Understanding Local Architectural Forms as a Sustainable Design Transformation

Abstract

Architecture has a role in and responsibility for environmental management. The construction of buildings, installation of foundations, and paving of land result in the ground being unable to “breathe”; likewise, the materials selected for construction influence the surrounding environment. Over time, this situation has been exacerbated by climate change. In this situation, sustainable architecture and environmentally friendly construction are necessary. Built environments must respond to and appreciate their natural world through designs that respect their environment and rely on sustainable energy. This approach will create balance and harmony between built environments and their natural contexts. In developing sustainable architecture, we can learn from local wisdom and borrow from traditional architecture. The traditional architecture of the Indonesian Archipelago is diverse, being designed for varied environmental conditions. However, all traditional Indonesian approaches to architecture have the same approach: responding to and respecting nature. In their form and realization, the traditional architectures of Indonesia are adapted to their specific sites and social systems. Sustainable architecture, thus, can be understood as characteristic of local wisdom. This chapter will discuss the shape and form of Indonesian buildings within the context of sustainable architecture.

1. Introduction: Indonesia and sustainable development

Human beings have an integral role in environmental management. However, we often cause damage to the environment by (ab)using natural resources and prioritizing developmentalism over maintaining balance with the natural world. This has contributed to climate change, rising sea levels, etc. Using sustainable designs, the negative environmental effects of construction can be reduced by relying on renewable resources, minimizing the environmental impact, and reuniting humanity with the natural world.

Indonesia is made up of islands with various ethnic communities with various local wisdoms, and various natural disasters that have occurred or will occur, including earthquakes, one of the frequent natural disasters. Response to natural disasters can be anticipated through consideration of the calculations and procedures for constructing buildings required for building standards (building code). The problem is nature as a place where we live is sometimes not used as a friend to be understood and followed by various things that are needed or demanded, but sometimes nature is regulated and made to follow human needs or interests. One way to get to know nature is to get to know the application of local wisdom that exists in a sustainable manner.

Behavioral and environmental architecture approach is a design approach that emphasizes the need to consider the quality environment that is lived by users and the impact on users of the environment, which forms the basis for considering the construction of houses and dwelling environments in Indonesia. The community believes that a design based on the concept of nature and opportunity can last a long time (sustainable). So traditional houses of each region in Indonesia have different shapes, forms, and characteristics following the conditions of the local natural environment.

The shape and form of buildings in several areas vary according to the characteristics of the location and the social system of the community so that the sustainability system in architecture can be understood from the “typical” building form of the area. This chapter will discuss the shape and form of buildings in Indonesia as part of sustainable architectural design. The interaction between form and shape is a longstanding source of discussion and debate in architecture. Scholars from Francis D.K. Ching and Rob Krier through Simon Unwin have shown that form and shape stimulate human imagination, emotions, and experiences [1, 2]. Despite producing different architectural sensations, however, the similar denotative meanings of form and shape have resulted in ambiguity in translation into Indonesian. As such, this chapter seeks to explore the concepts of form and shape using examples from the Indonesian Archipelago (also known as Nusantara), thereby providing a theoretical distinction based on geometrical elements. Particular emphasis will be given to a traditional form of architecture from Indonesia that will guide this book’s attempts to Indonesianize the terms form.

2. Sustainable design

Sustainable design is a concept whereby edifices and built environments are constructed and maintained following principles of economic, social, and environmental sustainability [3]. Sustainable design, thus, is a design principle intended to overcome the global environmental crises caused by rapid economic and population growth, as well as environmental degradation [4]. Sustainable design seeks to mitigate negative environmental and health effects, maximize comfort, and increase performance. This concept considers all aspects of design, including planning, execution, material selection, and application (usage).

The principles of sustainable design can be applied at the:

1. Micro-level, as realized through everyday items.

2. Macro-level, as realized through buildings, cities, and landscapes.

This principle is applied in the fields of architecture, landscaping, urban planning, engineering, graphic design, industrial design, interior design, and fashion design. Sustainable design also follows the three Ps (People, Profit, and Planet) and applies them in its planning, design, and application.

2.1 People

Any planned construction should benefit employees, laborers, and society. Employees and laborers should receive fair wages and be provided with a humane working system, empowerment, and new skills.

2.2 Planet

Businesses should attempt to maintain harmony with nature and minimize the negative environmental consequences of their activities. They seek to prevent potential disasters such as floods, forest fires, and climate change. For instance, they attempt to reduce the use of imported materials and minimize their carbon footprint or replace plastic with paper or glass.

2.3 Profit

Sustainable development is also designed to realize a financial profit, following the previous two Ps (people and planet). In other words, sustainable development does not merely prioritize profit; it also considers the potential effects of development on human beings and the environment.

Sustainable development also considers aspects such as:

2.4 Low-impact material

Low-impact material refers to the usage of nontoxic materials that are produced in an environmentally friendly fashion. Low-impact materials may include recycled materials, such as reclaimed wood.

2.5 Energy efficiency

Energy efficiency refers to the use of products that require minimal energy. All equipment and systems should be designed to optimize their energy efficiency. For example, the installation of LED lights or skylights can minimize the amount of energy used for lighting.

2.6 Quality and durability

The quality and durability of products influence the amount of time before they must be repaired or replaced. Greater quality and durability positively affect end users.

2.7 Reuse and recycle

Recycling is a waste management strategy whereby materials are reused and repurposed. It is an integral part of modern waste management, being the third of the four Rs (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, and Replace).

2.8 Renewability

Renewability refers to the usage of locally sourced renewable materials. It requires the possibility of materials being renewed without any new extraction.

2.9 Health

Products must not be harmful to the environment or their users.

The architect William McDonough introduced the concept of sustainable design, holding that it was necessary to ensure the continued survival of humanity in the future:

1. Prioritizing the rights of nature and humanity, thereby maintaining harmony and ensuring sustainability.

2. Applying the principles of interdependence. Humanity depends on nature and must therefore be capable of protecting it through various segments and actions. The long-term effects of designs must therefore be considered.

3. Respecting the relationship between the spiritual and the material. Both aspects must be considered in all human constructs, including society, architecture, industry, and trade. In all fields, both spiritual and material awareness are necessary.

4. Taking responsibility for design choices and their effect on human welfare, the natural environment, and the right to coexist.

5. Creating safe products that have long-term value. This is important to ensure that future generations are not burdened by the need to counter the damage caused by product creation.

6. Eliminating the concept of waste by evaluating and optimizing products’ life cycles.

7. Relying on sustainable energy; similar to the living world, all human designs must rely on natural resources such as the sun. This energy must be used safely, efficiently, and responsibly.

8. Understanding the limitations of designs. Nothing created by human beings is eternal, and no design can solve every problem. Those responsible for making and planning designs must be humble when dealing with the natural world. Nature must be positioned as a model and mentor, rather than a source of discomfort.

9. Continually improving one’s knowledge and understanding. All individuals—be they partners, clients, producers, or users—must continually and openly communicate to ensure that balance is maintained over the long term and restore the link between natural processes and human activities.

One interesting example of sustainable design is Accor/Telstra Stadium in Sydney, Australia. The local firm Bligh Voller Nield designed the stadium to be flexible, particularly in its capacity. Lighting comes primarily from solar lights, which are located in pedestrian areas and other areas where circulation is needed. Only certain rooms are air-conditioned; corridors are not. Water for this stadium comes from rainwater, which is collected in four collection points and distributed throughout the stadium and used for irrigation and plumbing (Figures 1 and 2) [5].

Figure 1.

Accor Stadium, Sydney, Australia (source: austadiums).

Figure 2.

Accor Stadium, designed for the unique Australian environment (source: austadiums).

This 82,500-capacity stadium is located at Sydney Olympic Park in the west of Sydney, Australia. First built as the centerpiece of the 2000 Olympic Games, today it primarily serves as a sports and entertainment venue. At the time of construction, no larger outdoor stadium had been used for the Olympic Games. Specially designed for the unique Australian environment, the stadium shades and protects most spectators. Suspended from a huge arch structure and three hectares in area, the roof is constructed from translucent polycarbonate to minimize the shadows and patches of direct sunlight on the playing area, creating ideal conditions for television presentations and spectators. The design includes state-of-the-art environmental features that make it a showcase of ecological responsibility. Its energy management strategy reduces the use of conventional electric power through measures such as natural lighting, gas-fired co-generation engines, and energy-efficient lighting. All materials were selected for their contribution to minimizing pollution, conserving resources, and durability. Significant waste management and water-saving measures are also in place [5].

The term sustainable design is used diversely around the world, often referring to concepts such as green design, eco-design, or design for sustainability. In recent years, sustainable design and its three main pillars—profit, planet, and people—have become increasingly accepted around the globe. Through sustainable design, the negative environmental effects of construction and design can be minimized through the use of renewable resources and the restoration of human-environment relations [6].

3. Local architecture and sustainable design

In local architecture, sustainable design is an approach that utilizes critical thinking to conserve the environment and protect future generations. Sustainable design is intended to overcome crises such as slow economic growth, resource depletion, and environmental degradation. Human beings are part of the broader natural world. However, they often damage the world around them by acting irresponsibly and exploiting resources in a manner that causes significant environmental degradation—as seen, for example, in climate change, flooding, and rising sea levels. Human beings must try to maintain a balance between themselves and their natural environment, as argued by the ecological movement since the 1970s and, later, the sustainable movement in the 1990s. Architects have since attempted to incorporate environmental tenets into their activities. As such, they require an integrated, multidisciplinary, and innovative understanding of environmental issues. This can be realized through sustainable design.

3.1 Locality in architecture

Locality refers to human traditions that are passed intergenerationally, and these include both cultures and architecture. Locality is thus inexorably intertwined with ethnicity (local culture) and reflected in everyday local life [7]. It encompasses culture, including its social, political, economic, religious, technological, and scientific guidelines, philosophies, systems, and values. Architecture also contains certain local values and cultures, as informed by its geographic and cultural context. In other words, it contains the thoughts and values that are perceived as wise or appropriate by locals.

Rapoport argues that built environments take various forms that illustrate the philosophies and concepts of their promoters [8]. As such, architecture may be considered a form of non-verbal communication that is inexorably intertwined with the cognitive precepts of its creators. It may be used to fulfill material needs or spiritual ones (e.g., to seek salvation, blessings, and prosperity). Built environments are places where human beings can communicate with nature, with architecture a product of the non-verbal communication between human societies and their environment [9]. In damp tropical lands, for example, specific architectures emerge that are suited to local climate conditions; likewise, communities develop behaviors and activities that are particularly apt for their environment. Nature thus guides living beings and their coexistence with their surroundings.

Architecture, being a product of human activities, is a manifestation of human beings’ communication with the natural world. In recent years, a new form of traditionalism has emerged in Indonesian architecture, one known as Nusantara Architecture. Stemming from the discussions and arguments of academics and practitioners, this approach offers a fresh perspective on the realization of local wisdom and culture through contemporary architecture as well as the manifestation of sustainability through architectural materials, technologies, and concepts.

The integration of local wisdom into modern architecture offers new insight. Understanding locality means understanding construction processes, material histories, social backgrounds, and conservation issues. Locality involves how local materials and technologies, as well as social formations, can provide fresh perspectives on architecture and be integrated into modern understandings.

Paramount in the philosophy of local architecture is avoiding harm to nature. It combines three components: humanity, culture, and nature. Human beings produce designs, and these designs interact with nature. Local architecture offers an ecological approach that requires adaptation to natural contexts; adoption of nature (i.e., natural forms); and accommodating nature (complementing nature). Architecture is offered as an expression of humanity’s interactions with nature. Balance is thus required between all three elements: architecture, nature, and humanity. Nature provides humans with what they require, while humans use that which is provided by nature. Architecture, finally, provides protection and comfort. Traditional approaches to architecture and spatial organization seek to maintain a balance between these three components. Traditional architecture provides protection even as it expresses the realities and experiences of those involved. Architecture ensures the fluidity of communication between nature and humanity. It understands the language of both, as well as the expectations and requirements of local inhabitants. Locality is thus a space wherein diverse events and situations can intersect. In a tropical climate, this means providing inhabitants protection from natural disasters and predators. Societies have thus developed diverse traditional architectures, which provide protection even as they maintain balance.

Traditional architecture has particular value, in part because it offers inspiration for the development of harmony through architecture. Barkes explains, using the phrase traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), that harmonious practices are transmitted intergenerationally. TEK is possessed collectively and may be transmitted through stories, songs, cultural values, beliefs, rituals, and customary laws [10]. If the environment is conserved (rather than damaged), it can provide the resources necessary for maintaining the community and increasing its quality of life. TEK, thus, serves to conserve the environment and ensure continued survival. It seeks to connect nature and humanity, for which it requires three elements: cognitive, an aspect that involves individual understandings and knowledge; affective, which involves emotions, motivations, desires, and values; and connotative, which involves action, employment, and labor. Through all of these, particular knowledge and a clear understanding can be used to protect the environment.

3.2 Traditionalism in architecture

Presently, Nusantara Architecture has become an object and subject of discussion from diverse academic perspectives. Academics and scholars have discussed the elements of traditional architecture that remain dominant, the role of local tradition and culture, as well as the local wisdom that guides their design approaches. Nusantara Architecture is a living architecture, one wherein the natural and social environments are inexorably intertwined through generations of tradition and thus distinct from Western or international architecture. Nusantara Architecture reflects a more communal way of living, while Western architecture draws on a more individualistic tradition. The principles underpinning Nusantara Architecture are likewise more reflective of love, generosity, and mutualistic support, wherein all members of the community respect and honor each other. It is these principles that make Nusantara Architecture part of the broader movement toward sustainable architecture. It contains both human and natural elements, even as it draws from the principle of divinity to develop a greener approach to architecture than offered by Western (European and American) traditions. Likewise, Nusantara Architecture draws heavily on “traditional” technologies that are better suited for the particular climate and conditions of the Indonesian Archipelago.

Locality is contained within all cultural systems, having been transmitted by specific ethnic groups within their territories. Such traditions are strongly influenced by geographic and other natural factors. Diverse considerations such as these have thus influenced the recent development of architecture.

4. Transformation of traditional architecture

Local wisdom influences the specific shapes and forms of traditional architecture [11]. One intent of local wisdom is to maintain balance and ensure sustainability. Local wisdom seeks to ensure that local values and considerations are used to provide solutions and guidance. To resolve everyday issues, it is necessary to find “smart” answers that are informed by “wisdom” and then use these answers to guide future generations. As such, it is necessary to find “smart” and “wise” answers through local wisdom [12]. This is particularly important in the current era of open information and communication, which—if not handled carefully—could result in the loss of identity and the essence of Indonesian-ness.

Architecture is a manifestation of diverse traditions and cultures and contains within it specific values that serve to maintain a balance between society and its environment. In essence, traditional societies have developed diverse architectural forms to protect themselves while maintaining the sanctity of the environment. Balance between human society and the natural environment depends heavily on human beings’ interactions and communal activities. In the Indonesian Archipelago, these traditions trace their roots back millennia, when the area’s first cultures emerged. They encompass not only the relationship between human beings but also the interconnection between humanity and its surroundings [13].

The traditional communities of the Indonesian Archipelago have referred to nature in developing their physical and metaphysical environments. They have been influenced by factors such as:

1. Geographic conditions,

2. Humidity,

3. Wind direction,

4. Seasonal variations (wet/dry season), and

5. Territorial conditions (disasters [earthquakes, floods], predatory animals, etc.).

Climate is also a factor that significantly affects the architectural forms and construction processes within particular areas. Saud et al. write that, to overcome climate issues, key considerations include: vernacular communities’ ability to select sites; the materials available and their suitability to the local climate; the ability to use minimal resources to achieve maximum comfort; and traditional models’ suitability to climate conditions [14].

4.1 Tongkonan Toraja in South Sulawesi, Indonesia

Rumah Tongkonan is the traditional dwelling of the Torajan people in South Sulawesi. Even today, manifesting the wealth of possibilities offered by Nusantara Architecture, the structure of the Rumah Tongkonan is also influenced by their natural environment and geographic situation [15]. Many studies have shown that traditional dwellings have great climate control and structural performance. Rumah Tongkonan are built on pillars (see Figure 3) and divided into three main elements, namely:

Figure 3.

Structure of Rumah Tongkonan.

4.2 Sulluk Banua

At the base, the Rumah Tongkonan consists of pillars and horizontal beams (roroan). As such, it endures vertical and horizontal stresses well. These dwellings are sturdy in their construction, which enables them to carry their burdens well. The pillars and horizontal bars are connected through a pins-and-holes system, which is sufficient for distributing the weight of the building.

4.3 Kale Banua

Kale Banua refers to the main body of the dwelling. This portion consists of the internal and external walls, which serve to support the weight of the roof. These walls differ in their materials and orientation. The Kale Banua is connected to the Sulluk Banua using the Ratiang Banua and serves to carry the weight of the dwelling downward toward the Sulluk Banua (see Figure 4).

Figure 4.

Kale Banua (source: hotcore, 2020) [16].

4.4 Ratiang Banua

This portion of the dwelling consists of the roof, which covers the building. The Rattiang Banua structurally consists of the roof itself as well as a series of pillars and beams, which are connected through joints, notches, pins, and holes. The weight of the Rattiang Banua is carried downward to the ground by the Kale Banua and the Sulluk Banua (see Figure 5).

Figure 5.

Ratiang Banua (source: riaridwana, 2020).

Structurally, Torajan buildings employ the tongkonan system wherein the above three elements are combined to create a single whole. This provides a strong and stable structure, one that responds positively to natural disasters (see Figure 6).

Figure 6.

Vertical spatial structure of Rumah Tongkonan (Source: oktawati, 2017) [17].

To understand the significance of architecture is to understand the language of its form, that is, its visual appearance. Visual and spatial aspects include the following:

1. Local Genius

   1. Axis and balance, which indicate that the language of society may be realized through proportional and geometrically balanced dwellings.

   2. Ground, which indicates that local society is capable of anticipating threats from wild animals and earthquakes by using stilts.

   3. Orientation, which indicates that society is capable of realizing a sustainable design by using sun and wind energy.

2. Lifestyle

   1. Alignment; the settlements of Torajan society are aligned to form lines. This indicates the hierarchy that exists within society.

   2. Orientation, which shows that Torajan society has organized its space following the philosophy of Aluk Todola; this philosophy influences spatial composition and activity patterns.

   3. Radiosity, which shows that the people of Toraja are capable of protecting nature by situating their settlements in the outermost areas of the forests.

3. Technology

   1. Dynamism, which shows that society is capable of developing earthquake-resistant dwellings that consist of several segments.

   2. Balance, patterns, and repetition, all of which show that society has developed balanced yet strong structures.

   3. Goodness of form, strength, and stability, which shows that the structures and systems contained within Torajan dwellings can distribute weight appropriately, thereby maintaining the strength and stability of every element.

4. Aesthetics

   1. Harmony, which shows that the esthetic values of Torajan society are reflected in ornaments and decorations.

   2. Goodness of form, which shows beauty through physical form and constructed exteriors.

5. Identity

   1. Repetition, pattern, and harmony; the balance between the ornaments of Rumah Tongkonan shows the cultural identity of local society.

   2. Balance, which shows that the beliefs of local society remain strong.

   3. Ground, which shows a particular indigenous identity through the use of a stilt-based construction.

   4. Sharpness and imbalance, which show the core identity of Torajan society through the roofs that resemble ships, thereby connoting the ancestors. The roofs of Rumah Tongkonan are larger than the bodies and foundations, highlighting their protective role.

The Torajan people have sought to conserve nature by avoiding encroaching on virgin forests. Land usage is also efficient. At the base, the area between the floor and the ground is used for keeping animals. The use of stilts also minimizes the amount of land that must be excavated. The majority of Torajans earn a living through horticulture and husbandry. Most use their land for traditional agriculture with minimal environmental impact.

1. Efficiency in material usage. Efficiency is evident in the building materials selected for Rumah Tongkonan. Almost all materials are taken from nature, including the base, ceiling, roof, floors, windows, and doors. Many of the materials are unique to South Sulawesi, yet abundant and easy to access. Such renewable organic materials ensure that sustainability is maintained. These materials are also well suited to the local climate and its specific geographic conditions.

2. Materials and technologies. Particular technologies are evident in the construction and structure of Rumah Tongkonan, which are stable and geometrically balanced. These buildings’ bases and bodies are oriented using a series of beams. The roof is dominant, being relatively oversized, but balanced in form. Structurally, Rumah Tongkonan uses a flexible structure that can endure earthquakes and other disasters; protect residents from wild animals; and maximize water absorption. Each component is separate, providing a mobility that contributes significantly to these dwellings’ ability to survive earthquakes. The light materials also ensure the safety of inhabitants.

3. Waste management. Little waste is produced by Rumah Tongkonan. This is a significant benefit of organic materials, which also reduces the environmental impact.

Rumah Tongkonan uses a sustainable design that is well suited to local conditions. Although these dwellings are part of Torajan custom, their design is a complex one that reflects local wisdom, custom, technology, identity, lifestyles, and esthetic values. It is these elements that have enabled Rumah Tongkonan to survive into the present day and may be applied in contemporary architecture.

Every component of Nusantara Architecture has unique characteristics, which are influenced by the natural and geographic conditions wherein it is situated. Systems, materials, and structures vary throughout the archipelago. Many architectural works use local materials, including woods that are unique to their regions and are thus sustainable. Their designs make maximal usage of wind and the sun for ventilation and lighting; together with the usage of local materials, this ensures that their environmental effects are minimized. Such structures are uniquely suited to surviving natural disasters and enduring the ravages of time.

4.5 Dwellings in Kampung Naga, West Java, Indonesia

Kampung Naga is a customary Sundanese settlement in Neglasari Village, Salawu District, Tasikmalaya Regency, West Java. It consists of forests, a river, rice fields, and the settlement proper. All of these have fixed boundaries [18].

Customary law requires dwellings to use the same form, color, and materials as their ancestors, as this mitigates social gaps between residents (see Figure 7). Per the community’s ancestral knowledge, it is forbidden to build homes with concrete walls and tiled roofs, even when financially viable. Customary homes are built communally. Dwellings are built on stilts, ensuring proper ventilation and air quality. Most materials are collected from the surrounding area. Nonetheless, some elements may use prefabricated materials. Kampung Naga consists of a series of stilted longhouses. Air flows from the verandas to the rear of the home, with the form serving to draw air backward and promote circulation.

Figure 7.

View of Kampung Naga.

Most dwellings in Kampung Naga are made of light and environmentally friendly natural materials, aside from nails, glass, and chalk. Nature is the main source of materials for the community, which relies heavily on stones and local vegetation. Dwellings in Kampung Naga are built upon a foundation of natural stone, measuring 40x40x40 cm. These foundations are pedestals, reaching approximately ±50 cm above ground level. Due to this foundation, the dwellings in Kampung Naga are free of termites. At the same time, this foundation ensures stability in the area’s mountainous terrain (Figure 8).

Figure 8.

Customary homes are built communally (Source: translate from UPI).

Dwellings in Kampung Naga are walled with gedhek (woven bamboo), albasia wood, or jaro (sturdy wooden shafts, bound together with bamboo). Walls may be left bare or covered in chalk, which serves to insulate the room and protect the walls from termites. Along the walls, about 23 cm above the floor are wooden bars that are 20 cm in width. These bars serve to prevent the walls from collapsing and chalk from peeling. Such materials are highly flammable; as such, the door frames and kitchen walls are made of sasag. Dwellings are made of albasia/sengon wood. The ceilings consist of two layers. The lower layer is made of palm leaves, while the upper layer consists of palm fibers that are held together with bamboo reeds. These ceilings have several panes of glass to allow light to enter the home. The roof takes the form of a Julang Ngapak, which spreads to both sides akin to a bird’s wings (Figure 9).

Figure 9.

Customary homes are built communally (Source: UPI).

Kampung Naga community in building houses contains local wisdom values that have been proven to be very effective in disaster mitigation, starting from the production and selection of building materials, preparation of structures, and building foundations resistant from earthquakes.

5. Conclusions

Traditional architecture in Indonesia has been designed and maintained following the principles of sustainability. Such works of architecture avoid fabricated materials (and the pollution they cause), relying more on natural materials such as bamboo. Structurally, these works are earthquake-resistant and suited to their particular environmental conditions, having been designed and revised over generations through responsive contextualization. Likewise, these works provide comfort for their inhabitants even as they make optimal use of natural light and ventilation. To implement the principles of sustainability in modern architecture, ancestral and traditional approaches must be considered. Although these designs are uniquely suited to their particular contexts and functions, they all embrace the principles of sustainable architecture.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express their gratitude to all parties who assisted in preparing this chapter.