Prospects for Rural Transformation and Socioenvironmental Dilemma in the Production and Uses of Liquid Biofuels in Eastern Africa Countries

Abstract

Liquid biofuels, mainly bioethanol and biodiesel have well developed technology and are highly needed in times of climate change as a transport and cooking fuel. Greenhouse gas emission reduction goals cannot be attained without including liquid biofuels. Accordingly, this review evaluated the prospects for rural transformation and socio-environmental dilemma in liquid biofuel production and uses in Eastern Africa countries of Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda from literatures of Science Direct, Web of Science and Google Scholar, and contacting subject experts. The available large area of land, suitable climate, and diverse feedstocks are some of the rural prospects. Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania planned to make the energy mix 100% renewable by 2050, and Uganda 61% earlier. Sudan has great potential on molasses ethanol. In Tanzania, engines that run on jatropha oil were constructed for light. The main dilemmas were land use, insufficient feed stocks, initial finance, and weak institution. Local ownership of liquid biofuel production by smallholder farmers creates sustainable production through appropriate management of feed stocks, by institution. Therefore, liquid biofuel production should be integrated with rural agricultural practice of both smallholders and large-scale investors to assure its role in transforming Africa by industrializing the agricultural sector jobs.

1. Introduction

The Paris Agreement 2015 stated that holding the rise in world temperatures to limit to 1.5°C cannot be attained without biofuel [1, 2]. Global warming levels greater than 2°C will damage global biodiversity, natural ecosystems, water supply, food production, and health [3].

The transport sector consumes about one-quarter of the bioenergy in the form of liquid biofuel from crops such as sugar cane and maize. Predictions showed that up to 70% of global liquid fuels will be from biofuels by 2050. It is expected that liquid biofuel consumption would grow from 129 billion liters in 2016 to 652 billion liters in 2050 [4]. Although the consumption of liquid biofuels is increasing, the growth of the supply side is not sufficient to support the requirements of the energy transition. From the different fuel alternatives liquid biofuels are matured technologies, require few adjustments to the existing engines, and could reduce emissions, with added benefits of serving as blends. In Africa, a biofuel strategy was formulated in 2007 that resulted in different outcomes depending on the country’s prevailing condition. The initiation to produce and use increased amount of liquid biofuels was found to be highly important, especially for heavy-duty vehicle, aviation, and shipping sub-sectors, where electrification is more challenging. Then it requires industrial efforts for advanced liquid biofuel production. However, in transport sector, the use of biofuels is still held back by sustainability debates, policy uncertainty, and slow technological progress [5].

Previous studies showed that any country in the world that is well suited to the production of other renewable energy with better efficiency measures cannot attain the GHG reduction goals without significant inclusion of liquid biofuels [6]. Therefore, liquid biofuels were favorable options as there were no known or pending low-carbon technologies to reduce energy-based carbon emissions and reduce climate change [7]. Accordingly, the objective of this review is to elaborate the socioeconomic and environmental dilemma including prospects, and dilemmas in turn to create public awareness in the uses of the same.

2. Material and methods of the review

Scientific literatures and reports from 2003 to 2020 related to liquid biofuel prospects and dilemmas were obtained from Science Direct, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, and contact with subject experts. The search was based on words and phrases that combine “liquid biofuel prospect + Eastern Africa, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda” and “liquid biofuel dilemmas + Eastern Africa, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda.”

3. Results and discussion

Although the global effort on liquid biofuel goes back to 1825, the local people and investor’s practice on liquid biofuel in Africa was boosted after the formulation of biofuel strategy of Africa in 2007. The number of literature on prospects and socioeconomic and environmental dilemma also increased from the first decade to the second decade of the 2000s. The highest number of publications, 52.8% was observed in 2011 to 2015 and then reduced after 2016 (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

The percent of literature on prospects and dilemma from 2000 to 2020.

4. Prospects of liquid biofuel production and use

The availability of large area of land, suitable climate, diverse feedstock, and productive labor are some of the initial prospects for liquid biofuel production in Eastern Africa. For example, commercially sold and bought firewood is one of the largest cash-earning activities in rural Tanzania [8]. The conversion of these firewood biomasses into liquid biofuel is another source of income as energy source. Moreover, other waste biomasses can be converted to liquid biofuel in such a way that reduces pressure on woody plant.

The occurrence of climate change that needs emission-reducing energy sources like liquid biofuel and the market demand from political will of governments and obligatory mandates is another prospect. The fear of depletion and volatile markets of fossil fuel requires the production of liquid biofuels. Projections showed that the world will experience net deficits of petroleum supplies as new oil discoveries are offset by depletions before 2030 [9], which indicate future market prospects of liquid biofuels.

Prospects of liquid biofuel development can be classified into three stages of cultivation, processing, and consumption.

4.1 Prospects of liquid biofuel cultivation and processing

Create employment by which the development of liquid biofuels triggers innovation and efficiency. Although bioethanol and biodiesel production are age-old technology, the current demand for liquid biofuel resulted in different technologies for production and blending.

• Reduce pressure on forests for wood fuel,

• Income source for farmers by diversifying biofuel cash crops,

• Motivate investment in infrastructure like road construction, and

• Motivate investment in agriculture by improving productivity [10].

4.2 Processing technologies of bioethanol and biodiesel

Bioethanol also called ethanol is a gasoline-equivalent produced from a variety of sugar crops, grain crops, and cellulosic crops by pre-treatment, fermentation, and fractional distillation (Figure 2) [11]. Ethanol can be used straight or blended with petrol in any ratio but requires the use of specially designed flex-fuel vehicles in blends above 10% (E10). The energy content of ethanol is about two-thirds of the equivalent amount of petrol and as an example, E10 blend will have a 93% of the fuel economy of straight petrol [12]. Coelho [13] stated the use of 20–25% ethanol blend in conventional vehicles without modification in Brazil. Moreover, in Brazil vehicle manufacturers developed flex-fuel engines that can operate on any mixture of ethanol and gasoline. In North America, vehicle manufacturers produced E85 engines that can operate with E85. Over 50% of the fuelling stations in Sweden offer E85, and 15–25% of new car sales were E85 in 2007 [12].

Figure 2.

General overview of feedstock, bioethanol, and biodiesel production. (Source: [11])

Biodiesel is a diesel-equivalent of processed fuel, made by extraction and trans-esterification (Figure 1) of vegetable oils such as rapeseed, oil palm, and jatropha or animal fats mixed with alcohol and caustic soda or potash, which produces ethyl or methyl esters (biodiesel) and glycerin. Biodiesel can be used alone or blended with conventional diesel fuel. Different levels of biodiesel blends are used but vehicle modifications are required above 20% (B20) depending on manufacturers. Blends between 20% and 100% can be used in ordinary diesel engines with slight modifications of older fuel lines and hoses, which are less compatible with biodiesel [11].

4.3 Prospects of liquid biofuel consumption

• Create employment.

• Energy security is improved because the local production of liquid biofuel creates availability of energy where needed as final prospects.

• Reduce dependence on volatile prices of petroleum fuel imports.

• Provide energy for local agriculture.

• Provide energy for industry and household uses [14].

Moreover, the residues from bioenergy crops like oil palm fruit residues become oil palm cake which decomposes into fertilizer and biogas. The compost fertilizer is reintroduced to the plantation as allowing recovery of the soil nutritional elements produced, and the biogas is used for cooking, heating, or for electricity generation [15].

In Ethiopia, liquid biofuels industry was viewed as a way out of poverty. In 2017/18, Ethiopia produced 28 million liters of ethanol per year across two sugar-producing companies. Totally, 13 sugar factories were planned to function in 2023 for sugar and ethanol and then Ethiopia can use biofuel in its land transport and aviation, in turn, could de-carbonize the sector in order to achieve global climate change mitigation [16].

It is possible to replace or supplement sugar production by ethanol in the existing sugar mills because both have similar procedures of production (Figure 3). Sugar mills, which are not economically viable to produce sugar, could be turned to ethanol to supply to the global market. For example, a 100,000 liters per day distillery will need only 60 tons of sugarcane per hour when operating on a 24-hour basis. Then this will require approximately 7000 hectares of land. In such cases, the local government that gets bioethanol from the uneconomical sugar-producing plants could purchase sugar from the world market for its domestic sugar [17].

Figure 3.

The possible routes of conversion of sugar cane to bioethanol and sugar.

4.4 Medicinal and industrial use

Medicinal value of lysine from sugarcane processing was less publicized. Ethanol can also be used for alcoholic beverages, pharmaceutical and industrial applications, and fuel for cook stoves and lamps.

Biodiesel is used for transport fuel, stationary power, farm equipment use, and marine power, a replacement for kerosene as the main source of light and cooking fuel [11].

In response to climate change, Climate Vulnerable Forum was established for Kenya, Ethiopia, and Tanzania to make the energy mix 100% renewable by 2050, and Uganda 61% by 2017 [18].

4.5 Fossil fuel and biomass combination technologies in producing liquid biofuel

Conversion of biomass into heat, power, liquid, and gaseous fuels for use in residential, industrial, transport, and power sectors could be done separately or in combination with fossil fuel (Figure 4) [19, 20, 21]. For example, liquid biofuels are produced from hydrocarbons in combination with fossil fuels by gasification [22] and pyrolysis, and bio-catalysis conversion of cellulosic materials, etc. Combination of coal and biomass for coproduction of electricity and liquid fuels has higher efficiency than current commercial processes and reduces cost [19, 22]. Natural gas combined with biomass is another way to produce liquid fuels as advanced-stage biomass gasification technology [23].

Figure 4.

Liquid biofuel derivation routes from biomass and from biomass-fossil fuel hybrid. (Source: [19]). LPG: Liquid Petroleum Gas; CNG: Compressed Natural Gas; LNG: Liquid Natural Gas; H₂: Hydrogen gas; DME: Di Methyl Ether; MeOH: Methanol hydroxide.

Another example is that the Tanzanian Traditional Energy Development and Environment Organization (TaTEDO) installed oil seed extraction, grain dehulling/milling, and battery charging in DaresSalaam, Engaruka village located in Monduli district, and in Ngarinairobi Village in the Arumeru district. The engines run on jatropha oil as well as on diesel during times of jatropha shortages, but operating on diesel the running costs were nearly twice that of the jatropha oil. The jatropha oil-driven engines enabled to construction of a village mini-grid that connect 50 households, and 12 shops to supply light and provided battery charging for 20 households [15].

5. Dilemmas and coping mechanisms of the dilemmas in liquid biofuel production

5.1 Dilemmas of liquid biofuel production

There were a number of dilemmas at the beginning of the commencement of liquid biofuel business in Eastern African countries. The dilemmas were throughout the value chains of liquid biofuel production system including dilemmas of land use determination, land acquisition, cultivation of bioenergy crops, field management, harvesting for conversion/ processing, quality certification, mandate of blending, marketing, consumption, conflict among local people, investors and administrators, scale of production, small scale biofuel policy, and finance to initiate biofuel investment. Moreover, the occurrence of direct negotiation between investors and the village land owners, insufficient land compensation, and weak land use planning were pressing dilemmas. All these created conflicts, and lack of trust in the outcomes, and undermined investors’ right to legal protection from the government. Then the local community, the government, and investors entered into ambiguity because of various inequalities, particularly in terms of information of the land transfer agreement and financial resources of compensation [24]. The other dilemmas were greenhouse gas emissions, availability of feedstocks, land tenure, and policy support [25].

5.1.1 Greenhouse gas emissions

In cases where biofuel development takes place in previous forest land or displacing agricultural land, it could cause higher greenhouse gas emissions, by removing the carbon-storing forests or application of inorganic fertilizer for agriculture.

5.1.2 Availability of feedstocks

In the production of bioenergy crops for liquid biofuels like biodiesel and bioethanol, getting seeds of different plant is very seasonal. Therefore, proper seed storage facilities and diversified plants species for example, palm trees, jatropha, neem, and others are required for a liquid biofuel-producing company so that the company could sustainably produce liquid biofuels throughout the year because different plant species have different season of production of seed and different resistance to the environment.

In Tanzanian Traditional Energy Development and Environment Organization (TaTEDO) installed biofuel mini-grid electricity, wide replication of the practices was hampered by lack of jatropha seeds, lack of information and awareness on jatropha plants, absence of oil expellers, lack of ingredients for local biodiesel processing, (i.e., methanol). Then the top problem as a dilemma is lack of biofuels policy to encourage these activities [15].

The other dilemmas were zonation of ethanol and biodiesel feedstock growing area, research on the selection of better adaptive and better yielding varieties and good oil and sugar producing bioenergy crops, and training on the agronomic and silvicultural management of the crops [26].

5.1.3 Land tenure

Landownership is very crucial for long time investment. In Eastern Africa, landownership is complex that range from government/state, forest land, and land under custody of village council as common property, religious, and to private sector. Therefore, lack of proper ownership of controlling property damages investment, and whenever there is political instability, there could be market and product variation. In Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania companies that engaged in biofuel production since 2005 have either gone bankrupt or left, all employees laid off, and the community unable to access overtaken land [26, 27].

5.1.4 Policy support

Liquid biofuel development was not fully recognized by small-scale local producers and traders. The innovation toward liquid biofuel at individual levels is also minimal. These limitations are because of lack of policy support for small-scale biofuels development, and research including fiscal and financial incentive provision for small business fuel blenders. In fact, there are some regulations, which focus on subsidies for large industrial biofuel producers. However, long-term, stable, clear, and local liquid biofuel development policies are needed to ensure that local households, businesses, and communities benefit from bioenergy, income, and job prospect. The policies need to be inclusive of logistics, linkages, technical assistance, end-user acceptance, certification, and appropriate pricing [25].

5.1.5 Initial financing and techniques

Small-scale liquid biofuel development businesses require initiation in terms of finance and technique. Small-scale farmers may require working capital to purchase seed and small equipment so that a sort of awareness creation is important at all levels.

5.1.6 Institutional development

Responsible institutes on the provision of inputs, training and guidance on the production, and marketing of liquid biofuel are required by small and large-scale liquid biofuel developers. Otherwise, if there is no linkage between production to marketing, local people will do what they already know for example the usual food crop production. Therefore, attention is required to organize both biofuel and food crop production at institutional level.

In Ethiopia, after 2007, land identification and allocation for liquid biofuel production were not based on prior study that considers land use land cover type, food crop production, environmental goals, and biodiversity. The land was allocated by federal investment offices, regional offices, and even by the energy ministry which confused the implementation and coordination. Moreover, the capacity of investors was not screened. Lack of strong institution that coordinates the biofuel investment was the main problem. Conflict with local people in Eastern and Western Ethiopia in land allocation, payment on compensation, feedstock price, and wildlife habitat destruction was the other dilemmas [26]. There are a number of dilemmas remain to make the biofuel sector profitable. Some of the possible works that remained were formulation of better regulatory framework and follow-up, encouraging cooperatives, farmers, and out growers, and integrating biofuel development with extension program [26]. Many investors retreated back before the implementation phase and those that started operations showed very sluggish progress. This raised question about the feasibility of biofuel development by private agribusinesses in Ethiopia [28]. The cause for poor performance of the liquid biofuel campaign was the lack of a well-coordinated institutional framework that provides the necessary support to private biofuel producers.

5.1.7 Balance of large-scale and small-scale industry development

Small and large-scale liquid biofuel industries are required to co-exist and build upon the strengths that each has to offer. The Eastern Africa case shows no co-existence of the two industries but mainly foreign capital-driven large-scale industries. Therefore, a new dimension of initiating smallholder biofuel industry needs to be created either as out growers’ scheme or self-reliant production of liquid biofuel.

5.1.8 Technological dilemmas

The liquid biofuel crop production business was a new venture at around 2000s. Then the investors on liquid biofuel face a number of dilemmas including pests, weeds, and diseases on the field crops. After the maturity of the biofuel crops, the other dilemmas were the unavailability of technology that processes and converts biofuel feedstock to liquid fuel by domestic private investors [28].

The lack of appropriate technology in processing palm oil in Tanzania resulted in wastage and unhygienic production of the yield of the crop that has been cultivated since the early 1920s. Although additional soap production was started very recently, and 1.2 million hectares of land was supposed to be suitable for oil palm cultivation, Tanzania still imports raw palm oil from Indonesia and Malaysia to meet their supply needs for local refineries and soap manufacturers [29].

5.1.9 Lack of multidisciplinary planning

In Uganda, ABN [30] explained that sugarcane-based liquid biofuel production plan of the government dilemma to deforest about 7100 ha of Mabira prime rainforest reserve, which is the key water catchment source for the Nile River and Lake Victoria. The forest was saved by the public demonstration that resulted in several deaths and the arrest of a number of the campaign leaders. Then about 6000 ha of natural forests in Kalangala and Bugala Islands were cleared for oil palm plantation. However, the fate of the Mabira forest was unknown. The conflict between the government and the local people was caused by a misunderstanding of the objective of biofuel production, and lack of multidisciplinary planning. Other problems created by the sugar cane and other liquid biofuel feedstock production expansion are minimal compensation for farmers for the land taken to produce bioenergy crops.

In Kenya, the decreasing yield of agricultural crops like maize, increasing woody biomass deficit, increased food and feed demand, inaccessible marginal/degraded land, poor productivity of jatropha in the Tana Delta area in 2009, resistance from the local environmental NGOs, conflicts between locals and governmental corruption reduce the interest toward biofuel crop production [31].

5.2 Coping mechanisms of dilemmas in production of liquid biofuels

Small-scale production and use of liquid biofuel in terms of smallholder farmers for their own use or for community applications is a sustainable way of the system as evidenced in Sub-Saharan Africa. The other thing required for sustainable biofuel production system is land ownership or land use right for biofuel crop production. Once there is land availability, it is important to determine the suitable biofuel crop for the area and local conditions. Liquid biofuel development in such a way that builds the capacity of local people and improves their farming techniques to increase food production, solve immediate energy problems, increase income generation activities, add value to products, empower women, reduce indoor pollution and protect soil from erosion had high chance of being sustainable.

Crop type selection based on climate, soil, and local preference for different types of liquid biofuel production is crucial. For instance, biodiesel production is possible in small-scale processing since many perennial biodiesel crops are grown on marginal land with less care compared to crops grown for producing bioethanol. Crops for biodiesel production may not compete with food production but can be processed for additional income as fertilizer, medicine, or soap. If the area is suitable for bioethanol crops, small-scale farmers can also benefit individually or form cooperative industries to process biofuel, food, feed, and other income-generating by-products.

The possible solutions in feedstock availability are scaling up of jatropha plantation to many villages, enhancing income through carbon sales like clean development mechanism (CDM), enhancing investment by supportive policies/regulations, and integrating biofuels into the country’s overall sustainable rural development efforts, increase public awareness and establish project monitoring and evaluation. Moreover over, local production of methanol and sodium hydroxide from biomass pyrolysis can solve the problem of the lack of ingredients [15].

6. Rural transformation role of liquid biofuel

Bioenergy is an enabler of development because the development of bioenergy crops for local processing from agro-industries leads to big industrial development. Locally accessible and affordable modern energy services are required for growth and development of industrialization across Africa. In rural areas of Africa, 80% of the people have no access to electricity [32]. Well-designed and implemented bioenergy strategies are required for transformation agenda that is designed and implemented by the continental and regional bodies of Africa such as New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD). The transformational agendas including mechanized Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) Framework, the Program for Infrastructure Development in Africa (PIDA), and the Rural Futures Program [33] can only be successful when there are locally accessible energy sources such as bioenergy.

Africa has sufficient land to grow agricultural crops for food and liquid biofuel production. As widely known from Brazil, the production of ethanol from sugarcane molasses has greatly benefited the country in supplying local energy and export commodities. Land uses that integrate food crops, livestock, and bioenergy are potentially attractive and offer an alternative, multiple, and environmental disaster-resilient livelihood. Brazil, which has similar soil and climate as Africa has been producing the world’s largest amount of bioethanol from sugarcane [34]. Brazil become the largest exporter of soybeans, beef, chicken, oranges, and coffee, and become energy independent because of modern bioenergy. In 1931, the Brazilian government implemented a compulsory blend of at least 5% anhydrous ethanol in gasoline in order to reduce dependence on imported liquid fuels and absorb the excess production of the sugar industry. In Brazil, ethanol has been providing about 50% of light-duty fuel and 25% of total road transport fuel [35]. Sugarcane bagasse is also the second leading source of energy for electricity generation in Brazil next to hydropower [35] which contributes to the electrification and transformation of rural areas. In Brazil, activities related to ethanol production have created about 400,000 direct jobs excluding the workers associated with sugar production [36]. Bioenergy development had been an accelerating factor in light of contributions to the development of rural communities and human resources by improving logistics and trading infrastructure in agricultural sector of Brazil. Therefore, Africa can share the experience of Brazil in transforming the rural sector by using the production and use of liquid biofuel.

7. Conclusion and recommendation

Liquid biofuels including bioethanol and biodiesel are matured technologies, which can be used in transport vehicle engines, for cooking energy, and with added benefits of serving as blends with petroleum. Occurrences of climate change that needs emission-reducing energy sources like liquid biofuel, depletion of fossil fuel, and the market demand from political will of governments, obligatory mandates, and availability of land with feedstock are great prospects for liquid biofuel production in Eastern Africa.

Reduction of dependence on volatile prices of petroleum fuel imports, provision of energy for local agriculture, industry, and creating of income for farmers by diversifying cash crops of biofuel production are prospects that could be obtained from liquid biofuel.

Ethanol and biodiesel can be used straight or blended with petrol in any ratio for vehicle engines but higher proportions require some modification of engines. In order to reduce the land occupancy of bioenergy crops that are used to produce liquid biofuel, lignocellulosic biomass wastes can be used to produce advanced biofuels through biochemical and thermochemical technologies. Advanced biofuels can be produced from biomasses either separately or in the combination with fossil fuels.

Sugar cane is the main bioethanol-producing crop in Eastern Africa, however, sugar cane mills, which are not economically viable to produce sugar, could be turned to supply ethanol to the global market.

Production liquid biofuels that are integrated within local small-scale activities and develop into large-scale ones have higher chances of sustainability, solving local people’s energy deficit problems, encouraging local economy, motivating local innovation and efficiency, and promoting the local production of feedstocks. The other way of promoting liquid biofuels production is scaling up bioenergy plantations in many villages, enhancing income through carbon sales like CDM, enhancing investment by supportive policies/regulations, and integrating biofuels into the country’s overall sustainable rural development efforts, increasing public awareness and establish project monitoring and evaluation. Moreover, maintaining the fertility of the local soils by the organic biomass residues and irrigation is highly important.

The major dilemmas in the liquid biofuel business in Eastern Africa are lack of sufficient feedstocks, zonation of ethanol and biodiesel feedstock growing area, better adaptive and better-yielding crop varieties, agronomic and silvicultural management, land ownership, policy, financial and technical support, institutional management, and multidisciplinary planning. Therefore, it is important to determine the suitable biofuel crop for the area and local condition in such a way that builds capacity of local people and improves their farming techniques to increase food production, solve immediate energy problems, and increase income generation activities.

Although liquid biofuels industry was viewed as a way out of poverty, the expectation was not met in Eastern Africa because of the various prevailing dilemmas. Therefore, both national and international efforts should be practiced in research, development; training and support in order to promote the production of liquid biofuels. The local small-scale farmers should be aware of the initial prospects and final prospects obtained from liquid biofuel production and utilization, respectively. Moreover, the biofuel production should be integrated with the overall agricultural practice of agroecologically convenient sites. That is liquid biofuels have great role in transformation agenda of Africa by creating jobs, reducing poverty, and industrializing the agricultural sector.

Since there is no known or pending storage technology that allows electrification of the aviation or heavy-duty ground transportation taskforces, there should be greater efforts in the deployment of liquid biofuels.

Acknowledgments

The review was financially supported by Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute.