75},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:37},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:142},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:20},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Intelligent System",value:535,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:15},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7878",title:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",subtitle:"Volume 3",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f95bf990273d08098a00f9a1c2403cbe",slug:"advances-in-extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-volume-3",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7878.jpg",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7614",title:"Fourier Transforms",subtitle:"Century of Digitalization and Increasing Expectations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff3501657ae983a3b42fef1f7058ac91",slug:"fourier-transforms-century-of-digitalization-and-increasing-expectations",bookSignature:"Goran S. Nikoli? and Dragana Z. Markovi?-Nikoli?",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7614.jpg",editors:[{id:"23261",title:"Prof.",name:"Goran",middleName:"S.",surname:"Nikolic",slug:"goran-nikolic",fullName:"Goran Nikolic"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8299",title:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bccf2891cec38ed041724131aa34c25a",slug:"timber-buildings-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8299.jpg",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7062",title:"Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14ed95e155b1e57a61827ca30b579d09",slug:"rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh and Mirjana Turkalj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7062.jpg",editors:[{id:"67669",title:"Prof.",name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7087",title:"Tendons",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"786abac0445c102d1399a1e727a2db7f",slug:"tendons",bookSignature:"Hasan Sözen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7087.jpg",editors:[{id:"161402",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Sözen",slug:"hasan-sozen",fullName:"Hasan Sözen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7955",title:"Advances in Hematologic Malignancies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59ca1b09447fab4717a93e099f646d28",slug:"advances-in-hematologic-malignancies",bookSignature:"Gamal Abdul Hamid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7955.jpg",editors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7701",title:"Assistive and Rehabilitation Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4191b744b8af3b17d9a80026dcb0617f",slug:"assistive-and-rehabilitation-engineering",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7701.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7837",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e277d005b23536bcd9f8550046101979",slug:"geriatric-medicine-and-gerontology",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7837.jpg",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7610",title:"Renewable and Sustainable Composites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2de26c3d329c54f093dc3f05417500a",slug:"renewable-and-sustainable-composites",bookSignature:"António B. Pereira and Fábio A. O. Fernandes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7610.jpg",editors:[{id:"211131",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Bastos",surname:"Pereira",slug:"antonio-pereira",fullName:"António Pereira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8416",title:"Non-Equilibrium Particle Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c3add7639dcd1cb442cb4313ea64e3a",slug:"non-equilibrium-particle-dynamics",bookSignature:"Albert S. Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8416.jpg",editors:[{id:"21045",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"albert-s.-kim",fullName:"Albert S. Kim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8463",title:"Pediatric Surgery, Flowcharts and Clinical Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"23f39beea4d557b0ae424e2eaf82bf5e",slug:"pediatric-surgery-flowcharts-and-clinical-algorithms",bookSignature:"Sameh Shehata",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8463.jpg",editors:[{id:"37518",title:"Prof.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Shehata",slug:"sameh-shehata",fullName:"Sameh Shehata"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4386},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7878",title:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",subtitle:"Volume 3",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f95bf990273d08098a00f9a1c2403cbe",slug:"advances-in-extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-volume-3",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7878.jpg",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7614",title:"Fourier Transforms",subtitle:"Century of Digitalization and Increasing Expectations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff3501657ae983a3b42fef1f7058ac91",slug:"fourier-transforms-century-of-digitalization-and-increasing-expectations",bookSignature:"Goran S. Nikoli? and Dragana Z. Markovi?-Nikoli?",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7614.jpg",editors:[{id:"23261",title:"Prof.",name:"Goran",middleName:"S.",surname:"Nikolic",slug:"goran-nikolic",fullName:"Goran Nikolic"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8299",title:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bccf2891cec38ed041724131aa34c25a",slug:"timber-buildings-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8299.jpg",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7062",title:"Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14ed95e155b1e57a61827ca30b579d09",slug:"rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh and Mirjana Turkalj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7062.jpg",editors:[{id:"67669",title:"Prof.",name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7087",title:"Tendons",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"786abac0445c102d1399a1e727a2db7f",slug:"tendons",bookSignature:"Hasan Sözen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7087.jpg",editors:[{id:"161402",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Sözen",slug:"hasan-sozen",fullName:"Hasan Sözen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7955",title:"Advances in Hematologic Malignancies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59ca1b09447fab4717a93e099f646d28",slug:"advances-in-hematologic-malignancies",bookSignature:"Gamal Abdul Hamid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7955.jpg",editors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7701",title:"Assistive and Rehabilitation Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4191b744b8af3b17d9a80026dcb0617f",slug:"assistive-and-rehabilitation-engineering",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7701.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7837",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e277d005b23536bcd9f8550046101979",slug:"geriatric-medicine-and-gerontology",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7837.jpg",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7610",title:"Renewable and Sustainable Composites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2de26c3d329c54f093dc3f05417500a",slug:"renewable-and-sustainable-composites",bookSignature:"António B. Pereira and Fábio A. O. Fernandes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7610.jpg",editors:[{id:"211131",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Bastos",surname:"Pereira",slug:"antonio-pereira",fullName:"António Pereira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8463",title:"Pediatric Surgery, Flowcharts and Clinical Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"23f39beea4d557b0ae424e2eaf82bf5e",slug:"pediatric-surgery-flowcharts-and-clinical-algorithms",bookSignature:"Sameh Shehata",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8463.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37518",title:"Prof.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Shehata",slug:"sameh-shehata",fullName:"Sameh Shehata"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7187",title:"Osteosarcoma",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Mechanisms, and Translational Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89096359b754beb806eca4c6d8aacaba",slug:"osteosarcoma-diagnosis-mechanisms-and-translational-developments",bookSignature:"Matthew Gregory Cable and Robert Lawrence Randall",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7187.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"265693",title:"Dr.",name:"Matthew Gregory",middleName:null,surname:"Cable",slug:"matthew-gregory-cable",fullName:"Matthew Gregory Cable"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7955",title:"Advances in Hematologic Malignancies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59ca1b09447fab4717a93e099f646d28",slug:"advances-in-hematologic-malignancies",bookSignature:"Gamal Abdul Hamid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7955.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7701",title:"Assistive and Rehabilitation Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4191b744b8af3b17d9a80026dcb0617f",slug:"assistive-and-rehabilitation-engineering",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7701.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8256",title:"Distillation",subtitle:"Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c76af109f83e14d915e5cb3949ae8b80",slug:"distillation-modelling-simulation-and-optimization",bookSignature:"Vilmar Steffen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8256.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"189035",title:"Dr.",name:"Vilmar",middleName:null,surname:"Steffen",slug:"vilmar-steffen",fullName:"Vilmar Steffen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7240",title:"Growing and Handling of Bacterial Cultures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a76c3ef7718c0b72d0128817cdcbe6e3",slug:"growing-and-handling-of-bacterial-cultures",bookSignature:"Madhusmita Mishra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7240.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"204267",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhusmita",middleName:null,surname:"Mishra",slug:"madhusmita-mishra",fullName:"Madhusmita Mishra"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8299",title:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bccf2891cec38ed041724131aa34c25a",slug:"timber-buildings-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8299.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7062",title:"Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14ed95e155b1e57a61827ca30b579d09",slug:"rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh and Mirjana Turkalj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7062.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67669",title:"Prof.",name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7837",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e277d005b23536bcd9f8550046101979",slug:"geriatric-medicine-and-gerontology",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7837.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"607",title:"Mathematical Modeling",slug:"numerical-analysis-and-scientific-computing-mathematical-modeling",parent:{title:"Numerical Analysis and Scientific Computing",slug:"numerical-analysis-and-scientific-computing"},numberOfBooks:28,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:512,numberOfWosCitations:599,numberOfCrossrefCitations:463,numberOfDimensionsCitations:852,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"numerical-analysis-and-scientific-computing-mathematical-modeling",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8256",title:"Distillation",subtitle:"Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c76af109f83e14d915e5cb3949ae8b80",slug:"distillation-modelling-simulation-and-optimization",bookSignature:"Vilmar Steffen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8256.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"189035",title:"Dr.",name:"Vilmar",middleName:null,surname:"Steffen",slug:"vilmar-steffen",fullName:"Vilmar Steffen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9427",title:"Model Predictive Control mit MATLAB und Simulink",subtitle:"Model Predictive Control with MATLAB and Simulink",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"775a1f5811434d743c90027f431e9d7d",slug:"model-predictive-control-mit-matlab-und-simulink-model-predictive-control-with-matlab-and-simulink",bookSignature:"Rainer Dittmar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9427.jpg",editedByType:"Authored by",editors:[{id:"309024",title:"Dr.",name:"Rainer",middleName:null,surname:"Dittmar",slug:"rainer-dittmar",fullName:"Rainer Dittmar"}],productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"6438",title:"Recent Trends in Computational Science and Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4dce85cd03f275d548d4b8881fcc0ce0",slug:"recent-trends-in-computational-science-and-engineering",bookSignature:"M. Serdar Çelebi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6438.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"218460",title:"Prof.",name:"Serdar",middleName:"Mustafa",surname:"Celebi",slug:"serdar-celebi",fullName:"Serdar Celebi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6223",title:"Chaos Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fac2355e6108735e443616453ae50a11",slug:"chaos-theory",bookSignature:"Kais A. Mohamedamen Al Naimee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6223.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"45521",title:"Prof.",name:"Kais A. M.",middleName:null,surname:"Al Naimee",slug:"kais-a.-m.-al-naimee",fullName:"Kais A. M. Al Naimee"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5373",title:"Perusal of the Finite Element Method",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1bb9070e200d056e410778cf3f36c263",slug:"perusal-of-the-finite-element-method",bookSignature:"Radostina Petrova",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"118470",title:"PhD.",name:"Radostina",middleName:"Vasileva",surname:"Petrova",slug:"radostina-petrova",fullName:"Radostina Petrova"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5149",title:"Empirical Modeling and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e644de90262c3f61a092a0bd4a8b683a",slug:"empirical-modeling-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"Mamun Habib",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5149.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12501",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Md. Mamun",middleName:null,surname:"Habib",slug:"dr.-md.-mamun-habib",fullName:"Dr. Md. Mamun Habib"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5141",title:"Applications from Engineering with MATLAB Concepts",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bdc44a3ab8aa8a9b5d9a2b62b6e09c67",slug:"applications-from-engineering-with-matlab-concepts",bookSignature:"Jan Valdman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5141.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"177759",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Valdman",slug:"jan-valdman",fullName:"Jan Valdman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4730",title:"Wavelet Transform and Some of Its Real-World Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4adb45be00eb4a384e30c1e3b4d944e3",slug:"wavelet-transform-and-some-of-its-real-world-applications",bookSignature:"Dumitru Baleanu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4730.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105623",title:"Dr.",name:"Dumitru",middleName:null,surname:"Baleanu",slug:"dumitru-baleanu",fullName:"Dumitru Baleanu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2172",title:"Simulated Annealing",subtitle:"Single and Multiple Objective Problems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"141d2ebbebeea6a78dc4a795e6a09a43",slug:"simulated-annealing-single-and-multiple-objective-problems",bookSignature:"Marcos de Sales Guerra Tsuzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2172.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"146384",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos Sales Guerra",middleName:null,surname:"Tsuzuki",slug:"marcos-sales-guerra-tsuzuki",fullName:"Marcos Sales Guerra Tsuzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2269",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eef6992c6b1a91e721958aad15dd33c7",slug:"fourier-transform-applications",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2269.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",middleName:"Mohammed",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1867",title:"Numerical Modelling",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2599b8ac8189b5b84556e825e9030422",slug:"numerical-modelling",bookSignature:"Peep Miidla",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1867.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"53706",title:"Dr.",name:"Peep",middleName:null,surname:"Miidla",slug:"peep-miidla",fullName:"Peep Miidla"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2309",title:"Principal Component Analysis",subtitle:"Engineering Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1ff906c829e05ef07235415309a10e30",slug:"principal-component-analysis-engineering-applications",bookSignature:"Parinya Sanguansat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2309.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"110312",title:"Dr.",name:"Parinya",middleName:null,surname:"Sanguansat",slug:"parinya-sanguansat",fullName:"Parinya Sanguansat"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:28,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"20889",doi:"10.5772/25097",title:"A Unifying Statistical Model for Atmospheric Optical Scintillation",slug:"a-unifying-statistical-model-for-atmospheric-optical-scintillation",totalDownloads:2816,totalCrossrefCites:73,totalDimensionsCites:96,book:{slug:"numerical-simulations-of-physical-and-engineering-processes",title:"Numerical Simulations of Physical and Engineering Processes",fullTitle:"Numerical Simulations of Physical and Engineering Processes"},signatures:"Antonio Jurado-Navas, José María Garrido-Balsells, José Francisco Paris and Antonio Puerta-Notario",authors:[{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas"},{id:"60012",title:"Dr.",name:"José María",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido-Balsells",slug:"jose-maria-garrido-balsells",fullName:"José María Garrido-Balsells"},{id:"60014",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Puerta-Notario",slug:"antonio-puerta-notario",fullName:"Antonio Puerta-Notario"},{id:"61792",title:"Prof.",name:"José Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Paris",slug:"jose-francisco-paris",fullName:"José Francisco Paris"}]},{id:"6932",doi:"10.5772/7220",title:"Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Systems",slug:"adaptive-neuro-fuzzy-systems",totalDownloads:6276,totalCrossrefCites:52,totalDimensionsCites:60,book:{slug:"fuzzy-systems",title:"Fuzzy Systems",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Systems"},signatures:"Azar, Ahmad Taher",authors:null},{id:"30443",doi:"10.5772/38267",title:"Robust Principal Component Analysis for Background Subtraction: Systematic Evaluation and Comparative Analysis",slug:"robust-principal-component-analysis-for-background-subtraction-systematic-evaluation-and-comparative",totalDownloads:4024,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:38,book:{slug:"principal-component-analysis",title:"Principal Component Analysis",fullTitle:"Principal Component Analysis"},signatures:"Charles Guyon, Thierry Bouwmans and El-hadi Zahzah",authors:[{id:"116308",title:"Dr.",name:"Thierry",middleName:null,surname:"Bouwmans",slug:"thierry-bouwmans",fullName:"Thierry Bouwmans"},{id:"117835",title:"Mr.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Guyon",slug:"charles-guyon",fullName:"Charles Guyon"},{id:"138159",title:"Dr.",name:"El-Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Zahzah",slug:"el-hadi-zahzah",fullName:"El-Hadi Zahzah"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"51312",title:"Digital Image Processing with MATLAB",slug:"digital-image-processing-with-matlab",totalDownloads:3969,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"applications-from-engineering-with-matlab-concepts",title:"Applications from Engineering with MATLAB Concepts",fullTitle:"Applications from Engineering with MATLAB Concepts"},signatures:"Mahmut Sinecen",authors:[{id:"178216",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Sinecen",slug:"mahmut-sinecen",fullName:"Mahmut Sinecen"}]},{id:"65445",title:"Power Flow Analysis",slug:"power-flow-analysis",totalDownloads:984,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:null,title:"Modeling and Simulation in Engineering",fullTitle:"Modeling and Simulation in Engineering"},signatures:"Mohammed Albadi",authors:[{id:"209533",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Albadi",slug:"mohammed-albadi",fullName:"Mohammed Albadi"}]},{id:"50536",title:"MATLAB for All Steps of Dynamic Vibration Test of Structures",slug:"matlab-for-all-steps-of-dynamic-vibration-test-of-structures",totalDownloads:2125,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"applications-from-engineering-with-matlab-concepts",title:"Applications from Engineering with MATLAB Concepts",fullTitle:"Applications from Engineering with MATLAB Concepts"},signatures:"Abdurrahman Sahin and Alemdar Bayraktar",authors:[{id:"178108",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abdurrahman",middleName:null,surname:"Sahin",slug:"abdurrahman-sahin",fullName:"Abdurrahman Sahin"},{id:"179389",title:"Prof.",name:"Alemdar",middleName:null,surname:"Bayraktar",slug:"alemdar-bayraktar",fullName:"Alemdar Bayraktar"}]},{id:"50607",title:"Small Molecule LC-MS/MS Fragmentation Data Analysis and Application to Siderophore Identification",slug:"small-molecule-lc-ms-ms-fragmentation-data-analysis-and-application-to-siderophore-identification",totalDownloads:2317,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"applications-from-engineering-with-matlab-concepts",title:"Applications from Engineering with MATLAB Concepts",fullTitle:"Applications from Engineering with MATLAB Concepts"},signatures:"Oliver Baars and David H. Perlman",authors:[{id:"179211",title:"Dr.",name:"Oliver",middleName:null,surname:"Baars",slug:"oliver-baars",fullName:"Oliver Baars"},{id:"185790",title:"Dr.",name:"David H.",middleName:null,surname:"Perlman",slug:"david-h.-perlman",fullName:"David H. Perlman"}]},{id:"66501",title:"Reactive Distillation: Modeling, Simulation, and Optimization",slug:"reactive-distillation-modeling-simulation-and-optimization",totalDownloads:868,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"distillation-modelling-simulation-and-optimization",title:"Distillation",fullTitle:"Distillation - Modelling, Simulation and Optimization"},signatures:"Vandana Sakhre",authors:[{id:"216887",title:"Dr.",name:"Vandana",middleName:null,surname:"Sakhre",slug:"vandana-sakhre",fullName:"Vandana Sakhre"}]},{id:"9024",title:"Intermodulation Interference Modelling for Low Earth Orbiting Satellite Ground Stations",slug:"intermodulation-interference-modelling-for-low-earth-orbiting-satellite-ground-stations",totalDownloads:4910,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"modelling-simulation-and-optimization",title:"Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",fullTitle:"Modelling, Simulation and Optimization"},signatures:"Shkelzen Cakaj",authors:null},{id:"50422",title:"Applied Hydrological Modeling with the Use of Geoinformatics: Theory and Practice",slug:"applied-hydrological-modeling-with-the-use-of-geoinformatics-theory-and-practice",totalDownloads:1380,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"empirical-modeling-and-its-applications",title:"Empirical Modeling and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Empirical Modeling and Its Applications"},signatures:"Christos Chalkias, Nikolaos Stathopoulos, Kleomenis\nKalogeropoulos and Efthimios Karymbalis",authors:[{id:"16474",title:"Dr.",name:"Efthimios",middleName:null,surname:"Karymbalis",slug:"efthimios-karymbalis",fullName:"Efthimios Karymbalis"},{id:"27223",title:"Prof.",name:"Christos",middleName:"N.",surname:"Chalkias",slug:"christos-chalkias",fullName:"Christos Chalkias"},{id:"179269",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Kleomenis",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogeropoulos",slug:"kleomenis-kalogeropoulos",fullName:"Kleomenis Kalogeropoulos"},{id:"179648",title:"MSc.",name:"Nikos",middleName:null,surname:"Stathopoulos",slug:"nikos-stathopoulos",fullName:"Nikos Stathopoulos"}]},{id:"62777",title:"A New Concept to Numerically Evaluate the Performance of Yielding Support under Impulsive Loading",slug:"a-new-concept-to-numerically-evaluate-the-performance-of-yielding-support-under-impulsive-loading",totalDownloads:122,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:null,title:"Modeling and Simulation in Engineering",fullTitle:"Modeling and Simulation in Engineering"},signatures:"Faham Tahmasebinia, Chengguo Zhang, Ismet Canbulat, Samad M.E. Sepasgozar, Onur Vardar, Serkan Saydam and Chen Chen",authors:null},{id:"20892",title:"Master Equation - Based Numerical Simulation in a Single Electron Transistor Using Matlab",slug:"master-equation-based-numerical-simulation-in-a-single-electron-transistor-using-matlab",totalDownloads:5e3,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"numerical-simulations-of-physical-and-engineering-processes",title:"Numerical Simulations of Physical and Engineering Processes",fullTitle:"Numerical Simulations of Physical and Engineering Processes"},signatures:"Ratno Nuryadi",authors:[{id:"54736",title:"Dr.",name:"Ratno",middleName:null,surname:"Nuryadi",slug:"ratno-nuryadi",fullName:"Ratno Nuryadi"}]},{id:"33090",title:"Phenomenological Modelling of Cyclic Plasticity",slug:"phenomenological-modelling-of-cyclic-plasticity",totalDownloads:5791,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:24,book:{slug:"numerical-modelling",title:"Numerical Modelling",fullTitle:"Numerical Modelling"},signatures:"Radim Halama, Josef Sedlák and Michal Šofer",authors:[{id:"106298",title:"Dr.",name:"Radim",middleName:null,surname:"Halama",slug:"radim-halama",fullName:"Radim Halama"},{id:"113643",title:"MSc.",name:"Michal",middleName:null,surname:"Šofer",slug:"michal-sofer",fullName:"Michal Šofer"},{id:"113645",title:"MSc.",name:"Josef",middleName:null,surname:"Sedlák",slug:"josef-sedlak",fullName:"Josef Sedlák"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"numerical-analysis-and-scientific-computing-mathematical-modeling",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"62777",title:"A New Concept to Numerically Evaluate the Performance of Yielding Support under Impulsive Loading",slug:"a-new-concept-to-numerically-evaluate-the-performance-of-yielding-support-under-impulsive-loading",totalDownloads:124,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79643",book:{title:"Modeling and Simulation in Engineering"},signatures:"Faham Tahmasebinia, Chengguo Zhang, Ismet Canbulat, Samad M.E. Sepasgozar, Onur Vardar, Serkan Saydam and Chen Chen"},{id:"66816",title:"Modeling Emerging Semiconductor Devices for Circuit Simulation",slug:"modeling-emerging-semiconductor-devices-for-circuit-simulation",totalDownloads:186,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85873",book:{title:"Modeling and Simulation in Engineering"},signatures:"Md Sakib Hasan, Mst Shamim Ara Shawkat, Sherif Amer, Syed Kamrul Islam, Nicole McFarlane and Garrett S. Rose"},{id:"65445",title:"Power Flow Analysis",slug:"power-flow-analysis",totalDownloads:999,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83374",book:{title:"Modeling and Simulation in Engineering"},signatures:"Mohammed Albadi"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:6},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6837",title:"Lithium-ion Batteries - Thin Film for Energy Materials and Devices",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ea7789260b319b9a4b472257f57bfeb5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mitsunobu Sato, Dr. Li Lu and Dr. Hiroki Nagai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6837.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"179615",title:"Prof.",name:"Mitsunobu",middleName:null,surname:"Sato",slug:"mitsunobu-sato",fullName:"Mitsunobu Sato"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9423",title:"Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Process Industry Automation, Heat and Power Generation and Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"10ac8fb0bdbf61044395963028653d21",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Konstantinos G. Kyprianidis and Prof. Erik Dahlquist",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9423.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"35868",title:"Prof.",name:"Konstantinos",middleName:"G.",surname:"Kyprianidis",slug:"konstantinos-kyprianidis",fullName:"Konstantinos Kyprianidis"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9428",title:"New Trends in the Use of Artificial Intelligence for the Industry 4.0",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9e089eec484ce8e9eb32198c2d8b34ea",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Luis Romeral Martinez, Dr. Roque A. Osornio-Rios and Dr. Miguel Delgado Prieto",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9428.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"86501",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Romeral Martinez",slug:"luis-romeral-martinez",fullName:"Luis Romeral Martinez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10107",title:"Artificial Intelligence in Oncology Drug Discovery & Development",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"043c178c3668865ab7d35dcb2ceea794",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. John Cassidy and Dr. Belle Taylor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10107.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"244455",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Cassidy",slug:"john-cassidy",fullName:"John Cassidy"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8903",title:"Carbon Based Material for Environmental Protection and Remediation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"19da699b370f320eca63ef2ba02f745d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mattia Bartoli and Dr. Marco Frediani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8903.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"188999",title:"Dr.",name:"Mattia",middleName:null,surname:"Bartoli",slug:"mattia-bartoli",fullName:"Mattia Bartoli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10132",title:"Applied Computational Near-surface Geophysics - From Integral and Derivative Formulas to MATLAB Codes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"38cdbbb671df620b36ee96af1d9a3a90",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Afshin Aghayan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10132.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"311030",title:"Dr.",name:"Afshin",middleName:null,surname:"Aghayan",slug:"afshin-aghayan",fullName:"Afshin Aghayan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10110",title:"Advances and Technologies in Building Construction and Structural Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"df2ad14bc5588577e8bf0b7ebcdafd9d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ali Kaboli and Dr. Sara Shirowzhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10110.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"309192",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Kaboli",slug:"ali-kaboli",fullName:"Ali Kaboli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10175",title:"Ethics in Emerging Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9c92da249676e35e2f7476182aa94e84",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ali Hessami",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10175.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"108303",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Hessami",slug:"ali-hessami",fullName:"Ali Hessami"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:16},humansInSpaceProgram:{},teamHumansInSpaceProgram:{},route:{name:"onlineFirst.detail",path:"/online-first/thyroid-disorders-and-osteoporosis",hash:"",query:{},params:{chapter:"thyroid-disorders-and-osteoporosis"},fullPath:"/online-first/thyroid-disorders-and-osteoporosis",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()