Reduction potentials in various chloride molten salt.
Abstract
High pure titanium, which is a critical material used for integrated circuit (IC) manufacturing, can be extracted by molten salt-electrolysis process. It will be widely used in the future for the process, is simple and easy, to achieve continuous production. However, some scientific questions need to be clarified at present. (1) Current efficiency needs to be enhanced by way of electrolyte designing and selection; (2) Product quality needs to be improved by means of electrolyte purification; (3) Electrolytic parameters need to be optimized for obtaining a better morphology. Above on, this chapter aims to explore the behaviors of titanium ions in various molten salts by means of chemical analysis and electrochemical testing. The complexes will be discussed for clarifying the influence of electrolytic compositions on kinetics mechanisms of the electrolysis process and the properties of the molten salt. A quantitative method for estimating oxygen content will be also discussed for the purpose of optimizing the composition of electrolytes. The chapter will provide a better understanding mechanism of kinetics of high pure titanium electrolysis, and the basic theory and experimental data can be used for reference in the industrialization process.
Keywords
- electrolysis
- molten salt structures
- kinetics mechanism
- high-purity titanium
1. Introduction
High-purity titanium has excellent properties, such as light weight, corrosion resistance, and low electrical resistivity [1, 2]. It is mainly used in large-scale integrated circuit (IC) manufacturing, new type of titanium-alloy and other fields. Therefore, it is a strategic material for electronic and aerospace.
As a sputtering target for manufacturing large-scale IC, a purity of 4 N5 (99.995%) to 6 N (99.9999%) is required for titanium, in which the oxygen content is below 200 ppm, and the metal impurity content is less than 10 ppm. However, the current technology for preparing high-purity titanium has caused a high price, which directly leads to lacking of application in large scale. Thereby, the development of new methods and technologies to prepare high-quality and low-cost titanium will greatly promote large-scale IC industry. Considering the preparation technology of high-purity titanium, the process of electro-refining in molten salt which is simple in process and easy to realize successive has a very broad application prospect, and has attracted much attention. The extraction process of high-purity titanium in molten salt is shown in Figure 1.
In the process, for the first step, TiCl4 and high-purity titanium were used to react for obtaining a molten salt containing low-valent titanium ions (Ti2+ and Ti3+). The salt will be used as a source of titanium ions to be added to the eutectic salt. Second, titanium sponge which comes from Kroll process is used as anode, and a high-purity titanium plate is used for cathode. During the working of electrolysis, the anode is electrochemically dissolved and the electrochemical deposition of high-purity titanium occurs on the cathode. Finally, high-purity titanium products with different morphology and quality are obtained under different electrolysis parameters.
At present, the problems that need to be solved in the industrialization process of high-purity titanium extraction with the method of electro-refining in molten salt are below: (a) current efficiency need to be improved; (b) product qualities should be enhanced. Since the existence of various state of titanium ions in the molten salt (Ti2+, Ti3+, and Ti4+), the disproportionation reactions between titanium ions and the metallic titanium cause a current consumption. Thus, it is critical to reveal the behavior of titanium ions in different electrolyte compositions/structures for improving current efficiency. In addition, oxygen has a great influence on the quality of the product, and the oxygen ions in the electrolyte cannot be completely removed. It is of great practical significance to discuss the influence of oxygen ions on the structure of the molten salt for enhancing the product quality. With a better understanding of the kinetics in titanium electrolysis process on the basis of systematic investigation of electrolyte microstructures, it will provide theoretical guidance for high-purity titanium electro-refining process in molten salt, and has important reference value for its industrialization test.
In this chapter, it aims to explore the behaviors of titanium ions in various molten salts by means of chemical analysis and electrochemical testing. The complexes will be discussed for clarifying the influence of electrolytic compositions on kinetics mechanisms of the electrolysis process and the properties of the molten salt.
2. Experimental methods
2.1 Electrochemical analysis
The electrolyte was melted in the alumina crucible after being placed in a furnace. The electrochemical analyses, such as cyclic voltammetry (CV), square wave voltammetry (SWV), line scanning voltammetry (LSV), and so on, were performed in an inert argon atmosphere previously dehydrated by heating in a vacuum. All measurements were carried out under the atmosphere of dried argon. In order to investigate the influence of the radius of the cations and fluoride ion in the melts, analyses were executed in various types of molten salts.
All the electrochemical tests were carried out in a three-electrodes configuration with a glassy carbon or metallic rod/desk being the working electrode, a spectral graphite rod being counter electrode, and an Ag/AgCl electrode or metallic titanium rod being the reference electrode, respectively. Sometimes, the potential of the reference electrode was calibrated relative to chlorine gas emission by using galvanic square wave technology.
In addition, during the electrochemical testing, the gas was analyzed on line with a resolution mass spectra and a high-sensitivity gas analysis instrument connected to the electrode tail tubing. The gas-collecting device was made with a quartz bell jar, and it correlates with resolution mass spectra, and high-purity helium was used as a carrier gas.
2.2 Concentration determination
A special quartz sampler consisting of an injector and a quartz tube was applied for determining the concentrations of Ti2+ and Ti3+ ions. The injector on top of the quartz tube is sealed with a rubber plug. Four parallel samples were extracted from the molten salts for analysis. The concentrations of Ti2+ and Ti3+ ions in the sample were determined by H2 volumetric analysis and titration, respectively. According to reaction (1), the concentration of Ti2+ was quantified by H2 volumetric analysis.
It is worth noting that that the dissolved oxygen in an aqueous solution will oxidize titanium ions from Ti2+ into Ti3+, which is also the reason why the concentration of Ti2+ ions is underestimated. Thus, the deionized water was treated by vacuum degassing and completely cleaned by the high-purity argon gas. A specific amount of concentrated hydrochloric acid was injected into the deoxygenized water to prepare diluted hydrochloric acid (1 mol/L). The deoxygenized hydrochloric acid solution was saturated by bubbling high-purity H2 for 30 min to prevent the evolution of H2 by reaction (1).
Note that the concentration of Ti3+ ions in the solution consisted of the initial Ti3+ ions in the sample and the oxidized Ti3+ ions. The total concentration of Ti3+ ions in the solution was determined by titration using 0.05 mol/L NH4Fe(SO4)2 aqueous solution. The Ti3+ in the solution reacted with Fe3+ follow by reaction (2).
Finally, the concentration of Ti4+ from reaction (2) was determined by diantipyryl methane spectrophotometry, the concentration of Ti4+ was equal to the concentration of Ti2+ plus Ti3+.
2.3 Electrochemical titration technique
The concentration of O2− in the molten salt was determined by the
The Nernstian behavior of the system was demonstrated by measuring the change in electrode potential. The relationship between the concentration of oxide and potential can be expressed as Eq. (3):
where
3. Results and discussion
3.1 Influence of electrolyte cation on ionic equilibrium of titanium
Metallic titanium and titanium ions undergo the following disproportionation reactions in the molten salt, and their equilibrium constants can be expressed by Eqs. (6) and (7), respectively [3, 4].
Titanium ions with various valent states will compete with host cations, such as alkali metal or alkaline earth metal ions when they are used as a cation to coordinate with a host anion (such as Cl−) in molten salt. The coordination rules between titanium ions and anions will affect the direction of the above equilibrium reactions, thereby the existence of titanium ions in the molten salt will be changed. Moreover, the electrolysis process will be a one-step reduction of Ti2+ to Ti when titanium ions in the molten salt are stably present in form of Ti2+. On the other hand, when Ti3+ or higher-valent titanium ions are stabilized, the electrolysis process will achieve a one-step reduction of Ti3+ to Ti. Table 1 shows the reduction potentials of titanium ions in different chloride molten salts.
Molten salt | Ref. electrode/Temp. | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
CaCl2 | 0.20 [6] | −0.10 [6] | — | Ti, 1123 K [6] |
CaCl2-NaCl (1:1) | −0.85 [7] | −1.20 [7] | — | Ag+/Ag, 823 K [7] |
LiCl-KCl (59:41) | −1.05 [8] | −1.68 [8] | — | Ag+/Ag, 723 K [8] |
LiCl-KCl (59:41) | −1.78 [9] | −1.9 0 [9] | — | Cl2/Cl−, 993 K [9] |
CsCl-LiCl (59.5:40.5) | −1.88 [9] | −1.93 [9] | — | Cl2/Cl−, 993 K [9] |
CsCl-LiCl (59.5:40.5) | — | — | −2.01 [9] | Cl2/Cl−, 793 K [9] |
NaCl-KCl (1:1) | −1.75 [10] | −2.05 [10] | — | Cl2/Cl−, 1023 K [10] |
0.18 [11] | −0.18 [11] | — | Ti, 1023 K [11] | |
−1.95 [9] | −1.98 [9] | — | Cl2/Cl−, 993 K [9] | |
0.06 [12] | −0.06 [12] | — | Ti, 1006 K [12] | |
NaCl-CsCl (1:2) | −1.55 [13] | −1.80 [13] | — | Cl2/Cl−, 873 K [13] |
Results show that the reduction of titanium ions in above molten salts has undergone a two-step process of Ti3+ → Ti2+ → Ti except CsCl-LiCl [5]. It can also be concluded that the smaller radius of the alkali metal or alkaline earth metal cation in the electrolyte, the stronger the coordination ability with the anion (Cl−). Considering the mechanism in deep-layer, it can be interpreted that it is impossible to have enough Cl− around Ti3+ in a molten with a smaller radius of the electrolyte. Then, the instability of Ti3+ in reaction (4) causes the reaction to move to the left, and the concentration of Ti2+ increases in the total concentration of titanium ions. When the average valence state of titanium ions in the molten salt is around 2.2–2.5, the electrolytic reduction of Ti3+ needs to undergo a process of Ti3+ → Ti2+ → Ti. On the contrary, when the average radius of electrolyte cation is larger, such as CsCl, Ti3+ is relatively stable, and the average valence state of titanium ions is about 2.7–2.9, which can realize one-step reduction of Ti3+ to Ti.
In order to deliberate the effect of cation in electrolyte, the relationship between
It was studied that the stability of chlorocomplexes is strongly affected by different solvent cations. One explanation may be described by a simple electrostatic model. Thus, it can be deduced that the titanium ions at their higher oxidation states are engaged in chlorocomplexes such as TiCl4− or TiCl63− from the model. Moreover, there is a competition between alkali metal and titanium ions to associate with chloride ions. The smaller ionic radius of the alkali metal ions is, the more strongly associate with Cl−, which results in a lesser stability of chlorocomplexes, and the stability of the Ti2+ complex increased in the presence of outer-sphere cations in the series Cs+ to Li+. Under the circumstances, the maximum Ti2+ complex stability is achieved in the presence of Li+ outer sphere cations.
For mixtures of alkali chlorides, the polarizing ability of alkali cations to Cl− could be an average of each according to the mix ratio. Polarizing power is introduced for describing the numerous semi-quantitative relationships, involving the charge and the radius of the solvent cations can be present as follows:
where the suffix
The values of
From the above, it can be concluded that the cation of electrolyte will impact on the equilibrium of disproportionation reactions (4) and (5). The reduction steps were revealed in various molten salt through electrochemical method, and the competition relationship between cation and titanium ion was also proved. Hence, selecting one type of chloride molten salt in the high-purity titanium electro-refining process has great directive significance.
3.2 Influence of electrolyte anion on ionic equilibrium of titanium
3.2.1 Effect of fluoride ion on the state of titanium ions in molten salt
Relative to chloride ions, the ionic radius of fluoride ions is smaller, and it is easier to form a coordination relationship with the cations in the molten salt [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. Therefore, coordination compounds, TiF
The relationship between the initial concentration of Ti3+, F− and the concentration of the coordination compounds in the molten salt is shown in Figure 5. It can be seen that these three parameters are a smooth surface on the three-dimensional map. It indicates that the total concentration of the coordination compound is determined by the two parameters: initial concentration of Ti3+ and F−.
The coordination reaction between fluoride ion and titanium ion (Ti3+) is as shown in reaction (9):
The equilibrium constants of reaction (9) were evaluated using Eq. (10) [19]. Table 2 shows the results of the best fitting of equilibrium constants for the complex formation.
TiF | Δ | Δ | |
---|---|---|---|
3.9 | −11.6 | −11.6 | |
3.5 × 102 | −49.8 | −24.9 | |
4.5 × 10−5 | 85.2 | 28.4 | |
4.1 × 104 | −90.4 | −22.6 | |
1.6 × 10−8 | 133.1 | 26.6 | |
5.8 × 106 | −132.4 | −22.1 |
Thus, it was found that the formation equilibrium constants of the complexes, TiF
where R is the gas constant and
3.2.2 Effect of fluoride ion on reduction steps of titanium ions
The chemical behavior of fluoride ion and titanium ion in electrochemical process was examined by chemical method, respectively. The influencing mechanism of fluoride ion on the redox process of titanium ion was determined by various electrochemical analysis methods [20]. Under the condition of fluoride free in molten salt, cyclic voltammetry scanning results show that the Ti3+ reduction process was proceeded two-step, and they are below: Ti3+ → Ti2+ and Ti2+ → Ti, respectively. However, when
The above studies show that fluoride ions can form coordination compounds with titanium ions to change the micro-structure of the molten salt, affect the equilibrium movement and electrochemical reduction steps of titanium ions in molten salt.
3.3 Influence of oxygen ions on ionic equilibrium of titanium
3.3.1 The formation of TiOCl in molten salt
Normally, the equilibrium constants of the disproportionation reactions were determined by concentration analyzing. However, the obtained equilibrium constant value (
The volatility of the
Based on above research, the influence of oxygen ions on the evaluation of the equilibrium constant of disproportionation reaction was considered, and the equilibrium constant value of reaction (4), the solubility product (
Considering the electrochemical behavior of Ti-O ions, Barner speculated that the intervention of oxygen ions makes the electrochemical reduction process similar to the homogeneous reaction due to the presence of the coordination compounds TiF62− and TiOF53− [24].
The above studies have shown that the formation of a coordination compound between oxygen ions and high-valent titanium ions in the molten salt brings about a deviation in the evaluation of the concentration of titanium ions. At the same time, Ti-O coordination compounds also affect the electrochemical reduction process of titanium ions.
3.3.2 Purification and quantification of oxide content
Oxygen ions are very sensitive elements in the high-purity titanium electrolytic refining process, so it is necessary to find a simple and accurate method for their quantitative analysis [25, 26, 27]. The determination of oxygen ions in the molten salt can also be achieved by electrochemical titration with YSZE (yttria-stabilized zirconia electrode). Castrilejo et al. discussed the concentration changes of oxygen ion in CaCl2-NaCl molten salt [28]. In addition, the square wave voltammetry was used to determine the relationship between current density and oxygen content in LiF-NaF-KF and LiF-NaF molten salts by Shen et al. [29] and Massot et al. [30], respectively. Thereby, three options for determining the oxygen content in molten salts can be concluded, namely: the best-fitting method, electrochemical titration technique (ETT), and square wave voltammetry (SWV).
Taking ETT as an example, in order to clarify the behavior of the impurity element (oxide) in molten salt, the electrochemical behavior of oxide ions has been investigated in an equimolar NaCl-KCl by electrochemical titration technique. The residual content of oxide in the molten NaCl-KCl was determined by using this in-situ method. The titrations of O2− were applied by sodium oxide additions. The results obtained through electrochemical titration technique show that the oxide content in the melt and the free oxide ions (O2−) detected content have a good linear relationship (Figure 7).
The equation of the fitted line is:
The valve difference of slope can be explained as: the influence of O2− decreased when its total concentration was on a high level. The line almost goes through the origin of the coordinates (the intercept equals to 5.71 × 10−5), which means hardly any O2− oxidation current can be detected with extremely low O2− concentration dissolution in the NaCl-KCl melts. The current density differences (Δ
3.4 Electro-refining of high-purity titanium in molten salt
3.4.1 Anodic polarization behavior in different molten salt structures
Oxidation occurs on the anode during electrolysis, and the anode material enters the molten salt in the form of ions. The electrochemical dissolution behavior is related to the electrolysis voltage, electrolyte composition, etc. [8, 31, 32]. Haarberg et al. investigated the electrochemical behavior of TiCxOy in NaCl-KCl and TiO2 in Na3AlF6 molten salt. In the chloride molten salt, titanium ions are mainly dissolved in the form of Ti2+, and the electrochemical precipitation of titanium ions is in the form of Ti3+ or Ti4+ in the molten salt of Na3AlF6.
It is of great significance for optimizing molten salt electrolyte and improving electrolysis efficiency. Thus, the changes of micro-element structure in molten salt, and the influence of electrochemical dissolution and deposition of titanium ions should be clarified.
3.4.2 Electrochemical parameters for high-purity titanium extraction
The reason for the low efficiency in electrolysis process is that, power consumption caused by the coordination of titanium ions and anions in the molten salt. The physical and chemical properties of the molten salt relate to the basis of electrolysis electrode process in molten salt. Thereby, the current efficiency of high-purity titanium electro-refining is related to the current density and the stable state of titanium ion in the molten salt. Concentrations of titanium ions and other parameters are also related [33, 34, 35]. Therefore, in order to achieve high-purity titanium with high-efficiency, the molten salt structure should be in-depth understood. It can be provided a guidance for improving the electrolysis efficiency and product quality.
4. Conclusions
Based on above analysis, comprehensive and systematic conclusions were done on the scientific issues to be clarified in the high-purity titanium molten salt electro-refining process. The influence of anion and cation in electrolyte on ionic equilibrium of titanium was discussed systematically by chemical analysis and electrochemical testing. Specifically, the type of microstructure of the molten salt is dissected in the molten salt mainly composed of chloride. The coordination mechanism between titanium ion and fluoride ion was also revealed. The mechanism of anodic oxidation and cathodic reduction kinetics in electrolytes with different micro-structures was clarified, which provide a guiding line for optimizing electrolyte. More importantly, on the basis of full theoretical and experimental research, it proposes parameters for high-purity titanium extraction in molten salt, and provides theoretical support for the establishment of efficient, low-pollution, and low-cost metallurgical processes.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank support from Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Resources and Materials Industry, Zhengzhou University and Startup Research Fund of Zhengzhou University (No. 32210804). The authors are grateful to the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51804277) and Key Projects of Henan Province Department of Education (No.19B450004).
References
- 1.
Li C, Song J, Li S, Li X, Shu Y, He J. An investigation on electrodeposition of titanium in molten LiCl-KCl. TMS, Materials Processing Fundamentals. 2019:193-202 - 2.
Pore VJ, Okura S, Suemori H. Process for deposition of titanium oxynitride for use in integrated circuit fabrication. 2016. US Patent 9523148 - 3.
Girginov A, Tzvetkoff T, Bojinov M. Electrodeposition of refractory metals (Ti, Zr, Nb, Ta) from molten salt electrolytes. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry. 1995; 25 :993-1003 - 4.
Wendt H, Reuhl K, Schwarz V. Cathodic deposition of refractory intermetallic compounds from FLiNaK melts I. Voltammetric investigation of Ti, Zr, B, TiB2 and ZrB2. Electrochimica Acta. 1992; 37 :237-244 - 5.
Song J, Xiao J, Zhu H. Electrochemical behavior of titanium ions in various molten alkali chlorides. Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 2017; 164 (12):E321-E325 - 6.
Kang M, Song J, Zhu H, Jiao S. Cathodic deposition process of the titanium in CaCl2-TiCl2 molten salt. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B. 2015; 46 :162-168 - 7.
Martinez AM, Castrillejo Y, Barrado E, Haarberg GM, Picard G. A chemical and electrochemical study of titanium ions in the molten equimolar CaCl2-NaCl mixture at 550°C. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry. 1998; 449 :67-80 - 8.
Haarberg GM, Kjos OS, Martinez AM, Osen KS, Skybakmoen E, Dring K. Electrochemical behaviour of dissolved titanium species in molten salts. ECS Transactions. 2010; 33 :167-173 - 9.
Lantelme F, Kuroda K, Barhoun A. Electrochemical and thermodynamic properties of titanium chloride solutions in various alkali chloride mixtures. Electrochimica Acta. 1998; 44 :421-431 - 10.
Jiao H, Wang J, Zhang L, Zhang K, Jiao S. Electrochemically depositing titanium (III) ions at liquid tin in a NaCl-KCl melt. RSC Advances. 2015; 5 :62235-62240 - 11.
Ning X, Asheim H, Ren H, Jiao S. Preparation of titanium deposit in chloride melts. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B. 2011; 42 :1181-1187 - 12.
Haarberg GM, Rolland W, Sterten A, Thonstad J. Electrodeposition of titanium from chloride melts. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry. 1993; 23 :217-224 - 13.
Song Y, Jiao S, Hu L, Guo Z. The cathodic behavior of Ti(III) ion in a NaCl-2CsCl melt. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B. 2016; 47 (1):804-810 - 14.
Song J, Wang Q, Kang M, Jiao S, Zhu H. The equilibrium between TiCl2, TiCl3 and metallic titanium in molten binary mixtures of LiCl. Electrochemistry. 2014; 82 :1047-1051 - 15.
Lantelme F, Salmi A. Electrochemistry of titanium in NaCl-KCl mixtures and influence of dissolved fluoride ions. Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 1995; 142 :3451-3456 - 16.
Polyakova LP, Taxil P, Polyakov EG. Electrochemical behaviour and codeposition of titanium and niobium in chloride-fluoride melts. Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 2003; 359 :244-255 - 17.
Robin A, Lepinay J. Determination of the apparent standard potential of the Ti/Ti(III) system in the LiF-NaF-KF eutectic using voltammetry chronopotentiometry and open circuit potentiometry. Electrochimica Acta. 1991; 36 :1009-1012 - 18.
Song J, Wang Q, Zhu X, Hou J, Jiao S, Zhu H. The influence of fluoride anion on the equilibrium between titanium ions and electrodeposition of titanium in molten fluoride-chloride salt. Materials Transactions. 2014; 55 (8):1299-1303 - 19.
Song J, Wang Q, Jiao S, Zhu H. The influence of fluoride ions on the equilibrium between titanium ions and titanium metal in fused alkali chloride melts. Faraday Discussions. 2016; 190 :421-432 - 20.
Song J, Huang X, Wu J, Zhang X. Electrochemical behaviors of Ti(III) in molten NaCl-KCl under various contents of fluoride. Electrochimica Acta. 2017; 256 :252-258 - 21.
Sekimoto H, Nose Y, Uda T, Uehara A, Yamana H, Sugimura H. Revaluation of equilibrium quotient between titanium ions and metallic titanium in NaCl-KCl equimolar molten salt. Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 2011; 509 :5477-5482 - 22.
Wang Q, Song J, Hu G, Zhu X, Hou J, Jiao S, et al. The equilibrium between TiCl2, TiCl3 and titanium metal in NaCl-KCl equimolar molten salt. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B. 2013; 44B :906-913 - 23.
Zhu X, Wang Q, Song J, Hou J, Jiao S, Zhu H. The equilibrium between metallic titanium and titanium ions in LiCl-KCl melts. Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 2014; 587 :349-353 - 24.
Barner J, Noye P, Barhoun A, Lantelme F. Influence of oxide and alloy formation on the electrochemistry of Ti deposition from the NaCl-KCl-NaF-K2TiF6 melt reduced by metallic Ti. Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 2005; 152 (1):C20-C26 - 25.
Bright FH, Wurm JG. Some new fluoride complexes of trivalent titanium. Canadian Journal of Chemistry. 1958; 36 :615-622 - 26.
Song J, Mukherjee A. Influence of F− on the electrochemical properties of titanium ions and Al-Ti alloy electrodeposition in molten AlCl3-NaCl. RSC Advances. 2016; 6 :82049-82056 - 27.
Song J, Huang X, Fan Y, Yi J, Shu Y, He J. In-situ monitoring of O2−concentration in molten NaCl-KCl at 750°C. Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 2018; 165 (5):E245-E249 - 28.
Castrillejo Y, Martinez A, Haarberg GM, Borresen B, Osen K, Tunold R. Oxoacidity reactions in equimolar molten CaCl2-NaCl mixture at 575°C. Electrochimica Acta. 1997; 42 :1489-1494 - 29.
Shen M, Peng H, Ge M, Zuo Y, Xie L. Use of square wave voltammeter for online monitoring of O2− concentration in molten fluorides at 600°C. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry. 2015; 748 :34-39 - 30.
Massot L, Cassayre L, Chamelot P, Taxil P. On the use of electrochemical techniques to monitor free oxide content in molten fluoride media. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry. 2007; 606 :17-23 - 31.
Wang Q, Song J, Wu J, Jiao S, Hou J, Zhu H. A new consumable anode material of titanium oxycarbonitride for the USTB titanium process. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics. 2014; 16 :8086-8091 - 32.
Jiao S, Ning X, Huang K, Zhu H. Electrochemical dissolution behavior of conductive TiC x O1-x solid solutions. Pure and Applied Chemistry. 2010;82 (8):1691-1699 - 33.
Wu J, Song J, Zhu H, Shu Y, He J. Equilibrium between metallic titanium and titanium ions in MgCl2LiCl molten salt. Materials Transactions. 2019; 60 (3):374-378 - 34.
Song J, Wang Q, Hu G, Zhu X, Jiao S, Zhu H. The equilibrium between titanium ions and the electro-refining of high-purity titanium in a NaCl-KCl melt. International Journal of Minerals Metallurgy and Materials. 2014; 21 (7):660-665 - 35.
Song J, Hu G, Wang Q, Jiao S, Zhu H. Preparation of high purity titanium by electro-refining in NaCl-KCl Melt. In: The 4th Asian Conference on Molten Salts and Ionic Liquids, 44th Symposium on Molten Salt Chemistry; Sendai, Japan; 2012. pp. 120-126