Open access peer-reviewed chapter - ONLINE FIRST

Antimicrobial Residues in Meat and Meat Products

Written By

Dhary Alewy Almashhadany, Hero I. Mohammed, Thaera Abdulwahid M. Muslat, Rzgar F. Rashid, Rawaz R. Hassan and Abdullah O. Hassan

Submitted: 26 May 2022 Reviewed: 09 June 2022 Published: 03 July 2022

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.105784

Health Risks of Food Additives - Recent Developments and Trends in Food Sector IntechOpen
Health Risks of Food Additives - Recent Developments and Trends i... Edited by Muhammad Sajid Arshad

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Health Risks of Food Additives - Recent Developments and Trends in Food Sector [Working Title]

Dr. Muhammad Sajid Arshad and Mr. Waseem Khalid

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Abstract

The presence of antimicrobial residues (AMRs) in meat is considered a serious threat to public health in the twenty-first century. This work aims at addressing the problem of AMRs in meat regarding their sources, negative effects, detection tests, and prevention and control practices. The health risks associated with such residues include direct toxicity, drug allergy, hypersensitive reactions, and the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Moreover, disturbance of gut microbiota and bone marrow disorders are also direct consequences of continuous exposure to small quantities of antimicrobial residues (AMRs). Due to long-term exposure to antibiotic residues during gestation, various congenital anomalies were also seen in newborn children. Carcinogenic impacts and mutagenic effects are other negative impacts of antibiotic residues on the food. Different practices are known to introduce AMRs into meat and meat products, such as misuse of chemotherapeutic medications, violating withdrawal periods, even with the proper administration of anti-infective agents, and usage of antibiotics as growth promoters and feed additives. The prevention of this problem requires multi-sector cooperation to restrict the improper use of antimicrobial drugs, standardize the rationale usage, and development of alternative chemicals or biologics for the purposes of preservation of meat products and as growth promoters for food-producing animals.

Keywords

  • antimicrobial residue
  • meat product
  • veterinary drugs
  • antimicrobial resistance

1. Introduction

Meat is defined as skeletal muscles and their associated tissues from certain mammals and birds that are appropriate for human consumption. It encompasses the flesh or other edible parts of four kinds of vertebrates, which are as follows:

  1. Warm-blooded food-producing animals with red meat, such as cattle, buffaloes, camels, sheep, goats, and pigs.

  2. Warm-blooded animals and birds with white meat, including poultry (chicken, turkeys, and quails) and birds that are hunted for their meat, such as pigeons.

  3. Fish are cold-blooded animals with low-fat and high-protein white meat that gives a range of health benefits.

  4. Rabbits are warm-blooded animals with a rapid reproduction rate and low-fat, high-protein white meat.

Meat is a highly nutritious food owing to its high-quality proteins containing all the essential amino acids as well as various minerals, namely, iron, zinc, selenium, and magnesium. It is also a major source of five of the B-complex vitamins, which are the important cofactors for energy metabolic pathways [1]. The human population has been increasing speedily, which increases human consumption of foods, particularly food of animal origin. Therefore, demands for animal protein are remarkably increasing globally. To meet such demands, intensive animal and aquaculture farming is gaining popularity and became an important field within the food industry [2].

The twentieth century had witnessed a massive expansion in livestock farming, including cattle, sheep, pigs, horses, poultry, and rabbits. Similarly, aquaculture, which is the production of fish, crustaceans, and mollusks, was also introduced and more than 580 aquaculture species are currently cultivated globally [2, 3]. This modern food industry needs to use antimicrobial agents at different phases of production to provide safe products for consumers. International usage of antimicrobials in the food industry has been estimated to reach 63,151 ± 1560 tons in 2010 and it is expected to increase by 67% to 105,596 ± 3605 tons by 2030. These chemicals are extensively used in food-producing animals for therapeutic, prophylactic, and metaphylactic purposes [4].

1.1 Antimicrobial agents in the meat industry: Proper and improper uses

Antimicrobials are chemical ingredients, which at low concentrations have biological properties to kill or inhibit microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and parasites. It is a general term that refers to a group of drugs that include antivirals, antibiotics, antifungals, and antiprotozoals. After administering antimicrobials, their residues could remain in the tissues of treated animals and the foods derived from them, such as milk, meat, and eggs [5, 6].

The misuse and overuse of these antimicrobials in food-producing animals and aquaculture are major contributing factors in the accumulation of AMRs in animal source foods (ASFs), particularly meat and meat products [7, 8]. These AMRs have severe harmful impacts on human health (see part 3). The Centre for Veterinary Medicine, an agency under the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the USA, and the European Union (EU) define the residues as “pharmacologically active substances (whether active principles, recipients, or degradation products) and their metabolites which remain in foodstuffs obtained from animals to which the veterinary medicinal products in question has been administered” [9].

Practically, 80% of globally manufactured antibiotics are used in the animal production and several animal producers currently manage sub-therapeutic concentrations of antibiotics for different purposes, such as growth enhancement, acceleration of weight gain, improving digestion, rise in feed conversion ratio (FCR), and hindrance or decrease of disease outbreaks. Therefore, residues of veterinary drugs may be present in animal source foods (ASFs) even if their use is fully regulated [10, 11]. The insufficiency of attention among farmers and breeders concerning the withdrawal periods (WDPs) and health risks related to the presence of AMRs in different types of food, especially in developing countries, is globally recognized [12]. Additionally, failure to follow the instructions of antibiotics manufacturers also accounts for residue occurrence in meat [13, 14]. The phrase withdrawal period (WDP) is often used more broadly to describe the time that must pass after the last given dose of veterinary medication and before the slaughter or production of food from the treated animal to ensure that the food does not contain levels of the medicine that exceed the maximum residue limit (MRL) [15].

The length of WDP may vary widely between drugs because it depends on the physical and chemical characteristics of the antimicrobial agent, route of administration, and dosage. It generally ranges from only a few hours to several days or weeks [5, 16].

The presence of AMRs above the maximum residue limit (MRL) in meats is considered an unlawful application of such drugs by different public health authori¬ties worldwide [17]. European Medicines Agency (EMA) defines the MRL as the maximum allowed concentration of residue in a food product obtained from an animal that has received a veterinary medicine or that has been exposed to a biocidal product for use in animal husbandry. EMA provides guidance on establishing MRLs and their application. The European Union (EU) requires, by law, that foodstuffs, such as meat, milk, or eggs, must not contain residue levels of veterinary medicines or biocidal products that might represent a hazard to the health of the consumer. Regulations of the European committee (470/2009) lay down the rules and procedures for the establishment of MRLs (EMA, 2021). The unit used for this maximum allowable concentration is milligrams per kilogram for solid products and milligrams per liter for liquids [18, 19].

Recent reports have confirmed that the misuse and overuse of veterinary drugs could result in the deposition of AMRs in muscles and organs of animals [20]. Consumption of these residues present in animal products may pose health risks to consumers by triggering health conditions, including allergies, reproductive disorders, hypersensitivity reactions, and the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Therefore, the solution to AMRs requires coordinated work between regulatory bodies to monitor the use of antimicrobial drugs and to enforce penalties on indiscriminate usage. Moreover, the application of accurate and reliable analytical methods to easily detect and monitor AMRs in meat products should also be encouraged. This chapter aims to address the problem of AMRs in meat and meat products in terms of their sources and potential negative effects on human health and economy. A diverse group of screening tests was also discussed in addition to the strategies for prevention and control of AMRs in meat.

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2. The provenance of AMRs in meat

By keeping a large number of animals in small spaces, infections may spread quickly, so the use of antimicrobials, including antibiotics in livestock farming, is inevitable [21, 22]. AMRs are mostly found in meat and meat products due to their injudicious usage during the treatment of diseased animals or preventive treatment of the still healthy ones [23]. The majority of the residues are pharmaceutical drugs, such as antimicrobials, anthelminthic agents, and hormones. From the different types of pharmaceuticals, antibiotics are most extensively used in medical and veterinary practices [24]. Conversely, other compounds, such as insecticides, herbicides, pesticides, mycotoxins, heavy metals, detergents, disinfectants, nitrates, and nitrites, were also detected [25]. Generally, the provenance of AMRs in meat and meat products stems from one or more of the following routes:

2.1 Medical treatments

In recent years, antimicrobials, especially antibiotics, have been widely used in animal husbandry to treat and prevent infections. Global estimations have revealed that ~45, 148, and 172 mg/kg of antibiotics are required per head of cattle, chicken, and pig produced each year, respectively [26].

2.2 Prophylactics uses

With few exceptions, the food industry plans to administer antimicrobial agents prophylactically to prevent the spread of infections among animals living in overcrowded and inevitably unsanitary conditions. In the United States, for example, 80% of all antibiotics sold each year are administered to animals living on factory farms. On a global scale, this figure is also between 70% and 80% [27].

2.3 Use of antibiotics as growth promoters

Antimicrobials are sometimes added to animal feed at low doses in order to promote the faster growth of animals. The ability of antibiotics to promote the growth of animals and birds was discovered serendipitously in the 1940s [28]. Subsequently, it was widely exploited, and by this time, the addition of antibiotics to animal feed to stimulate growth has turned into a global practice. In the US alone, about 24.6 million pounds of antibiotics are used in animal agriculture annually and a substantial portion of this is used as growth promoters and not for the treatment of infections. According to a recent report, out of 13 million kg of antibiotics administered to animals in 2010, the major portion was meant for promoting the growth of the livestock. The basis of the growth-promoting effect of antibiotics is not clearly known. It is postulated that microorganisms present in the animal gut consume a considerable portion of nutrients in the feed. They also inhibit absorption from the intestine and produce toxins that have adverse effects on the health of the animals [29]. The growth-promoting effect of antibiotics might stem from their ability to suppress these harmful organisms that cause chronic or latent infections.

2.4 Extra-label drug usage (ELU)

ELU refers to using an approved drug in a way that does not follow the approved label directions. ELU occurs when a drug only approved for human use is used in animals, a drug approved for one species of animal is used in another, a drug is used to treat a condition for which it was not approved, or the use of drugs at levels above recommended dosages [30]. However, other examples of extra-label drug practices are also documented below, including [31]:

  1. Altering the route of administration, such as giving flunixin I.M or S.Q , instead of I.V.

  2. Changing the dose, such as giving more penicillin than is listed on the label.

  3. Giving a drug for any disease not listed on the label.

  4. Changing the duration of therapy.

  5. Changing the amount of drug per injection site.

2.5 Use of antibiotics as meat preservatives

Antibiotics are used in the preservation of foods, particularly food of animal origin, such as poultry and fish. The antibiotics are added to water at a concentration of 5 to 40 ppm and poultry meat is dipped into treated water for chilling purposes during production. Otherwise, the antibiotics are added to ice in amounts of 2 to 5 ppm to increase the shelf life of the foods considerably [32]. Consumers due to concerns related to negative health issues are currently less accepting the use of synthetic chemical preservatives. However, the preservation of foods using antibiotics has been banned in many countries due to public health concerns [33].

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3. The implications of AMRs in meat

The safety of meat and meat products ensures that the meat and its products do not contain any constituents that cause any health complications or toxicity for consumers. Meat manufacturers need to follow meat safety procedures to reach specific standards in order to meet consumers’ higher safety demands. There is a developing awareness regarding the potential risk of meat contaminants to initiate health conditions and diseases, such as cancers and disruption of the body’s func¬tional and system integrity, particularly nervous, immune and reproductive systems, as well as the endocrine system [34]. Other hazardous threats include drug residues that are implicated in direct toxicity, drug allergy, hypersensitive reactions, and the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria that have been known as a global health challenge in the twenty-first century [35]. The presence of AMRs can also negatively affect the meat processing chain and cause economic losses for the manufacturing sector. The implications of AMRs in meat and meat products on human health and the international economy are detailed below.

3.1 Impact on consumers’ health

Residuals of antimicrobials or their toxic metabolites are often found in different types of meat and meat products, which are collectively called veterinary drug residues [36]. Consumption of such food products poses a major health risk. According to Falowo and Akimoladun [37], there are two main types of adverse effects caused due to the presence of residues of antibiotics in food of animal origin in terms of human health. The first is immunological reactions (allergy and hypersensitivity reaction) that range from a weak reaction, such as rash to direct life-threatening conditions like anaphylactic shock. The second type of negative impact is the development of antibiotic resistance. However, there are other adverse impacts of AMRs on human health, which are summarized below.

3.1.1 Allergy and hypersensitivity reaction

Allergy or immune-mediated response to a chemical agent, such as a drug (a.k.a. drug allergy), may range from mild cutaneous reactions, such as rashes and itches, to life-threatening responses as in case of direct toxicity and anaphylaxis. Several researchers estimated that ~4–11% of the human population is considered hypersensitive to penicillin. Such individuals are at risk of developing allergy that can manifest as a skin rash or even severe anaphylaxis if they consumed meat or meat products containing penicillin residues [38]. Studies have also shown that damage to hepatic liver cells can be traced to allergic response to macrolide antibiotics (e.g., erythromycin and clarithromycin) [39].

3.1.2 Disruption of gut microbiota

Healthy intestinal normal flora is vital for keeping a healthy host. The establishment of an unusual microbiota can cause several types of diseases at different ages ranging from allergies at an early age to inflammatory bowel disease in young adults. The human microbiota is estimated to be ∼1013–1014 microbial cells, with ~1:1 microbial cells to human cells ratio, and the diversity of the microbiota will vary from person to person [40]. Intestinal normal flora controls and prevents the colonization of pathogenic bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract [41]. However, studies have shown that antimicrobials administered for therapeutic purposes can potentially change the balanced communities of the intestinal flora [42, 43]. The degree of change depends on the type of drug, route of administration, dosage of the antimicrobial drug, metabolism, exposure time to the drug, distribution in the body including excretion route, and its bioavailability [44]. Frequently used drugs, such as metronidazole, streptomycin, macrolides, vancomycin, and nitroimidazole, are usually associated with gastrointestinal disorders in humans [45].

3.1.3 Development of antimicrobial resistance

The WHO has declared that antimicrobial drug resistance is one of the top 10 global public health threats that humanity is facing. Residues in foods, including meat and meat products, are believed to act as a selective pressure to favor the resistant phenotypes or to trigger the development of resistant strains from the susceptible wild types [46]. Antimicrobial resistance is a worldwide health threat, and failure of antimicrobial therapy due to resistant strain is a future concern. It requires serious multi-sector actions in order to reach the goals of sustainable development [47]. Recent studies have reported that, by 2050, 10 million people will die every year due to antimicrobial resistance, if there is no solution to the problem of antimicrobial resistance [48].

3.1.4 Effect of AMRs on bone marrow

Some antibiotic residues, such as chloramphenicol residues, lead to an increased risk of developing blood cancer. At very low concentration, long-term exposure to chloramphenicol may cause aplastic anemia, a disease that causes bone marrow to stop producing white and red blood cells and is frequently irreversible and deadly [49]. Aplastic anemia occurs in susceptible individuals exposed to concentrations of chloramphenicol that might persist as residues in meat, meat products, and edible portion of chloramphenicol-treated animals. According to the recommendation of WHO, because of the toxicity of chloramphenicol (aplastic anemia), its use in ASF has been banned in many countries [50].

3.1.5 Carcinogenic effects of AMRs

The term carcinogen refers to a chemical that has the potential to trigger cancer. Different veterinary drugs are considered as carcinogens, including nitrofurans, nitroimidazoles, quinoxaline, oxytetracycline, and furazolidone. It is proved that these drugs might be acquired through ASF as AMRs. Kyuchukova in Bulgaria had specified that consumption of antimicrobial residues through animal products may cause carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, teratogenicity, bone marrow dysfunction, and disruption of normal intestinal flora [51].

3.1.6 The mutagenic effects of AMRs

The term mutagen is used to describe physical or chemical agents that can cause a mutation in a DNA molecule. The drug residues can cause mutagenic effects. Okocha and associates reported that about 80% of antimicrobials used in aquaculture enter the environment where they select bacteria whose resistance arises from mutations [49]. There is also an increasing fear of probable drug-related gene mutagen or chromosome breakage among the human population.

3.1.7 Teratogenic effects of AMRs

The term teratogen applies to a drug or chemical agent that produces malformations in embryos during a critical gestation phase. However, various congenital malformations of newborn children, due to long-term exposure to AMRs during the gestation period, have been reported. According to Beyene [35], antibiotic residues can produce congenital malformations, which affect the structural and functional integrity of the organism. Studies have shown that benzimidazole, an anthelmintic drug, is not only mutagenic but also has teratogenic activities and is highly toxic to the embryo when ingested at the early stages of pregnancy.

3.1.8 Other harmful effects

Some veterinary drugs, such as tetracycline, are reabsorbed through enterohepatic circulation and persist in the body for a long time after administration, resulting in photosensitivity reactions and pigmentation of nails. Consumption of tetracycline-contaminated milk for a short or long duration may lead to permanent discoloration of the teeth in children [52]. Similarly, drinking milk contaminated with high levels of azithromycin can severely affect the human immune and cardiovascular system [53]. In 1969, the Swann Committee reported a significant problem about antimicrobial misuse in both human and veterinary practices. It is worth mentioning that the UK Government had recommended an establishment of a committee that should have overall responsibility for the whole field of antimicrobial use [54].

3.2 Impact of AMRs on the international economy

AMRs in meat and meat products are the results of antibiotics overdosing, the continuous use of antibiotics banned for treatment of economic animals, and noncompliance with withdrawal periods [55, 56]. The presence of AMRs in ASF constitutes socioeconomic challenges in global trade for animal and animal products, including meat and meat products. The trouble of AMRs in animal products is not new. However, due to the globalization of the food trade, we are continuously facing new challenges. Although efforts have been made to harmonize MRLs globally under the sponsorship of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Codex Alimentarius, MRLs still vary from one country to another.

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4. Procedures used for detection of AMRs in meat

AMRs detection in ASF, including meat and meat products, is of paramount importance to ensure safety and quality standards. Detection of AMRs is best performed by a two-step procedure, screening and identification with a quantitative analysis [57]. However, the lack of resources for identification and quantitative analyses is a major issue in developing countries since such analyses are only possible in well-equipped laboratories. Tests of AMRs are diverse and can be grouped into four categories—microbial screening technique, immunological assays, chromatographic methods, and biosensors-based detection [58]. Generally, the routine test method for surveillance purpose needs to have certain attributes including:

  1. Good sensitivity and specificity

  2. Accepted detection capability

  3. Reduced time to obtain the result

  4. Easy to use and handle

  5. Low set-up and running costs

  6. High throughput

  7. Possibility of automation

4.1 Microbial screening techniques

These tests, also known as bacteriological assays, are based on the principle of inhibition of bacterial replication upon exposure to an inhibitor. The growth of test bacteria is halted due to the presence of AMRs in the test sample. These tests gained popularity due to different characteristics, including low-cost requirements and the ability to analyze a large number of samples easily. The short time required for sample processing and the capacity to detect a broad spectrum of antibiotics add further advantages to these methods. The bacterial strains used in these tests are highly sensitive to antibiotics, fast-growing species, resistant to environmental conditions, including heat and genetically stable (the incidence of genetic mutations is rare). The most commonly used stains are Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus stearothermophilusvar. calidalactis, Lactobacillus bulgaricus, and Streptococcus thermophiles [20].

The microbial inhibition assay can cover a complete antibiotic spectrum under one test. Although this method was used dates back as early as 1964 and was adopted initially to screen the dairy industry with the purpose of preventing drawbacks in fermentative dairy manufacturing; it has now been extended as a regular residue monitoring method to date [22]. Generally, there are two flavors for the inhibition assay:

4.1.1 Plate test

This method is commonly used in Europe for screening antibiotic residues in slaughterhouses of animals. The test sample is placed on the surface of the plate containing inoculated Muller-Hinton agar or nutrient agar. The presence of AMRs is inferred by the formation of clear zones against the remaining opaque layer by the growing bacteria, thus yielding a clear growth-free area around the sample after a specific incubation period.

4.1.2 Tube test

Tube test is commonly used in the milk industry but can also be used for the analysis of other matrices. This method is adopted by using an ampule, vial, or tube containing a growth medium inoculated with spores of a sensitive test bacterium, supplemented with a pH or redox indicator. At the suitable conditions of pH and temperature, there is a color change that results from the acid produced by the growing bacteria. Delay or absence of color change is indicative of the presence of AMRs.

4.2 Immunological technique

The immunological methods work on the principle of antibody-antigen interactions and are commonly very specific and help in determining AMRs in meat and milk samples from food-producing animals (FPAs). Three different approaches to immunological tests are known: radioimmunoassay (RIA), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and immuno-electrophoresis method. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is frequently used for the identification of antimicrobials and is based on enzyme-labeled reagents. ELISA has proven very useful for residual screening in meat. ELISA’s antigen-quantification assays are available in two different forms, direct and indirect. The indirect sandwich ELISA has the advantage of being highly specific and sensitive. On the contrary, radioimmunoassay measures the radioactivity of the immunological complex using a counter.

4.3 Chromatographic techniques

Numerous techniques of chromatography are used to separate chemical compounds from a heterogeneous mixture. Liquid chromatography is useful in the qualitative and quantitative screening of multiple residues in food animals, though its use has rapidly decreased during the last decade. High-performance liquid chromatography is the most accurate and efficient technique for quantitative and qualitative analyses. It depends on pumps to pass a pressurized liquid solvent containing the sample mixture through a column filled with a solid adsorbent material. Each constituent in the sample interacts slightly differently with the adsorbent material, causing several flow rates for the various constituents and leading to the separation of the ingredients as they flow out of the column. It has been applied for the detection of AMRs in meat, fish, and internal organs as a screening technique. Laboratory use of HPLC has developed very quickly and has the ability to analyze multiple residues in a sample within a short time. Also, the equipment is fully automated, such as injection, elution, washing of columns, and detection, and controlled with the aid of a computer. The combination of HPLC with mass spectrometry (MS-MS) has resulted in a considerable decrease in analysis time for confirmation in presumed positive samples after initial surveillance. Such a combination could efficiently be used at the same time for screening and confirmation.

4.4 Biosensors technique

Biosensor is made up of a bio-receptor (biological recognition element), which recognizes the target AMRs, and a transducer (a signal transduction element), which converts the recognition event into a measurable signal. Biosensor is simple, highly selective, rapid, inexpensive, and can be handled by any person. This technique is a recent approach for detecting AMRs in food, including different types of meat, while ensuring their quality and safety. It has applications for high outputs in biotechnology. Cellular biosensors employed for the detection of antibiotic residues, such as beta-lactam antibiotics, quinolones, tetracyclines, chloramphenicol, and quinolones, have proven to be very effective in detecting multiple residues at the same time within a very short period.

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5. Avoidance of AMRs in meat

The general public health effect of drug residues in meat and meat products can be reduced by the cooperation and support of researchers, veterinarians, legislative authorities, farmers, producers, manufacturers, and consumers. Several global organizations, such as the WHO, FAO, OIE, and the EC (European Commission), the executive branch of the European Union, have confirmed the importance of prudent, wise, and rational use of antimicrobials in food-producing animals to reduce the impact of AMRs on human and animal health. Avoidance or totally removing AMRs from meat and meat products is not an easy task. Health programs that address threats of antimicrobial misuse and the relationship between people, animals, and the environment are crucial to managing this issue. Establishing national programs to monitor veterinary drugs, pesticides, and environmental pollutants in local and imported meat is a current strategy in different countries. However, approval of confirmed safety measures and guidelines may help reduce the residues to nontoxic levels [31, 59, 60]. These guidelines are summarized as follows:

5.1 Regulatory legislation

Legislation is a key constituent in any endeavor to stop the abuse of antimicrobial agents. It is also significant in regulating global antimicrobial use and minimizing possibilities for the emergence of antimicrobial resistance. Usually, there is no specific occupational health and safety (OHS) legislation that applies to the dairy industry and the current OHS legislation applies to all workplaces with specific guidelines that apply to agricultural industries. The main difference between countries is in the application of OHS legislation specifically in relation to the size of the farms [61]. Moreover, only professionals who should sell them only with a prescription from a veterinarian should market antibiotics. Implementation of systematic testing for the presence of antibiotics used in the production is also recommended. Furthermore, rigorous control over the types and concentrations of antibiotics used should be established. The meat industry sector should not use antibiotics for preservation purposes. There is an immediate need to support scientific research that is aimed at the development of alternatives to antimicrobials for use in food-producing animals. Probiotics and active phytochemical compounds should be further investigated as alternatives to antibiotics for prophylactic and preservative purposes. The restriction on the use of medically important antibiotics for treatment purposes in food-producing animals is essential [62].

5.2 Introducing hygienic measures

Management practices, including on-farm biosecurity, play crucial roles in reducing the need for drug use. Implementation of such measures reduces the exposure to disease by manipulating the animal’s environment to reduce infections. The development of methods to enhance immunity is also guaranteed if hygiene measures are followed continuously. Generally, antibiotics should not be used to replace good hygiene, but when employed such that all the above dangers are avoided, and in conjunction with mild refrigeration or pasteurizing and doses of irradiation, they provide convenient means of preservation without materially altering the product [63].

5.3 Development of public awareness

Awareness of dangers posed by antibiotic residues in food is an important approach to fight antibiotic resistance. The priority action in the vital prevention and control of AMRs in milk and dairy products is the extensive awareness-training program. We must create awareness through periodic educational training, compliance with the withdrawal period, effective surveillance systems, and monitoring to control AMRs in milk. However, the dissemination of health awareness through the media (audio, visual media, and newspapers) highlights the hazards of AMRs. Farmers and the person in charge should be aware of the necessity of adherence to withdrawal times and other good practices related to antibiotics used in food-producing animals [33].

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6. Conclusion

The presence of AMRs in different types of meat and meat products is one of the global challenges for the meat industry and consumers. The most common causes of drug residues in food products are prophylactics use of antibiotics, and usage of antibiotics as growth promoters and as feed additives. The misuse and overuse of antimicrobials, particularly in the local animal industry, pose a serious health risk to the public and may complicate the treatment of human infections. Food-borne hypersensitivity reactions and the emergence of microbial resistance, as well as cross-resistance to the various groups of antibiotics in animals and their transfer to human pathogens, are well-documented consequences of AMRs in food. Insufficient withdrawal period and inappropriate health status of animals, which affect the drug metabolism, both result in residues presence in meat. Adherence to usage instructions and medical guidelines could significantly reduce the incidence of AMRs in meat and meat products. Finally, veterinary use of antimicrobial agents, especially those with dual animal and human applications, should therefore be restricted.

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Written By

Dhary Alewy Almashhadany, Hero I. Mohammed, Thaera Abdulwahid M. Muslat, Rzgar F. Rashid, Rawaz R. Hassan and Abdullah O. Hassan

Submitted: 26 May 2022 Reviewed: 09 June 2022 Published: 03 July 2022