Compositions of biofloc produced from different feedstuff and carbon sources.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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The articles covered in the book would be experimental research papers, reviews, or minireviews addressing different synthesis methods of silver nanoparticles such as chemical, physical, biological/ green methods, microwave methods, and recent advancements in their characterization techniques. Another important aspect covered would be toxicity evaluation and the health impacts of silver nanoparticles. A broader insight would be provided on the applications of silver nanoparticles in wound healing, tissue engineering, drug delivery, cancer diagnosis, antimicrobial surfaces, corrosion protective coatings, regenerative medicine, therapeutic applications, and others. Biopolymer nanocomposites such as starch, chitosan, cellulose, and others reinforced with silver nanoparticles can also be included. 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",isbn:"978-1-80356-744-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-743-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-745-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"eadac73f609da20167ba128e077b1669",bookSignature:"Dr. Eram Sharmin",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11463.jpg",keywords:"Silver Nanoparticles, Chemical Synthesis, Electrochemical Synthesis, Physical Synthesis, Nanocomposite Hydrogels, Silver Scaffolds, Ointments, Creams, Biopolymer Nanocomposites, Nanoparticles, Coatings, Bioactive",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 24th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 20th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 7th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:'Dr. Eram Sharmin obtained her Ph.D. degree in Chemistry from Jamia Millia Islamia (JMI) - A Central University, India. She has more than 50 publications in peer-reviewed journals and books and has presented more than 30 research papers in national and international conferences. Her research interests include the development of "green” materials with applications such as antimicrobial and protective coatings, films, hydrogels, and packaging materials.',coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"107375",title:"Dr.",name:"Eram",middleName:null,surname:"Sharmin",slug:"eram-sharmin",fullName:"Eram Sharmin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/107375/images/system/107375.jpeg",biography:'Dr. Eram Sharmin is an Associate Professor at the Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia. She obtained her Ph.D. degree in Chemistry from Jamia Millia Islamia (JMI) - A Central University, New Delhi, India, in the year 2007. She received her MSc degree in Organic Chemistry, in the year 2000, and BSc degree in Chemistry, in the year 1998, from Aligarh Muslim University (AMU), Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh (UP), India. She has previously worked as Senior Research Associate [Under Scientists’ Pool Scheme, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi, India], Research Associate (CSIR, New Delhi), and Senior Research Fellow (CSIR, New Delhi), at Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, JMI. She has more than 50 publications in peer-reviewed journals and books and has presented more than 30 research papers in national and international conferences. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Gomes and Marisa P. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"68966",title:"Novel Biofloc Technology (BFT) for Ammonia Assimilation and Reuse in Aquaculture In Situ",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88993",slug:"novel-biofloc-technology-bft-for-ammonia-assimilation-and-reuse-in-aquaculture-in-situ",body:'The world population will exceed 9 billion people by the middle of the twenty-first century, indicating proportionate food should have to provide. Fisheries and aquaculture are the critical important sources against this challenge of food and nutrition [1]. Between 1961 and 2016, the average annual increase in global food fish consumption (3.2%) outpaced population growth (1.6%) and exceeded that of meat from all terrestrial animals combined (2.8%). Total fish production in 2016 reached 171 million tones, of which 88% was directly utilized for human consumption. In per capita terms, food fish consumption grew from 9.0 kg in 1961 to 20.2 kg in 2015, accounting for about 17% of their average per capita intake of animal protein consumed by the global population [1].
Since the late 1980s, the fishery production has been stable without obvious increase. But aquaculture has become more and more important, which production grew faster than other major food production sectors. The contribution of aquaculture to the global production of capture fisheries and aquaculture combined has risen continuously, reaching 46.8% in 2016 and representing 53% of fish production for food uses [1].
However, the development of aquaculture has faced challenges because of lack of land and water source and degradation of environment [1]. Therefore, turning of aquaculture to intensive even high intensive model from extensive or semi-extensive model is a tendency all over the world. Intensive aquaculture utilizes limited land source to culture more fish and shrimp by excessively increasing aquatic animal density with little water exchange or even zero water exchange. However, one of the most harmful risks for success of fish and shrimp in intensive aquaculture system, especially in closed intensive culture system with little water exchange, is the accumulation of ammonia. Unfortunately, there is no effective solution for harmlessness of ammonia in practical operations except exchanging water or fixing some very expensive equipment for water treatment [2].
Biofloc technology (BFT) that appeared in recent years supplies a novel solution for this issue without exchanging huge water or fixing equipment [2]. BFT could assimilate ammonia almost in real time and reuse the by-product as a natural food source in situ in aquaculture water column. In this chapter, problems referred to ammonia in aquaculture (Part 2 and Part 3), principles of ammonia removal (Part 4), main operations of BFT (Part 5), applications of using biofloc produced as a by-product of BFT in aquaculture (Part 6 and Part 7), and some highlighting issues that should be paid attention to or need to be further researched (Part 8) are introduced in brief.
Ammonia is one of the most harmful inorganic nitrogen compounds for fish or shrimp in aquaculture (another is nitrite), whose accumulation in pond water may deteriorate water quality, reduce growth, increase oxygen consumption, alter concentrations of hemolymph protein and free amino acid levels, and even cause high mortality [3]. For example, in water with pH 8.05 and temperature 23°C, the 96 h median lethal concentration (LC50) value of ammonia on
There are two existent types for ammonia, ionic type (NH4+) and free type (NH3), both of which in general named together as total ammonia nitrogen (TAN). In fact, the toxicity of TAN is mainly from the free NH3; in water, the 96 h LC50 value to
This equilibrium indicates that NH4+ and NH3 exist in water at the same time and their proportions are determined by the pH of the water body so that the toxicity of TAN is highly related to water pH. Actually, the relationship among water pH and the concentrations of NH4+ and NH3 could be descripted with an equation [6] as follows:
In this equation,
Percent of NH4+ and NH3 changing with pH under 25°C.
Ammonia in aquaculture water body is mostly produced from artificial feeds fed to fish animals. Estimated about 78% of nitrogen existing in aquaculture water body comes from feedstuff [7]. Artificial formulated feed for aquaculture animals contains a very high content of protein; in general, the crude protein content in finfish feedstuff is 25–30% [8] and higher for crustacean animals, which is even up to 40–45% for shrimp species like white-leg shrimp [4]. However, the utilization efficiency of those feeds in water is very low. When feed is added to water, only 25% of protein nitrogen in feedstuff is assimilated to body growth of aquatic animals, and the rest of about an approximate 75% proportion will lose into the water body, via directly excreting as metabolic ammonia from gill, evacuating as urea and feces by cloaca system, or dissolving as other organic nitrogen compounds [9], which are further degraded as inorganic ammonia by microorganisms with hydrolysis enzymes.
There are three routes for ammonia removal or transformation in aquaculture system: intake by photoautotrophic algae, nitrification and nitration of autotrophic nitrobacteria, and assimilation of heterotrophic bacteria [10].
Actually, the intake route of ammonia by photoautotrophic algae is the process of well-known photosynthesis as follows [10]:
Or when nitrate is as the nitrogen source
where C106H263O110N16P represents the stoichiometric formula for algae.
In this process, the ionic ammonia of NH4+ is the first-order utilized inorganic nitrogen for synthesis of organic materials. However, a carbon to nitrogen to phosphorus ratio (C:N:P) of about 106:16:1 is also needed, indicating that to promote ammonia assimilation, exogenous additions of inorganic carbon and phosphorus sources are needed and that in general make the growth of algae, especially blue-green algae or cyanobacteria, to be very difficult to control and easily result in cyanobacteria blooming, a serious deterioration of water quality and a disaster for human daily life.
Autotrophic nitrobacteria, the chemical autotrophic bacteria, can oxidize ammonia by using inorganic carbon sources without the need of phosphorus [10]:
where C5H7O2N represents the chemical formula for microbial biomass.
However, the growth rate of nitrobacteria is very low when compared to heterotrophic bacteria, which in turn leads to a low oxidized rate for ammonia. There are also no other efficient supplemental approaches to accelerate this process, which mainly relies on the natural development of nitrobacteria. Furthermore, an intermediate product of this process, nitrite or NO2−, another toxic inorganic nitrogen compound for aquaculture animals, would be produced. Nitrite is an unstable product with high oxidized ability comparable to oxygen and thus will oxidize Fe2+ in the center of hemoglobin to Fe3+. As a result, oxygen could not combine to hemoglobin and transport to tissues, and thus animals will be asphyxiated, even though there is enough oxygen dissolved in water body [11]. Moreover, the oxidization of ammonia by nitrobacteria would cause numerous accumulation of nitrate (NO3−), another inorganic nitrogen compound which could be easily taken by phytoplankton, indicating a potential risk of algae blooming [10, 11]. Finally, the nitrification process could affect water quality, such as exhausting carbonate alkalinity (HCO3−) and resulting in reduction of water pH [10].
Ammonia also could be assimilated by heterotrophic bacteria through a process different from those of photoautotrophic algae (route 1) and autotrophic nitrobacteria (route 2) [10]:
where C5H7O2N represents the chemical formula for microbial biomass like route 2, or Eq. (5). Compared to route 2, sufficient dissolved oxygen is needed for the processing of bio-reaction of Eq. (6) as well, but about half of HCO3− will be exhausted. Differently, in Eq. (6) of route 3, carbohydrate (C6H12O6) is needed, and about 40 times microbial biomass is produced.
Ammonia accumulation is the head issue faced in aquaculture, and there are several routes referring to ammonia clearance mentioned above. However, routes 1 and 2 are all not suitable to apply in aquaculture. For route 1, intake of phytoplankton or algae might produce a large number of algae exceeding the biological capacity of water body, and those planktons will be old and die quickly and release toxins harmful to aquatic animals. In regard to route 2, it is mainly applied for effluent treatment in sewage plant, which needs inferior procedures of wastewater, and thus is not suitable in aquaculture as well. Fortunately, according to the principles of route 3 displayed in Eq. (6), a novel technology, in generic nicknamed as biofloc technology (BFT), is developed for aquaculture in recent years, to be used as effectively and environmental-friendly for transforming of ammonia.
In accordance with Eq. (6), existing of carbohydrate will promote assimilation of ammonia, companied with synthesis of microbial biomass. However, the content of carbohydrate or C:N in aquaculture water body is lower than the need for bio-reaction of Eq. (6) in general. Although the C:N of bacterial cell composition is about 5:1 [12], it needs a C:N of 15:1 for blooming growth of heterotrophic bacteria to assimilate ammonia [13, 14]. In aquaculture water body, the carbohydrate is mainly from feedstuff added in [7], whose content is usually inadequate for blooming growth of heterotrophic bacteria. For example, taking white-leg shrimp feed usually used in China into consideration, the contents of ingredients, such as crude protein, lipid, fiber, ash, and moisture, are 40, 5.0, 5.0, 15, and 12%, respectively, indicating a calculated C:N of approximate 6:1 according to the relationship between contents of carbohydrate and feed ingredients [15, 16]:
Therefore, additional exogenous organic carbon source containing carbohydrate (C6H12O6) should be supplemented to prompt assimilation of ammonia by improving growth of heterotrophic bacteria, and this is one of the two principal operations for BFT [17].
The other principal operations for BFT are aeration and treatment of by-product. Known from Eq. (6), a huge number of dissolved oxygen is needed to assimilate ammonia by heterotrophic bacteria, and also massive bacteria biomass is produced as by-product, which needs to be treated.
For assimilating 1 mole of ammonia, 1.18 mole of carbohydrate is exhausted according to Eq. (6), which indicates that when 1 g of NH4+ exists in water, about 12 g of C6H12O6 should be added [10, 17]. This needs to supervise the ammonia concentration of water continuously, which is difficult to implement actually. Thus, a general manipulation is that carbon source is added only when ammonia concentration excesses 1 mg/L with the NH4+ to C6H12O6 ratio (w:w) of 1:12 [10, 17]. Of course, the content of carbohydrate contained in material used as carbon source should be determined.
Another way for addition of carbohydrate to improve the bio-reaction of route 3 is adjustment of the C:N in water in real time. For this purpose, the contents of nitrogen in water are determined actually, and then materials rich in carbon or carbohydrate are added to adjust C:N. However, in fact, many times, the adjustment of C:N is not based on the actual carbon and nitrogen concentrations. Alternatively, only when feedstuff is fed, carbon source is considered to add, and the weight for addition is calculated according to the nitrogen content in feedstuff with a C:N of 15:1 [13].
Many materials could be used as carbon source for BFT system, such as acetate [18], glycerol [18], dextrose [19, 20, 21], cassava meal [22], cellulose [23], corn flour [24, 25], glucose [18], molasses [26, 27, 28], tapioca [29], wheat flour [28, 30], rice flour [16, 30], wheat bran [25, 31], rice bran [20, 29], starch [28, 32], poly-β-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) [33, 34], brewery residues [22], and sugar [32].
The process of ammonia assimilation via heterotrophic microorganisms needs a huge number of oxygen, because of (1) oxygen consumption by respiration of blooming growth of bacteria and (2) oxidized fermentation of organic materials secreted by bacteria [17]. Thus, it is needed to usually equip a robust air blower to blow air into the water body to maintain a highly dissolved oxygen level in water [2], in general at least 5 mg/L [4]. In some cases, even pure oxygen is used for this purpose.
A result induced by blooming growth of heterotrophic bacteria is substantial accumulation of suspended solids or bioflocs, one of the side effects of utilizing BFT. In a BFT system constructed by the author in the present article, bacteria secrete massive metabolic materials such as protein and polysaccharide, which could bond feeds, feces, debris, and other organic matters together, to become bioflocs and suspended in water under aeration condition (Figures 2 and 3). The author also found that sometimes the total suspended solid (TSS) content in BFT system would accumulate to above 800 mg/L (Figure 3b). That high level of TSS will be harmful to aquatic animals, which would lead to oxygen depletion, obstruction of fish or shrimp gills, and mortality due to asphyxiation [35]. Therefore, treatment of those accumulated TSS is an important operation for BFT [36].
Sedimentation of biofloc in an Imhoff cone.
Productivity characteristics of biofloc volume and TSS in closed traditional system (a) and BFT system (b) over time. Biofloc volume is defined as the volume of sinkable matter in 1 l water placed into an Imhoff cone in 15 min. TSS is represented as the mass (mg) of dry matter in 1 l water after filtering with a 0.45 μl membrane.
There are three ways used for treating of TSS. The first one is in situ eaten by fish or shrimp as supplemental food [37, 38] which is also the most frequently used method. The second one is equipping a settling chamber to remove excessive solids [39]. And the last one is using separation systems for biofloc production and aquatic animal production, respectively, so that the increasing TSS produced in biofloc production system will not affect the growth of fish or shrimp raised in another system whose water quality should remain controlled by the former system. And for this purpose, four 10 m3 composite tanks in general need to be fixed for water treatment of 12 tanks with a volume of 500 L per tank [40].
Although numerous amounts of oxygen will be consumed by respiration of a large number of flourishing heterotrophic bacteria, the author in this article supervised that the dissolved oxygen continuously sustained a high level in fact in a
Dissolved oxygen level in a BFT system over time.
The speed of ammonia assimilation in BFT system is very fast; Avnimelech [13] reported that ammonia added to water body with a final concentration of 10 mg/L disappeared over a period of about 2 h post addition of glucose as carbon source. The author of the present chapter found that in the BFT system culture
TAN, nitrite, and nitrate concentrations in closed traditional system (a) and BFT system (b) at different time points.
Treatment of suspended solids or bioflocs is one of the most important operations for using BFT. Usually, those solids or bioflocs are not removed just as a waste from water. In contrast, they are reused as a complemented food source for aquatic animals, especially omnivorous species such as shrimp and tilapia, in a system adopting BFT. During development of bioflocs, bacteria secrete protein and polysaccharide, which bond with feeds, feces, debris, and other organic matters together. Furthermore, the author of this article found that biofloc was also a nutritional resource that could attract zooplanktons to prey, such as protozoa, rotifers, nematodes, ciliates, and flagellates (Figure 6), which in turn provides live and fresh food rich in protein for fish and shrimp.
Bioflocs observed with a light microscope. The minimal scale of the rule in the down part of the figure represents 25 μm. Arrows indicate free zooplanktons (a), and zooplanktons prey food from biofloc (b).
There are three ways for biofloc used as food in aquaculture currently: (i) as a complemented food for fish or shrimp in situ [42, 43, 44, 45], (ii) as a gradient for feedstuff to replace fishmeal [46, 47, 48, 49], and (iii) as a normal feed to replace partial artificial feedstuff [50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55]. In brief, fish and shrimp consume biofloc rich in microbe, phytoplankton, and zooplankton as a food directly. Because animals take biofloc as a vice food source, thus in fact the biofloc hunted by fish and shrimp is only a few parts of the whole. In other words, most of the bioflocs remain in the water body, which may be an obstacle for growth of fish and shrimp. For alleviating the negative effect of biofloc on animal growth, excessive parts should be collected from water body and could be taken as an alternative protein source for preparing feedstuff. Even more, biofloc is fed to fish or shrimp as feedstuff directly due to its whole and high nutritional value.
Nutritional value of biofloc is important for its reuse. However, this value is affected by several factors. Because the development of biofloc is sponsored and prompted by accumulation of ammonia and addition of carbon source, it is suspected that feedstuff and carbon source [30], especially the last one, would impressively affect biofloc nutritional composition and value (Table 1). For example, protein content and oil content of feedstuff will affect those of in biofloc. With regard to carbon source, there are two main types of carbon sources: (i) simple structure carbon sources with easily dissolving ability in water, such as glucose, sucrose, and sodium acetate [17, 20], and (ii) complex compounds, like flour or bran of rice and wheat [56] and brewery residues, which are a by-product from beer production industry [22]. In general, complex carbon source is more difficult to dissolve and more powerful in improving biofloc nutritional value, which in turn improves the growth of fish or shrimp [17, 20]. This carbon source is not easy to degrade with big diameter so that animals in water could easily prey and eat them directly; thus, except for being used as carbohydrate, those materials also contain other nutritional materials essential for growth of fish and shrimp, such as proteins, oils, vitamins, and minerals, even carotenoids [57, 58].
Animals | Carbon sources | Feedstuff composition | C:N | Biofloc composition | Ref. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CP | CL | CP | CL | ||||
Molasses and wheat bran | 42.5 | – | 20:1 | 28.7–43.1 | 2.11–3.62 | [59] | |
Sucrose | 35–40 | 7–9 | – | 24.01 | 3.31 | [60] | |
Molasses | 38 | 9 | 15:1 | 27.43 | 0.86 | [28] | |
Starch | 23.1 | 1.14 | |||||
Wheat flour | 30.73 | 2.18 | |||||
Mixture of molasses, starch, and wheat flour with equal weight ratio | 25.46 | 1.24 | |||||
Tilapia | Wheat flour | 24 | 6.23 | – | 37.93 | 3.16 | [61] |
35 | 6.24 | 38.41 | 3.23 | ||||
Feed | 22 | 12.3 | 11.6:1 | 50.6 | 2.6 | [62] | |
35 | 119 | 8.4:1 | 53.5 | 1.9 | |||
Poly-β-hydroxybutyric | 30 | 4 | – | 34.06 | 6.58 | [34] | |
Glucose | 38.53 | 6.06 | |||||
Molasses and wheat bran | 40 | 13.1 | 20:1 | 30.4 | 0.47 | [37] | |
35 | – | – | 18.4 | 0.3 | [63] | ||
Wheat flour | 29.6–35.4 | 4.2–16.5 | 10:1 | 35.4 | 1.1 | [52] | |
Wheat flour | 40 | – | 10:1 | 24.3 | 3.53 | [53] | |
Catfish | Glycerol | 43 | 6 | 10:1 | 44.27 | 5.84 | [64] |
15:1 | 38.65 | 7.35 | |||||
20:1 | 32.64 | 10.78 | |||||
Green cucumber | Glucose | 20.37 | 2.45 | 15:1 | 32.29 | 4.19 | [65] |
Sucrose | 28.04 | 4.30 | |||||
Starch | 21.67 | 3.83 | |||||
White cucumber | Glucose | 27.27 | 4.25 | ||||
Sucrose | 27.48 | 3.89 | |||||
Starch | 21.23 | 3.76 |
Compositions of biofloc produced from different feedstuff and carbon sources.
Note: CP, crude protein; CL, crude lipid.
BFT has been successfully used for culture of fish and shrimp, such as tilapia, carp, and
When bioflocs were eaten directly by fish or shrimp, the protein utilization efficiency of feed elevated by 29% [68], and the FCR decreased by about 18% for tilapia [66, 67], and also decreased for
Biofloc is also used as an alternative protein source for fishmeal sometimes. The protein content in biofloc is evidenced to be very high, in general 25–40% [34, 63, 66, 70], in a case even up to 50% [62]. The essential amino acids were also rich in biofloc, and its composition was also highly in agreement with that in the fish body [71], indicating that it is valuable for growth of fish and shrimp. Dantas et al. [46] and Kuhn et al. [48] replaced 30% of fishmeal or soy meal with biofloc to manufacture feedstuff for feeding of
In some cases, biofloc was collected and dried to make pellets and then fed to fish or shrimp like artificial or formulated feedstuff. Carps,
Meeting future demand for fish is very important for global food security. However, barriers to growth have to be explicitly recognized to the environmental and economic pillars of sustainability [73]. Fortunately, BFT could fulfill those requests for sustainable development of aquaculture.
Except availability of land and water, environmental impact is another possible main constraint to aquaculture growth. Thus, aquaculture systems that reduce eutrophication risks and other environmental costs while providing income and extended social benefits should be developed [73]. For this purpose, the FAO thinks that herbivorous and omnivorous species should be promoted and integrated aquaculture including multitrophic aquaculture is also an alternative, in which by-products (wastes) from one species are recycled to become inputs (fertilizers, food, and energy) for another [73].
From this point of view, in practical aquaculture operations, BFT utilizes by-products from agriculture industries, such as cassava meal [22], molasses [26, 27, 28], tapioca [29], wheat bran [25, 31], rice bran [20, 29], and brewery residues [22], as fertilizers for assimilating organic and inorganic materials. And in turn, its own by-product, biofloc, becomes complemented food for aquatic suspension or deposit feeders, like herbivorous fish. Some omnivorous aquatic animals, such as shrimp and tilapia, were all very suitable to be cultured with BFT [44, 62]. Due to the characteristics of in situ treatment of water quality and supplying of organic biofloc food, aquaculture systems that adopted BFT only need a few water exchange, even no water exchange, and decrease artificial feedstuff inputs, indicating reduced eutrophication risks of environment and the use of wild fish for aquaculture feeds to reserve balance of ecosystem.
Rego et al. [74] analyzed the financial viability of inserting the BFT system (625 m2 each pond) and maintaining the conventional culture system (2.86 ha each pond) for the marine shrimp
Undoubtedly, BFT is a novel solution for transformation of ammonia in aquaculture. However, how to effectively reuse or deposit biofloc, the by-product of assimilation of ammonia in BFT system in situ, as a supplemental food for aquatic animals, needs more researches in detail.
The consumed efficiency of biofloc by fish or shrimp in situ is not adequate high, resulting in gradual accumulation of TSS in BFT system because of huge numerous organic materials produced by blooming growth of heterotrophic bacteria. Thus, the causes contributed to this low efficiency should be researched. Furthermore, the strategies for improving the utilization efficiency of biofloc should be assessed as well, such as improving accumulation of lipid of biofloc, which will increase the nutritional value. Usually, the total lipid content in biofloc is too low to be sufficient for demand of fish and shrimp (Table 1). Previous studies found that the lipid contents of biofloc were 0.5–0.6% [63, 70], 1.03% [66], or 4.0% [62], respectively, which were all lower than the demands for lipid of aquatic animals [8]. For example, the recommended total lipid level in the diet for shrimp is in general higher than 6.5% [4]. Although external equipment could be used to settle the excessive part of biofloc, how to treat this deposit containing high content organic matter and bacteria, part of which may be pathogens, was also a problem [39].
The efficiency for producing biofloc also needs to be elevated, if biofloc is used as a gradient of formulated feedstuff for replacement of fishmeal or soybean meal or used to feed to aquatic animals directly as a food with whole nutritional gradients usually contained in artificial feedstuff. The productivity of biofloc recent is not adequate for those uses in practical operations.
Moreover, the improvement of biofloc palatability should be researched, which is important to the utilization of biofloc either eaten in situ or used as a food source [76]. Attractants or feeding promoting agents, like garlicin, betaine (trimethylglycine), trimethylamine oxide (TMAO), and s,s-dimethyl-β-propionic acid thetine (DMPT), could be taken into consideration as additives during development of biofloc in situ or preparing process for biofloc pellets. Thus, the effects of those agents on biofloc attraction to fish and shrimp should be studied in detail, respectively.
Biofloc technology (BFT) supplies a novel solution for this issue without huge water exchange, even zero water exchange. In general, ammonia would be removed quickly within several hours in a BFT system. Moreover, because of the very high nutritional value for fish and shrimp, bioflocs, the by-product of BFT, could also be reused as a complemented food in situ or a gradient for feedstuff to replace expensive fishmeal, and biofloc also could be processed to formulate diet to feed fish and shrimp directly. However, some aspects with regard to the effective use of biofloc as a food source for fish and shrimp, such as high lipid content, productivity, and palatability, need to be further researched in detail.
This work is supported by the development funds of the Chinese central government to guide local science and technology (2017CT5013); the Sci-Tech program of Hunan province, China (2016NK2132); and the science and research program of the Education Department of Hunan province, China (16C1085, 18B394).
The author declares no conflict of interest.
The author also thanks the support from Collaborative Innovation Center (Hunan) for Efficient and Health Production of Fisheries, Hunan Engineering Research Center of Aquatic Organism Resources and Environmental Ecology, Hunan Engineering Research Center of Aquatic Organism Resources and Environmental Ecology, and Academician Workstation (Fisheries) of Hunan Province.
biofloc technology
carbon to nitrogen (to phosphorus) ratio
crude lipid
crude protein
s,s-dimethyl-β-propionic acid thetine
Food and Agriculture Organization
feed conversion rate
internal rate of return
median lethal concentration
net present value
National Research Council
poly-β-hydroxybutyric
part(s) per million
total ammonia nitrogen
trimethylamine oxide
total suspended solids
The Republic of South Africa (RSA) is known to be among one of the world’s most active mining countries. RSA hosts several deposits such as gold deposits in the Witwatersrand basin, diamond deposits in Kimberly, Platinum group elements (PGE) in the Bushveld Complex and Manganese deposits in the Griqualand West Basin, all to which, to some extent they control the economy of the country [1]. The Namaqua- Natal Metamorphic Province, particularly the Namaqua Sector has proven to be the remarkable mineralised sector in the country hosting Copperton deposit, which according to [2], and [3] is one of the world’s giant Volcanic Hosted Massive Sulphide (VHMS) deposit.
The Namaqua-Natal Metamorphic Province (NNMP) is a tectonostratigraphic province that stretches 1400 km across South Africa, it extensively outcrops in the Northern Cape Province and Kwa-Zulu Natal Province and referred as Namaqua and Natal Sectors respectively and in Namibia. NNMP embrace igneous and metamorphic rocks formed or metamorphosed during the Namaqua Orogeny at 1200 Ma–1000 Ma. It is 400 km wide and has borders with the Kaapvaal Craton to the north and Pan-African (Gariep and Saldania) belts in the west and south [4, 5].
The Namaqua Sector of the Namaqua-Natal Province is subdivided into a number of distinct, discontinuity-bounded domains: Richtersveld Subprovince, Bushmanland Terrane, Gordonia Terrane, and Kaaien Terrane (Figure 1; [6]). The Location of the study area is in western degree of the 2922 Prieska sheet, Northern Cape Province, South Africa (Figure 1).
Map of Southern Africa showing Pan-African orogenic belts, NNP, Kheis Province and Kaapvaal craton [
The small portion of Kaapvaal Craton is part of the study area (Figure 1). The preserved basin on the Kaapvaal Craton, which is the part of the study area of this research, is Griqualand-West basin. The westernmost of Griqualand West basin exposures at the eastern edge of the Kheis Belt, thrust and fold belt that post-dates younger Olifantshoek red beds. In its extreme, south the Griqualand-West strata are truncated by later dextral shearing on the Brakbosch and Brulpan faults [6].
Geochemical data combined with mineralogical and other additional data sets such as geologic maps, mineral distribution, geophysical methods, among others, provides a foundation for classifying and evaluating mineral resource endowment and natural hazards. A mineral resource produces diagnostic textural, geologic, geophysical, and geochemical signatures when exposed at or near the surface of the earth. Geochemical exploration is based on outlining such dispersion halos and in the present study that will be done by chemical analyses of stream-drainage sediments.
There is different between regional and detailed surveys in terms objective, size of area being surveyed, sampling density, type and of material sampled. Ginsburg [7] recognised three scales of geochemical mapping and surveys depending on purpose and objective, namely, reconnaissance, prospecting and detailed. Regional survey can be conveniently discussed based on the number of stream sediment samples taken per square kilometres [8].
Regional geochemical mapping has been part of the core mapping function of the Council for Geoscience (CGS) since the 1970s. The Regional geochemical mapping program follow a systematic approach focussed on providing high quality- and high density datasets that will contribute to resolving issues relevant to modern South African geological society, namely, exploration, geological mapping, groundwater, environmental studies, and geological modelling. The principal objective of this geochemical orientation survey is to define the patterns of primary and secondary dispersion occurring in the study area particularly those of economically and environmentally interesting elements.
The stream sediments composition of the research are is poorly understood. Mobility of the different elements varies considerably because of factors such as adsorption and Eh-pH conditions. Stream sediments programs worldwide had discovered numerous deposits.
The geochemical patterns obtained from this study will enable to link elements deficiencies and abundances with the underlying geology, structures and known mineral occurrences and mines. This will assist in tracing the source of anomalies encountered on stream sediments and delineate targets for follow-up studies within the Orange River catchment area.
The primary aim of this study is to map the VMS mineralisation potential of the Prieska area using the stream sediment data, determine geochemistry of stream sediments within the Orange River catchment area. This will enable the recognition of anomalies within the catchment area and trace their sources.
The following specific objectives need to be met:
To determine the solid geochemistry of the sediments from Orange River catchment
To determine heavy metals content of the sediments
Locate the source of anomalies and delineate targets for follow-up studies.
Geochemical and mineralogical anomalies of the sediments in the Orange River can be determined
Metal content of stream Orange River sediments was introduced in solution
Sources of resulted anomalies within the Orange River catchment can be traced.
Large areas may be successfully explored using stream sediments geochemistry for indications of individual mineral deposits, groups of occurrences, or favourable geological environments. Sampling density ranges from one sample per 1 km2 to one per 25 km2 depending upon the type of target and drainage characteristics, and inherent in the reconnaissance concept is the need for more detailed sampling to determine the significance of regional anomalies [9, 10]. The government agencies, Council for Geological Survey and mining companies are mostly responsible to carry out Regional stream sediments surveys. Successful stream sediments surveys conducted around the globe.
The Geological Survey of Zambia in Africa employed regional and provincial scale geochemical mapping in systematic geological mapping. Analyses were for 20 elements by semi quantitative XRF. The Institute of Mining Research at the University of Zimbabwe (formerly known as Rhodesia) had been active in regional geochemical research projects since 1976. Some of the studies done by the institute include a regional stream sediment reconnaissance of 1350 km2 of the Sabi Tribal Trust Land at a density of one sample per km2 [11], and a survey of 1664 km2 near West Nicholson, Zimbabwe, at same density [12] employing multi-element in both cases. In southern Africa, most mining companies devote a greater effort to regional soil sampling than to drainage reconnaissance and it had been estimated that more than 95% of samples collected by the major companies in 1973 were taken from soil grids [13].
In Australia, during 1976, there was a low level of activity as only 4250 stream sediments were collected; the number was expected to decline in 1977. Nevertheless, in the more favourable humid zones most mineral exploration companies make fixed use of regional stream sediment sampling since stream sediments are of limited use in the more arid regions because of low density of drainage and dilution by the wind-blown material. Two size fractions approach may be employed in arid regions, minus-120 mesh and minus-4-plus −16 mesh with coarser fraction containing gossan fragments and multiple grains cemented by metal-rich iron hydroxides [10].
In southern British Columbia portion and Yukon during 1976, Stream sediments sampling took place over an area of 75,000 km2 (Cameroon, 1976). According to Meyer et al. [10], Smee and Ballantyne [14] reported that the British Columbia portion of the program covered 46,800 km2 at a mean density of one sample per 13 km2 and in the Yukon 2200 stations were sampled over an area of 28,490 km2, giving the same degree of coverage. More than 90% of stream sediment activities of the Geological Survey of Canada and Federal-Provincial Uranium Reconnaissance Program that commenced in 1975 are related. Rose and Keith [15] concluded that stream sediments were preferable to water for reconnaissance drainage surveys for uranium for eastern Pennsylvania.
Several techniques including geological mapping and stream sediments geochemistry were used to investigate stream sediments geochemical patterns of the Orange River catchment prospecting area in order to accomplish the goals and objectives set out for this study. A descriptive methodology is summarised in the below flow chart (Figure 2). The steps followed in order to achieve the objectives of this study are desktop study, reconnaissance survey, fieldwork, laboratory work, data analysis and interpretation, discussion, conclusions and recommendations.
Flow chart indicating methods and procedures applied during the study.
In order to acquire first-hand information about the study area. Prior to field visit, the information from previous work on geology, nature of mineralisation and previous exploration conducted in the Orange River catchment prospect is studied. Information is sources from Books, unpublished technical reports, geological reports, topographical maps, journals and internet sources.
A reconnaissance survey was undertaken prior to detailed or actual fieldwork. During this, a snap survey of geology, vegetation, and accessibility of the study area was undertaken. The aim is to locate the ground, target areas indicated by outcrops of different lithologies. The general attitudes of lithologies at the prospects, rock outcrops, and quantity of samples and duration of fieldwork were established. Additionally, a thorough study of topography, vegetation, pedology, drainage patterns and characteristics of rocks was also to gather as much information as possible in the study area. Stream distribution was also assessed which drain into the Orange River catchment prospect.
Field observations were transferred to a base map before being digitised using ArcGIS 10.3.1. The observations were transferred to a field base map; using diverse colours to discriminate the streams distribution mapped in the area. The spatial extent of each lithology and lithology contacts as well as stream distribution were trace on the map. Field notes includes describing the coordinates and nature of contact with other rock types and soil colour where there is limited outcrops.
The sample analysis was conducted by the Council for Geoscience (CGS) laboratory in Pretoria. Sieve shaker, drying oven, atomic absorption spectrometry (Perkin Elmer Analyst 400, AAS), PANanalytical-Axios XRF were used for sample preparation and analysis.
This section describes the methods used to prepare stream sediments samples collected from the Orange River catchment prospect for laboratory analysis.
Samples are oven dried at 105–110 °C. Once completely dry, samples were first sieved through a 2 mm sieve to remove gravels and organic materials and subsequently sieved through a − 125 μm fraction size and milled to 85% -75 μm. The milled samples were placed in labelled sample bags ready for analysis.
The prime requirement for mineral exploration survey is the availability of analytical procedures capable of high precision, low detection limit and acceptable accuracy.
The PANanalytical-Axios XRF was used for geochemical analysis of stream sediments. The milled samples roasted at 1000 °C for at least three hours in order to oxidise Fe2+ and S and to determine loss of ignition (LOI). Glass disks for XRF analysis were prepared by fusing 1 g sample and 8 g of flux (35% LiBO2 and 64.71% Li2B4O7) at 1050 °C for major element analysis. Major element oxides (SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3t, MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, P2O5 and Cr2O3) and trace element (Ni, Cu, Co, As, Zn, Pb, Cr, Ba, Sc, Sr., V, Th, U, Y, Zr) were analysed.
Trace element analysis was achieved by mixing 12 g milled sample and a 3 g Hoechst wax and then pressing into a powder briquette by a hydraulic press with the applied pressure at 25 ton. The glass disks and wax pellets were analysed by PANalytical-Axios XRF. XRF has the advantage of being non-destructive, multi-elemental, fast and cost effective compared to other competitive techniques such as Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (ASS) or Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry (ICP OES).
X-rays are produced by irradiating a sample with high energy photons produced by primary X-ray tube. When a high energy primary X-ray collides with an atom, an electron can be ejected from a low energy level creating an electron vacancy. When an electron from a higher energy level fills the vacancy, a secondary X-ray is created characteristic of that element. XRF analysis devices can be largely categorised into wavelength-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (WDX) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX). WDX disperses the fluorescent X-ray generated in the sample using dispersion crystal and measures it using a goniometer, resulting in a large size. The detector in EDX on the other hand, has a superior energy resolution and requires no dispersion system, which enable downsizing of the device. Interaction of X-rays with sample creates secondary diffracted beams of X-rays related to inter-planner spacing in the crystalline powder according Bragg’s Law:
Where: n is an integer, λ is the wavelength of X-rays; d is the inter-planar spacing generating the diffraction and is the
The XRF was calibrated by identification of optimum conditions of several variable factors for each element, like identifying correct elemental peak and background, pulse height, collimator mask, counting time, dead time, followed by matrix and inter-element interference corrections. This was achieved by repeated analysis of certified reference material and correcting the variables to yield elemental concentration close to known values. This included 12/76 (amphibolite standard).
The weighted inverse distance interpolation (IDW) method was used to convert point XRF data into continuous geochemical maps using ArcGIS, the IDW parameters used were: power = 2, maximum neighbours = 15, minimum neighbours = 10, cell Size = Maximum of Inputs.
It is vitally important that an analysis is precise but the accuracy is not generally so crucial, although some indication of accuracy is needed for most purposes in mineral exploration [16]. Quality assurance program should aim to assess the quality and accuracy at all stages of measurement process, from site selection and sampling through sample handling, preparation and analysis. Subsequently, a quality control/quality assurance See Table 1 for the results of the reference material and lower limit of detection for each element. The glass disk R422 was analysed firstly with the calibration standards and then every 12 hours during analysis of the sample. The three sediment reference material GSD-9, GSD-11 and GSD-14 were repeatedly analysed every 30 samples to evaluate the precision of the analysis, Table 1 summaries the results of the reference material and each lower detection limit of each element.
GSD-9 | GSD-11 | GSD-14 | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Oxide (wt %) | Lower level of determination | N = 391 | N = 525 | N = 435 | |||||||||
Element (ppm) | Certified | Average | Standard | %RMS | Certified | Average | Standard | %RMS | Certified | Average | Standard | %RMS | |
SiO2 | 0.01 | 64.89 | 68.20 | 3.20 | 4.70 | 76.25 | 77.29 | 3.17 | 4.10 | 57.25 | 53.43 | 2.51 | 4.69 |
TiO2 | 0.01 | 0.92 | 0.94 | 0.01 | 1.34 | 0.35 | 0.35 | 0.00 | 1.02 | 2.40 | 2.29 | 0.04 | 1.84 |
Al2O3 | 0.01 | 10.58 | 11.30 | 0.72 | 6.40 | 10.37 | 10.41 | 0.56 | 5.39 | 13.39 | 11.75 | 0.77 | 6.56 |
Fe2O3 | 0.01 | 4.86 | 4.82 | 0.13 | 2.63 | 4.39 | 4.15 | 0.08 | 1.96 | 9.50 | 9.75 | 0.17 | 1.77 |
MnO | 0.00 | 0.08 | 0.08 | 0.00 | 2.91 | 0.32 | 0.31 | 0.01 | 3.10 | 0.16 | 0.17 | 0.00 | 2.52 |
MgO | 0.01 | 2.39 | 2.57 | 0.15 | 5.64 | 0.62 | 0.64 | 0.06 | 8.68 | 3.40 | 3.27 | 0.17 | 5.10 |
CaO | 0.01 | 5.35 | 5.99 | 0.26 | 4.31 | 0.47 | 0.45 | 0.02 | 4.70 | 3.50 | 3.17 | 0.15 | 4.60 |
Na2O | 0.01 | 1.44 | 1.68 | 0.17 | 10.15 | 0.46 | 0.52 | 0.06 | 11.73 | 2.00 | 2.03 | 0.17 | 8.21 |
K2O | 0.01 | 1.99 | 2.18 | 0.03 | 1.29 | 3.28 | 3.43 | 0.05 | 1.43 | 2.30 | 2.28 | 0.04 | 1.60 |
P2O5 | 0.00 | 0.15 | 0.17 | 0.01 | 4.56 | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 8.32 | 0.23 | 0.22 | 0.01 | 5.86 |
Ag | 4.00 | 5.00 | 1.00 | 19.20 | |||||||||
As | 4.00 | 8.40 | 13.00 | 4.90 | 38.00 | 188.00 | 195.00 | 3.00 | 1.60 | 18.00 | 11.00 | 8.00 | 71.40 |
Ba | 5.00 | 430.00 | 430.00 | 9.70 | 2.30 | 260.00 | 258.00 | 7.40 | 2.90 | 760.00 | 810.00 | 18.10 | 2.20 |
Ce | 10.00 | 78.00 | 79.00 | 12.20 | 15.40 | 58.00 | 59.00 | 8.70 | 14.70 | 10.00 | 107.00 | 11.50 | 10.80 |
Co | 4.00 | 14.40 | 13.00 | 0.20 | 1.90 | 8.50 | 8.00 | 0.50 | 6.70 | 28.00 | 28.00 | 0.60 | 2.30 |
Cr | 4.00 | 85.00 | 89.00 | 2.60 | 2.90 | 40.00 | 36.00 | 2.70 | 7.50 | 243.00 | 244.00 | 7.50 | 3.10 |
Cu | 2.00 | 32.10 | 33.00 | 1.40 | 4.10 | 78.60 | 78.00 | 2.00 | 2.60 | 66.00 | 72.00 | 2.50 | 3.50 |
Ga | 2.00 | 14.00 | 18.00 | 3.00 | 16.90 | 18.50 | 19.00 | 3.40 | 17.20 | 25.00 | 30.00 | 4.00 | 13.70 |
Hf | 5.00 | 9.70 | 11.00 | 0.70 | 6.90 | 5.40 | 6.00 | 0.80 | 14.70 | 13.00 | 15.00 | 1.20 | 8.00 |
Mo | 2.00 | 0.64 | 5.90 | 7.00 | 0.50 | 7.70 | 2.70 | 4.00 | 0.50 | 13.90 | |||
Nb | 3.00 | 17.70 | 22.00 | 2.90 | 13.20 | 25.00 | 29.00 | 2.80 | 9.70 | 72.00 | 86.00 | 4.90 | 5.70 |
Nd | 3.00 | 34.00 | 37.00 | 7.80 | 20.09 | 27.00 | 23.00 | 6.40 | 27.80 | 45.00 | 51.00 | 10.10 | 19.70 |
Ni | 2.00 | 32.30 | 34.00 | 1.00 | 2.80 | 14.40 | 18.00 | 1.20 | 7.10 | 87.00 | 100.00 | 3.70 | 3.70 |
Pb | 2.00 | 23.00 | 23.00 | 0.90 | 8.10 | 636.00 | 627.00 | 14.70 | 2.30 | 66.00 | 68.00 | 3.20 | 4.70 |
Rb | 2.00 | 80.00 | 84.00 | 2.20 | 2.60 | 408.00 | 417.00 | 10.50 | 2.50 | 87.00 | 92.00 | 3.40 | 3.70 |
S | 3.00 | 150.00 | 217.00 | 6.70 | 3.10 | 170.00 | 178.00 | 14.50 | 8.10 | 175.00 | 16.10 | 9.20 | |
Sb | 3.00 | 0.80 | 14.90 | 11.00 | 1.30 | 11.60 | 2.70 | 4.00 | 0.70 | 18.70 | |||
Sc | 3.00 | 11.10 | 16.00 | 4.30 | 26.90 | 7.40 | 8.00 | 3.80 | 45.20 | 18.00 | 21.00 | 4.30 | 20.50 |
Sn | 3.00 | 2.60 | 5.00 | 2.10 | 42.30 | 370.00 | 400.00 | 7.90 | 2.00 | 9.50 | 8.00 | 3.90 | 47.70 |
Sr | 2.00 | 166.00 | 168.00 | 1.90 | 1.10 | 29.00 | 34.00 | 1.10 | 3.30 | 216.00 | 327.00 | 5.40 | 230 |
Ta | 3.00 | 1.30 | 5.70 | 5.00 | 1.40 | 24.80 | 5.00 | 4.00 | 0.80 | 19.60 | |||
Ih | 3.00 | 12.40 | 11.00 | 1.90 | 17.00 | 23.30 | 48.00 | 2.10 | 4.30 | 12.40 | 12.00 | 2.20 | 17.40 |
U | 3.00 | 2.60 | 4.00 | 0.80 | 20.60 | 9.10 | 8.00 | 1.20 | 15.20 | 3.00 | 4.00 | 1.50 | 37.20 |
V | 4.00 | 97.00 | 105.00 | 5.40 | 2.50 | 46.80 | 39.00 | 3.60 | 9.20 | 190.00 | 230.00 | 20.30 | 8.80 |
W | 3.00 | 1.76 | 126.00 | 97.00 | 3.80 | 3.90 | 5.60 | 5.00 | 0.90 | 18.10 | |||
Y | 3.00 | 26.50 | 25.00 | 0.60 | 2.30 | 42.70 | 37.00 | 2.00 | 5.50 | 3.40 | 34.00 | 1.50 | 5.30 |
Zn | 3.00 | 78.00 | 72.00 | 0.60 | 0.90 | 373.00 | 368.00 | 9.50 | 2.60 | 165.00 | 183.00 | 5.20 | 2.80 |
Zr | 3.00 | 370.00 | 391.00 | 9.00 | 2.30 | 152.00 | 156.00 | 5.60 | 3.60 | 524.00 | 560.00 | 17.40 | 3.10 |
The Lower limit of detection (LLD) of each element and the reference material obtained results.
The statistical tests of standard samples repeatability can be based on replicate assays of a certified standard in one laboratory or, conversely, inter laboratory analyses. Blank samples for materials that have very low grade of a metal of interest are usually inserted in a batch of samples being processed. The main purpose of using blanks is to monitor laboratory for a possible contamination of samples, which are mainly caused by poor housekeeping, and insufficient thorough cleaning of equipment.
Analytical data processing aims, firstly, at reducing random and/or systematic errors resulting from field survey and/or laboratory analysis, and secondly, at identifying whether the data contain some useful information indicating the source, pathway and trap of coal concentrations in the study area. The careful analysis of such data, using standard computer software packages, is an important and affordable way of adding value to an exploration programme.
Statistical methods have been widely applied to interpret analytical data sets and define anomalies. However, such methods need to be used cautiously since the data are typically and spatially dependent on each sample site and a range of different processes that may have influenced the element abundance measured. The data are also imprecise because of unavoidable variability in sampling methods and media and the level of analytical precision.
Moon [16] indicated that the aim of mineral exploration is to define significant anomalies. Anomalies are defined by statistically grouping data and comparing these with geology and sampling information. Strong anomalies detected may be for instance due to a combination of factors such as sampling and analytical errors, or contaminations which do not represent mineralisation. The absence of anomaly on the other hand may not necessarily mean the absence of mineralisation in the area of study. Such absence may be due to low rate of weathering in the area, buried or blind mineralisation, or dilution between source and sample site [17].
The use of descriptive statistics helps us to simplify large amounts of data into a simpler summary. Numerical and graphical methods are the two commonly used methods. Numerical method enables one to compute statistics such as mean and standard deviation while, graphical methods are better suited than numerical for identifying patterns in the data sets. The numerical and graphical methods complement each other and it is therefore wise to use both. Consequently, histograms, and summary statistical information were used in this study to identify patterns in data sets. According to Riemann et al. [18], a graphical inspection of analytical data is necessary as the first step in data analysis. The best means of statistical grouping data is graphical examination using histograms and box plots [19, 20].
The geology map retrieved from the CGS database, was compiled on ArcGIS software (Figure 3). The area is comprised of the Transvaal Sequence, Olifantshoek Supergroup, Kaaien Terrane, Areachap Group and Karoo Supergroup. The Transvaal Sequence is confined to the north-central part of the Kaapvaal Craton [21]. It overlies the Witwatersrand foreland basin (Supergroup) and is overlain by Bushveld Complex [21]. The three basins – the Transvaal basin, and Griqualand West basin, in South Africa, and the Kanye basin in Botswana basins are preserved on the Kaapvaal Craton [21].
The Geology of the Prieska map.
The geochemical data was transformed into a raster data with a cell size of 1 km using weighted inverse distance interpolation method. A maximum of four points were used to calculate a value for each cell location. First, the raster maps of the uni-elements were visualised in ArcGIS and compared to the underlying geology and known base metal occurrences. Univariate statistical methods was used to extract information from a data set of values for a single element, frequency histograms are created using GIS geostastical analyst tool, to examine the frequency distribution and identify the type of distribution, the all elements Histograms are on none transformation.
The only elements that correlates (Table 2) importantly with the known base metals occurrence in Prieska area as discussed in this section. The copper, lead, zinc, gold and silver minerals are associated with Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide (VMS) deposits. Prieska area is underlain by the Areachap Terrane, known to host VMS and Sedimentary exhalative deposit (SEDEX) deposits, including the mined out Copperton deposit, approximately 10 km southwest of the Prieska town. The Areachap terrane is overlain by up to 100 m of Karoo sediments that limited historical exploration.
Ag | As_ | Ba | Ce | Co | Cc | Cu | Ga | Hf | Mo | Nb | Nd | Ni | Pb | Rb | S | Sb | Sc | Sn | Sc | Ta | Th | U | V | W | Y | Zn | Zr | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Af | 10,000 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
As_ | 0,1552 | 10,000 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ba | 0,0520 | −0,0555 | 10,000 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ce | 0,0956 | 0,5085 | −0,0218 | 10,000 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Co | 0,1271 | 0,0562 | 0,0767 | 0,0064 | 10,000 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Cr | 0,1998 | 0,4000 | −0,0958 | 0,2664 | 0,5850 | 10,000 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Cu | 0,0738 | −0,0106 | 0,5897 | −0,0222 | 0,2059 | 0,0606 | 10,000 | |||||||||||||||||||||
Ga | 0,1201 | 0,1445 | 0,3487 | −0,0953 | 0,1985 | 0,0926 | 0,1297 | 10,000 | ||||||||||||||||||||
Hf | 0,1611 | 0,0188 | −0,0435 | 0,6219 | 0,0443 | 0,4811 | −0,0134 | 0,1140 | 10,000 | |||||||||||||||||||
Mo | 0,1508 | 0,4587 | 0,1155 | 0,4859 | 0,1453 | 0,3451 | 0,2328 | −0,0075 | 0,4829 | 10,000 | ||||||||||||||||||
Nb | 0,4435 | 0,6413 | 0,1369 | 0,4409 | 0,0939 | 0,4380 | 0,0356 | 0,3268 | 0,3157 | 0,4147 | 10,000 | |||||||||||||||||
Nd | 0,1358 | 0,5690 | −0,0068 | 0,3967 | −0,0168 | 0,3239 | −0,0245 | −0,0169 | 0,7506 | 0,3212 | 0,5731 | 10,000 | ||||||||||||||||
Ni | 0,1609 | −0,0154 | 0,0303 | −0,0828 | 0,7213 | 0,5889 | 0,1484 | 0,2066 | 0,0004 | 0,0565 | 0,0926 | −0,0727 | 10,000 | |||||||||||||||
Pb | 0,2079 | 0,0909 | 0,5272 | 0,1199 | 0,0348 | 0,0140 | 0,3975 | 0,3629 | 0,1723 | 0,1611 | 0,3920 | 0,1846 | 0,0470 | 10,000 | ||||||||||||||
Rb | 0,0999 | 0,0098 | 0,4749 | 0,0740 | −0,1606 | −0,2758 | 0,0678 | 0,5134 | 0,0385 | −0,0054 | 0,2702 | 0,0929 | −0,0889 | 0,4933 | 10,000 | |||||||||||||
S | −0,0072 | −0,0354 | 0,2343 | 0,0001 | −0,0166 | −0,0475 | 0,1906 | −0,0291 | −0,0377 | 0,0375 | −0,0501 | −0,0048 | −0,0014 | 0,0529 | −0,0482 | 10,000 | ||||||||||||
Sb | −0,0034 | 0,0161 | 0,0213 | 0,0036 | −0,0242 | −0,0089 | 0,0064 | 0,0041 | −0,0144 | −0,0094 | −0,0080 | 0,0031 | −0,0122 | −0,0098 | 0,0575 | −0,0063 | 10,000 | |||||||||||
Sc | 0,2047 | −0,0250 | 0,0318 | −0,1328 | 0,4429 | 0,2516 | 0,0639 | 0,2282 | −0,0301 | 0,0183 | 0,1180 | −0,1172 | 0,2640 | 0,0207 | 0,0119 | −0,0715 | 0,0271 | 10,000 | ||||||||||
Sn | 0,0304 | 0,0776 | 0,0155 | 0,0503 | 0,0261 | 0,0482 | 0,0054 | 0,0062 | 0,0402 | 0,0568 | 0,0500 | 0,0601 | 0,0250 | 0,5404 | 0,0168 | −0,0106 | 0,0187 | −0,0079 | 10,000 | |||||||||
Sr | 0,0695 | −0,0067 | 0,1634 | 0,0728 | 0,1555 | 0,1554 | 0,0720 | 0,1295 | −0,0078 | 0,0549 | 0,0924 | 0,0699 | 0,0793 | 0,0682 | −0,0083 | 0,2750 | 0,0156 | 0,0796 | −0,0029 | 10,000 | ||||||||
Ta | 0,1460 | 0,6796 | −0,0043 | 0,3454 | 0,0778 | 0,3385 | 0,0015 | 0,2528 | 0,6254 | 0,3035 | 0,5409 | 0,4318 | 0,0610 | 0,1471 | 0,0602 | −0,0345 | −0,0151 | −0,0390 | 0,0562 | 0,0001 | 10,000 | |||||||
Th | 0,2442 | 0,6040 | 0,1355 | 0,4527 | 0,0881 | 0,3830 | 0,0042 | 0,3247 | 0,7713 | 0,3685 | 0,3119 | 0,5952 | 0,0532 | 0,3880 | 0,3286 | −0,0708 | −0,0072 | 0,0508 | 0,0870 | 0,0994 | 0,5251 | 10,000 | ||||||
U | 0,4857 | 0,6433 | 0,0206 | 0,4750 | 0,1511 | 0,4374 | 0,0340 | 0,0623 | 0,7311 | 0,4912 | 0,7532 | 0,5298 | 0,0777 | 0,2401 | 0,1082 | −0,0399 | −0,0052 | 0,1456 | 0,0738 | 0,0748 | 0,4471 | 0,7055 | 10,000 | |||||
V | 0,2149 | 0,4729 | 0,1704 | 0,3644 | 0,4582 | 0,6379 | 0,1149 | 0,4151 | 0,6194 | 0,2823 | 0,6647 | 0,5072 | 0,3049 | 0,2850 | 0,1388 | −0,0441 | 0,0091 | 0,2151 | 0,0459 | 0,2889 | 0,4409 | 0,7084 | 0,5656 | 10,000 | ||||
W | 0,1762 | 0,7146 | −0,0475 | 0,4144 | 0,0653 | 0,3628 | 0,0655 | 0,2838 | 0,6472 | 0,3569 | 0,5250 | 0,4742 | 0,1001 | 0,1219 | −0,0574 | 0,0089 | −0,0233 | −0,1385 | 0,0592 | −0,0880 | 0,6536 | 0,4426 | 0,3475 | 0,3731 | 10,000 | |||
Y | 0,0760 | 0,6310 | 0,1944 | 0,4462 | 0,0596 | 0,2291 | 0,0368 | 0,1847 | 0,6366 | 0,3524 | 0,6057 | 0,4921 | −0,0679 | 0,2747 | 0,3773 | −0,0808 | 0,0349 | 0,1034 | 0,0384 | 0,1085 | 0,3644 | 0,6741 | 0,6577 | 0,5464 | 0,0729 | 10,000 | ||
Zn | 0,0507 | −0,0406 | 0,6355 | −0,0231 | 0,1166 | 0,0117 | −0,9213 | 0,1624 | −0,0329 | 0,2150 | 0,0267 | −0,0194 | 0,0852 | 0,4360 | 0,1348 | 0,1933 | 0,0016 | 0,0126 | −0,0011 | 0,0920 | −0,0125 | 0,0093 | 0,0037 | 0,1061 | 0,0443 | 0,0403 | 10,000 | |
Zr | 0,1553 | 0,3292 | −0,0691 | 0,6256 | 0,0378 | 0,4734 | −0,0244 | 0,0292 | 09565 | 0,5239 | 0,7904 | 0,7295 | −0,0231 | 0,1445 | 0,0038 | −0,0438 | −0,0143 | −0,0294 | 0,0488 | −0,0256 | 0,6015 | 0,7495 | 0,7594 | 0,5776 | 0,5925 | 0,6669 | −0,0501 | 10,000 |
Very Strong Correlation | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Moderate to strong correlation | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Moderate Correlation |
The summary statistics of all the analysed elements.
The elemental distribution maps are plotted using the Jenks natural classification system. The elemental population is classified into five break points;
The first break is minimum to mean value, and
Second break is from mean to (mean plus standard deviation) value, the first two break are regarded as a background value, values above the threshold calculates Table 3 are anomalous,
From the threshold to mean + 3*standard deviation value is highly anomalous and
The fifth break is the value from mean + 3*standard deviation value to maximum value.
Element | Count | Minimum | Maximum | Mean | Standard Deviation | Skewness | &$$$; | Quantile1 | Median | Quantile3 | Threshold values | Mean + 3*SD | Coefficient Variation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SiO2 (%) | 9312 | 18.993 | 80.991 | 47.074 | 4.408 | −0.535 | 6.054 | 44.797 | 47.382 | 49.804 | 55.891 | 60.299 | 0.093651 |
TiO2 (%) | 9312 | 0.238 | 7.230 | 1.161 | 0.342 | 3.891 | 32.579 | 0.988 | 1.095 | 1.224 | 1.845 | 2.188 | 0.294575 |
Al2O3 (%) | 9312 | 2.592 | 19.816 | 9.756 | 1.748 | −0.076 | 3.303 | 8.562 | 9.753 | 10.980 | 13.251 | 14.999 | 0.179152 |
Fe2O3 (%) | 9312 | 2.766 | 26.504 | 7.607 | 1.659 | 1.579 | 9.573 | 6.685 | 7.328 | 8.271 | 10.925 | 12.584 | 0.218062 |
MnO (%) | 9312 | 0.036 | 2.281 | 0.133 | 0.082 | 6.192 | 87.683 | 0.094 | 0.114 | 0.141 | 0.297 | 0.379 | 0.617984 |
MgO (%) | 9312 | 0.000 | 7.909 | 1.315 | 0.761 | 2.045 | 10.105 | 0.830 | 1.092 | 1.593 | 2.838 | 3.599 | 0.578966 |
CaO (%) | 9312 | 0.189 | 31.877 | 1.737 | 1.737 | 5.547 | 51.711 | 1.012 | 1.240 | 1.705 | 5.211 | 6.948 | 0.999938 |
Na2O (%) | 9312 | 0.000 | 6.769 | 0.566 | 0.168 | 6.231 | 206.536 | 0.471 | 0.555 | 0.637 | 0.902 | 1.070 | 0.29633 |
K2O (%) | 9312 | 0.535 | 3.266 | 2.067 | 0.311 | −0.249 | 3.443 | 1.890 | 2.059 | 2.282 | 2.688 | 2.999 | 0.150348 |
P2O5 (%) | 9312 | 0.029 | 1.052 | 0.139 | 0.051 | 3.117 | 35.630 | 0.107 | 0.135 | 0.162 | 0.240 | 0.290 | 0.364042 |
As (ppm) | 9312 | 4.000 | 120.910 | 15.802 | 13.874 | 2.235 | 9.991 | 6.145 | 11.450 | 20.240 | 43.551 | 57.425 | 0.878017 |
Ag (ppm) | 9312 | 4.000 | 25.270 | 5.392 | 2.452 | 3.519 | 19.435 | 4.000 | 4.240 | 6.050 | 10.296 | 12.748 | 0.454685 |
Ba (ppm) | 9312 | 91.180 | 4187.720 | 410.752 | 76.653 | 24.597 | 1080.028 | 382.565 | 409.805 | 439.865 | 564.058 | 640.711 | 0.186616 |
Ce (ppm) | 9312 | 10.000 | 864.010 | 78.027 | 55.741 | 4.665 | 36.596 | 53.200 | 64.390 | 79.425 | 189.510 | 245.251 | 0.714379 |
Co (ppm) | 9312 | 4.000 | 56.420 | 14.733 | 4.017 | 1.149 | 6.949 | 12.050 | 14.140 | 16.790 | 22.766 | 26.783 | 0.272629 |
Cx (ppm) | 9312 | 49.790 | 1052.880 | 141.762 | 40.500 | 4.198 | 49.516 | 119.470 | 131.680 | 151.535 | 222. 762 | 263.262 | 0.285688 |
Cn (ppm) | 9312 | 7.370 | 2357.040 | 34.465 | 31.879 | 53.683 | 3534.044 | 28.510 | 32.780 | 37.740 | 98.223 | 130.102 | 0.924974 |
Ga (ppm) | 9312 | 6.250 | 46.420 | 19.769 | 4.425 | 0.143 | 2.650 | 16.040 | 19.890 | 23.160 | 28.618 | 33.043 | 0.223816 |
Hf (ppm) | 9312 | 5.000 | 245.440 | 23.292 | 14.397 | 3.954 | 30.123 | 15.850 | 19.820 | 25.720 | 52.085 | 66.482 | 0.618101 |
Mo (ppm) | 9312 | 2.000 | 13.550 | 2.143 | 0.568 | 7.505 | 84.540 | 2.000 | 2.000 | 2.000 | 3.279 | 3.846 | 0.264826 |
Nb (ppm) | 9312 | 3.000 | 112.200 | 25.264 | 8.482 | 2.075 | 13.720 | 20.650 | 24.060 | 28.115 | 42.229 | 50.711 | 0.335735 |
Nd (ppm) | 9312 | 3.000 | 459.830 | 40.511 | 27.490 | 4.003 | 31.632 | 26.270 | 34.815 | 44.850 | 95.490 | 122.980 | 0.678578 |
Ni (ppm) | 9312 | 11.360 | 460.500 | 39.559 | 12.345 | 7.908 | 192.598 | 33.180 | 37.620 | 43.905 | 64.250 | 76.595 | 0.31207 |
Pb (ppm) | 9312 | 2.000 | 167.110 | 18.776 | 5.030 | 7.963 | 192.132 | 16.420 | 18.745 | 20.950 | 28.836 | 33.866 | 0.267912 |
Kb (ppm) | 9312 | 21.170 | 142.690 | 86.942 | 13.467 | −0.688 | 4.017 | 80.355 | 88.400 | 95.525 | 133.876 | 127.343 | 0.154898 |
Sb (ppm) | 9312 | 3.000 | 4.300 | 3.001 | 0.026 | 36.635 | 1554.275 | 3.000 | 3.000 | 3.000 | 3.052 | 3.077 | 0.008499 |
S (ppm) | 9312 | 54.920 | 32965.370 | 233.027 | 471.570 | 49.696 | 3037.767 | 146.985 | 195.115 | 257.120 | 1176.166 | 1647.735 | 2.023673 |
Sa (ppm) | 9312 | 3.000 | 230.040 | 3.611 | 3.976 | 31.589 | 1458.505 | 3.000 | 3.000 | 3.000 | 11.562 | 15.538 | 1.100919 |
Se (ppm) | 9312 | 3.000 | 50.180 | 18.183 | 5.077 | 0.135 | 3.687 | 14.930 | 17.930 | 21.355 | 28.337 | 33.413 | 0.279187 |
Sr (ppm) | 9312 | 18.170 | 975.050 | 113.523 | 28.744 | 8.948 | 201.199 | 100.590 | 133.045 | 123.810 | 171.010 | 199.754 | 0.253195 |
Ta (ppm) | 9312 | 3.000 | 61.570 | 7.556 | 6.478 | 2.620 | 12.424 | 3.000 | 5.285 | 9.130 | 20.513 | 26.992 | 0.857349 |
Th (ppm) | 9312 | 3.000 | 132.240 | 13.868 | 6.750 | 4.161 | 40.510 | 10.270 | 12.970 | 15.890 | 27.367 | 34.116 | 0.486706 |
U (ppm) | 9312 | 3.000 | 25.760 | 4.041 | 1.842 | 3.467 | 22.295 | 3.000 | 3.075 | 4.450 | 7.726 | 9.568 | 0.455809 |
V (ppm) | 9312 | 16.180 | 836.190 | 126.384 | 33.836 | 3.657 | 41.490 | 108.250 | 123.520 | 137.885 | 194.057 | 227.893 | 0.267726 |
W (ppm) | 9312 | 3.000 | 51.750 | 6.318 | 5.147 | 2.546 | 12.203 | 3.000 | 3.980 | 7.850 | 16.612 | 21.759 | 0.814664 |
Y (ppm) | 9312 | 3.960 | 112.390 | 27.021 | 7.211 | 2.420 | 18.762 | 23.030 | 26.635 | 29.860 | 41.443 | 48.654 | 0.266869 |
Zn (ppm) | 9312 | 11.990 | 5347.830 | 66.145 | 68.394 | 58.378 | 4155.871 | 53.120 | 62.850 | 74.285 | 202.933 | 271.327 | 1.034011 |
Zx (ppm) | 9312 | 111.870 | 9242.850 | 1023.432 | 671.759 | 3.605 | 24.477 | 669.530 | 855.425 | 1144.235 | 2366.950 | 3038.709 | 0.656379 |
Correlation Matrix.
The primary aim of the exploration target generation is twofold; to generate new areas for exploration activity where favourable geology and no mineral occurrences are coincident, and secondly a rethink in areas of known mineralisation on the possibilities of other styles or models of mineralisation. The geology of Prieska area and the geochemistry was joined using the Analysis tool spatial joint; the aim is to calculate the mean values of Uni-element of the lithostratigraphic unit. Table 4 below refers to the lithostratigraphic unit with their associated elements. Based on [22] the five Fuzzy operators are useful for combining exploration datasets, Fuzzy AND, OR, Algebraic product, algebraic sum and γ-operator. In this study Fuzzy OR operation was applied to combine maps of relevant indicator elements associated with the geology (Table 4).
Geology (Ilthostratigraphy) | Elements |
---|---|
Zeekobraat | W, Fe |
Spioenkop | Cu, Ga, Rb, Zn |
Uitdraai | V |
Waterkop | Ba |
Ongeluk lava Formation | Co, Ni |
Prieskaspoort | Cr, S, Sr., Mg |
Koegas Group | Nd, Pb, Th |
Jacomyns Pan | Ag |
Kalahari Group | Sn |
Builsand | Hf, Mo, Nb, Sc, Ta, U |
Boegoeberg Dam | Zr, As |
Asbestos Hill | Ce |
Relevant indicator elements associated with the geology.
The elements of the highest mean averages associated with the Spioenkop Formation is the Cu, Ga, Zn and Rb (Figure 4). Cu and Zn correlates very strong at the correlation coefficient of 0.97. The distribution of the two elements strongly correlated with the known VMS Copperton deposit. Figures 5–7 displays a Fuzzy OR overlap multi-element map of Cu, Ga, Zn and Rb. The map index poorly delineate Spioenkop Formation, the second dispersion occur in Uitdraai Formation, Jacomyns pan Formation, Globershoop, and Spioenkop Formation. The observed mineralisation potential areas are M1 and M2. The M1 anomaly is associated with the known mine area named Copperton Deposit, Prieska mine, the M1 anomaly is overlaying the Kalahari and Dwyka Group The Prieska Cu_Zn is known as the VMS deposit, the most common commodities or minerals exploited in this area are the Zinc, Copper and Sphalerite. The Mine known as a medium scale abandoned mine. The M2 anomaly is in close vicinity to the Orange River catchment, the anomaly is overlaying the Campbellrand subgroup. Campbell Rand Subgroup belongs to the Ghaap Group. The base mineralisation have been recorded in Ghaap Group is Pering deposit far northeast about 150 km from the study area. The Host rocks to Zn–Pb mineralisation on the Ghaap Plateau are stromatolitic dolomites, with minor oolitic dolomites, chert and carbonaceous shale beds of the Campbell Rand Subgroup (Gutzmer, 2006). The occurrence of the M2 potential mineralisation zones requires follow-up studies.
Fuzzy OR overlay multi-element map index of Cu, Ga, Zn, and Rb.
There is a very strong correlation between the Co and Ni, and moderate to strong correlation between Co and Cr indicator elements. The correlations of Co-Ni-Cr are the indicator of mafic- ultramafic geological index. The strong correlation between Co and Ni can also indicate the base metal mineraization. The Ni-Co covers the sulphides and oxides of interest (Co-Ni-Cr) in ultramafic rocks. Co-Ni is a pathfinder of Ni-Cu.
The anomaly M3 – M7 (Figure 8) are Co-Ni high values. The M3 potential mineralisation area to the west of Prieska town covers the Dwyka Group, this mineralisation is at the very close vicinity to the Orange River catchment (primary stream) dominant mostly to the south of the catchment. The Co-Ni anomaly (M3) to the north of the Catchment is similar to the Cu-Ga-Zn-Rb anomaly M2, these anomalies cover the Campbellrand Subgroup at the same area, and therefore this outline the new potential of base metal mineralisation The M4 anomaly overlay the Dwyka Group, Asbestos Hills and the Skalkseput Granite. The M4 anomaly trends to the north-west following the Skalkseput Granite lithology, at the M7 the Co-Ni anomaly covers the Skalkseput Granite and is associated with the known occurring Uranium commodity.
The Fuzzy OR overlay map for Cu_Zn index.
The M5 Co-Ni anomaly is in close vicinity with the known small Copper occurrence. The anomaly is evident in and around the Orange River Catchment. This will require follow up study to confirm the parent source of the anomaly, because of its close vicinity with the known Cu occurrence the Co-Ni correlation may possibly indicate the Base (Cu_Zn) mineralisation. Unlike the M7 anomaly associated with Spioenkop Formation and Ongeluk lava Formation. The M6 anomaly overlay the Ongeluk Lava Formation, and Asbestos Hill.
The elements of the highest mean averages associated with the Brulsand are the Hf, Mo, Nb, Sc, Ta, and U. The Hf, Sc, Mo, Nb, and Ta are transition elements and most of are typically treated as being immobile during metamorphic processes and therefore can be useful in understanding the effects of metamorphism. U strongly correlates with Hf, Ta and Nb, and moderately correlates with Mo. The M8 potential mineralisation (Figure 9) consist of isolated cluster of potential mineralisation zones overlying the Asbestos Hills Subgroup, Koegas Group, Kalahari group, Olifantshoek Supergroup. M9 is associated with known metals occurrences; Cu and U, the isolated cluster of anomalies towards the know Prieska Copperton mine. The M9 potential mineralisation zones on the west of Orange River catchment overlies the Draghoender granite/gneiss, Skalkseput granite, Uitdraai Formation and Zeekoebaart Formation. Granitic rocks rich in pyrochlore, euxenite, brannerite, thorite yield soils rich in Nb, Ta, Ti, rare earths, Sc and Zr, are enriched in dark heavy minerals. The radioactive species originally contained in the parent rocks form a major fraction [23]. The Sc, U, Nb, and Ta are indicators of uranium-bearing minerals in granitic, syenitic, magmatitic, pegmatitic and aplitic bodies and complexes. Strauss and Elsenbroek (2006) found in a study on South African alkali and carbonatite complexes that Nb is by far the strongest and most common indicator for these complexes in soils followed by Zr.
The Fuzzy OR overlay map for Ni, Co and Cr index.
The following geochemical indices are potential target generators for the Prieska area based on the predominant geology in the area coupled with the single element distribution patterns. The Cu_Zn for VMS Zn_Cu deposit, Ni_Co_Cr ultramafic Ni_Cr (±Cu) deposit and Zr_Nb_U_Th_Hf_Ta for the heavy mineral placer deposits. First, new raster files for each index element is created by using of the inverse distance weighted interpolation (IDW). Then the indices were calculated using the fuzzy overlay OR function from ARCGIS, the advantage of using fuzzy OR overlay is generally provides a better result in cases where the indicator elements are not always associated and is better suited for the secondary dispersion where associated elements in the primary environment are likely to be separated.
The anomaly (Figure 5) delineates the known Copperton mine in Prieska area, the Copperton ore body occurs in a series of quartz-feldspar rocks quartz-biotite gneisses and quartz- plagioclase–amphibole gneisses as Copperton Volcanic Pile.
The Fuzzy OR overlay of Zr_Nb_U_Th_Hf_Ta.
The anomaly M12 associated with Koegas Group, Ongeluk lava Formation and Asbestos Hill Subgroup (Figure 6) is a preferred potential target for ultramafic Ni_ Cr (±Cu) deposit. The anomaly overlies the banded Iron Formation of the Asbestos Hill Subgroup; the Asbestos Hill Subgroup is Fe-rich. The anomaly M14 is associated with the known Cu occurrence straddles the Campbell Rand Subgroup, and Zeekoebaart Formation is the secondary target. Anomaly M13 is also identified as the secondary potential target for ultramafic Ni_Cr (±Cu) associated with Dwyka Group.
The Fuzzy OR overlay multi-element map index of Co and Ni.
Zr_Nb_U_Th_Hf_Ta are high field strength elements associated with the carbonatites deposits and alkaline magmatic complexes, however the carbonatites deposits are unknown to occur around the Prieska geology area. The high field strength elements are primary indicators of the REE deposit. These elements are associated as incompatible ions, within alkaline igneous melts, which by their emplacement is controlled by the failed rift zone or deep-seated suture.
The anomalies of the Zr_Nb_U_Th_Hf_Ta (Figure 7) may be due to thorium in waste rock or sediment; dust from mining activities in the surrounding, and possible water contamination from spillage or leakage of chemical solutions used to leach and process ore. Asbestiform amphiboles that are present in waste dumps. The correlation of the Cu-Pb-Zn anomaly with alkali elements (Nb, Zr, Th, and U) and REEs suggests there is a possibility that the M26 –M29 anomaly are alkali-granitic genetic origin. The anomaly could therefore indicate the presence of Cu, Pb, Zn and As sulphides associated with alkali elements and REEs, which makes it a very promising target however the map (Figure 7) display a batch effect specifically anomaly M26 and 27, and therefore it is not suitable for interpretation.
The Fuzzy OR overlay of Mo, Nb, Sc, Ta, and U.
Prieska study area generally forms part of the Namaqua Metamorphic Province and the Griqualand-West Basin. The Kalahari Aeolian sand covers the geology on the area around Prieska Cu-Zn mine. The host sequence in the Copperton district is, from the base: Smouspan Gneiss Member, Prieska Copper Mines Member, and Vogelstruisbult Member. The aeolian sand extensively covers the research area. The secondary dispersion patterns of the elements in the stream sediments may also destroy the primary association of elements. To overcome this difficulty, a Fuzzy OR overlay of indicator applied. Fuzzy OR generally provides a better result in cases where the indicator elements are not always associated and is better suited for the secondary dispersion where associated elements in the primary environment are likely to be separated.
The descriptive statistics (Table 3) results shows that the Ag, Co, Ga, Mo, Nb, Pb, Sb, Sn, Sc, Ta, Th, U, and W concentrations exhibited generally low standard deviation and coefficient of variation values, suggesting a homogenous spatial distribution. In contrast As, Ba, Ce, Cr, Cu, Hf, Nd, Ni, Rb, Sr., S, V, Zr and Zn contents showed a heterogeneous spatial distribution, reflected by high coefficient of variation and large standard deviation. The difference between the median and mean values of high coefficient of variation of the As, Ba, Ce, Cr, Cu, Hf, Nd, Ni, Rb, Sr., S, V, Zr and Zn may be attributed to the extremely high values of these trace elements.
The Fuzzy OR maps give a summary of the potential targets for mineralisation within the study area. Anomaly M1 and M2 associated with Spioenkop Formation though the anomaly does not delineate the Spioenkop Formation but Dwyka Group Sediments, Kalahari Group and Campbell Rand Subgroup. These anomaly signatures are characterised by the one or more of these elements Cu, Ga, Zn, Rb, Pb, Mo, and Ba. Barium is a powerful indicator tool of gossan and be used as an indicator for Zn–Pb deposit. The dataset shows a significant relationship between the Ba and Zn. The relationship between these elements therefore delineate M1 and M2 as potential target for VMS deposit.
The anomaly M2 in close vicinity to the Orange River Catchment, a follow-up study is therefore recommended. The Cu and Zn are generally interpreted as pollution related or may be as a result of metal dispersion from the mine waste. The Zn and Cu high concentrations are not distributed across the Prieska area, the Fuzzy OR overlay of these elements are only elevated in the known Copperton mine area and on the M2 potential VMS mineralisation target area. The anomaly M2 associated with Campbell Rand Subgroup may be as a result of metal dispersion or sourced from the parent underlying rocks.
The Pb and S are also elevated on the known Copperton mine, these elements strongly correlates with the Zn. The Pb and S are likely to be associated with the generic anthropogenic source including sewage discharge, agricultural practises and various kinds of industrial activities. M11 is definitely a VMS mineralisation target, the anomaly overlies the Copperton mine. The high Cu, Zn and Pb are derived from the ore minerals related VMS deposits. The Fe elevated concentration are derived from both primary minerals which are not directly related to the VMS or Co_Ni (±Cu) (illustrated in Figures 4 and 8) mineralisation within the study area or from ore related minerals of deposits hosted in Banded Iron formation of the Asbestos Hills Subgroup.
The Cr, Ni reflect ultramafic fraction of the stream sediments. The Ni and Cr originate from direct ophiolitic sequences erosion and the recycling of the rocks enriched in ultramafic debris. The M13 and M14 anomaly are traced along the Orange river Catchment, on the Ghaap group which occurs NW to SE of the study area and north of the Orange River Catchment. Ghaap Group consists of shale, sandstone, andesite, and dolomite, and comprised of the magnesium, carbonate-rich Formation such as Vryburg Formation. M13 and M24 potential mineralisation are possibly sourced from ultramafic debris transported from the Ghaap Group by the Orange River Catchment, however this potential target will require follow-up studies for verification. There is a very high Cu-Zn correlation coefficient calculated for samples near the Copperton deposit.
Indicator elements in stream sediments sample represents either mineralisation or post- mineralisation processes. The processes that affect the indicator elements distribution patterns, these process includes weathering, erosion of ore bodies and adjacent mineralised rock, contamination of pollutants, regolith, topographic gradient vegetation density and/or climate. In this study integration of mineral exploration methods such as remote sensing, geophysics and petrography are recommended, this follow-up studies will assist in determining the extent of the anomaly.
The airborne geophysics studies must be conducted over the research area. Low level airborne electromagnetic (EM) surveys over the target area (M1-M29) especially the M2 and M3 which delineate the possibility of the base metal mineralisation is recommended. The high density stream sediments sampling on the grid and a depth of at least 50 meters to minimise the effect of Aeolian sand cover must be conducted. Petrography is another important tool, to understand the mineralogy of the study area underlying rocks. The detailed analysis of minerals by optical microscopy in thin section and micro-texture and structure is recommended in order to understand the origin and history of the rock.
Remote sensing will also be advantageous in conducting geological traverses of the study area in which anomalies of one or more of the above mentioned elements occur to establish the significance of the anomalies. Remote sensing imagery will also provide information on rock composition or rock alteration which is associated with the indicative of the presence of mineral deposits. Ore deposits are localised along regional and local fracture patterns, the Landsat and radar images are used to map these fracture pattern. Using multiple tools of exploration such as geology, structures, geochemistry, and drainage pattern are recommended for use in ArcGIS as thematic layers to generate the potential mineralisation targets.
IntechOpen publishes different types of publications
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Africa",slug:"reappraising-urban-planning-and-urban-sustainability-in-east-africa",totalDownloads:5291,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"905",slug:"urban-development",title:"Urban Development",fullTitle:"Urban Development"},signatures:"Shuaib Lwasa and Cecilia Kinuthia-Njenga",authors:[{id:"103098",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuaib",middleName:null,surname:"Lwasa",slug:"shuaib-lwasa",fullName:"Shuaib Lwasa"},{id:"115349",title:"MSc.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Kinuthia-Njenga",slug:"cecilia-kinuthia-njenga",fullName:"Cecilia Kinuthia-Njenga"}]},{id:"34611",doi:"10.5772/38884",title:"The Evolution and Spatial Dynamics of Coastal Cities in Greece",slug:"the-evolution-and-spatial-dynamics-of-coastal-cities-in-greece",totalDownloads:1928,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"905",slug:"urban-development",title:"Urban Development",fullTitle:"Urban Development"},signatures:"Serafeim Polyzos and Dimitrios Tsiotas",authors:[{id:"106057",title:"Dr.",name:"Serafeim",middleName:null,surname:"Polyzos",slug:"serafeim-polyzos",fullName:"Serafeim Polyzos"}]},{id:"68541",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88449",title:"Environmental Noise Mapping as a Smart Urban Tool Development",slug:"environmental-noise-mapping-as-a-smart-urban-tool-development",totalDownloads:995,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Since the European Directive 2002/49, large transportation infrastructure along with large urban areas should have completed strategic noise maps (SNM) and the relative noise action plans (NAP). The majority of European Member States (MS) has enforced this directive and completed fully or, in some cases, partially, with European smart cities to use and share the same criteria and methodologies and along with transport operators to communicate to the public the relevant results and respective action plans by ensuring the citizen’s awareness about the environmental noise, the quality acoustic environment, and their effect to their professional and everyday lifestyle. Today, 18 years after its first edition, the European Directive 2002/49/EC is needed to be reformulated to take into account all defects that have been identified and to adapt as well as possible to contemporary constraints. New methodology tools have been developed especially regarding soundscaping and environmental acoustic rehabilitation of urban areas, and the respective chapter will describe the progress being made on these smart developments of cities and infrastructures. This chapter will also evoke criticisms of these smart tools and will present results from several—state of the art—case studies especially regarding the practical and theoretical limits they face.",book:{id:"7624",slug:"smart-urban-development",title:"Smart Urban Development",fullTitle:"Smart Urban Development"},signatures:"Konstantinos Vogiatzis and Nicolas Remy",authors:null},{id:"63405",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80810",title:"Restructuring Gauteng City Region in South Africa: Is a Transportation Solution the Answer?",slug:"restructuring-gauteng-city-region-in-south-africa-is-a-transportation-solution-the-answer-",totalDownloads:1850,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The Gauteng city region forms the economic hub of socio-economic development and growth in South Africa. The province itself includes the Johannesburg metropolitan city, Ekurhuleni metropolitan city as well as Tshwane municipality—key urban growth regions of Gauteng province, South Africa, and by extension Southern Africa. The region exhibits the rapid urbanisation challenges typical in any developing country city. Rural–urban migration, pressure on infrastructure demand, supply and capacity constraints and mismatches in urban governance structures with respect to service delivery have remained stubborn challenges. Initiatives and strategies to resolve urban traffic congestion such as through road construction and highway expansion (physical instrument), e-tolling of roads (financial instrument), innovative housing and waste management technology deployment (technology instruments) as well as presenting advanced spatial planning and development and management systems (planning and regulatory instruments) have been employed with mixed fortunes in attempts to (re)solve the urban problems in the study area. Making use of a thematic approach and technique, the major urbanisation issues are explored and solutions proffered. Recommendations revolve around the need to implement robust and progressive rafts of projects, programmes, activities, measures and actions to reverse spatial fragmentation and spatially inefficient transport induced and perpetuated disadvantages.",book:{id:"7470",slug:"an-overview-of-urban-and-regional-planning",title:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning",fullTitle:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning"},signatures:"James Chakwizira, Peter Bikam and Thompson A. 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A smart city is one of the burning topics of research. Although there is no particular definition of a smart city, it means smart grid, e-health, e-environmental monitoring, smart home, smart water quality, smart air quality, etc. integrated into a single application. Human civilization can’t be sustained and prosper with shortage of usable water. Hence, water has a vital share in human life even for those living in smart cities. This chapter describes about the smart water quality issues in a smart city and some of the research advances in handling those issues. Among them it investigates the rainwater harvesting technologies and some of their practical applications.",book:{id:"7624",slug:"smart-urban-development",title:"Smart Urban Development",fullTitle:"Smart Urban Development"},signatures:"Raseswari Pradhan and Jayaprakash Sahoo",authors:null},{id:"62066",title:"Urban Planning and Mega-Event Projects: Lessons from Expo 2010, Shanghai",slug:"urban-planning-and-mega-event-projects-lessons-from-expo-2010-shanghai",totalDownloads:1327,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"With the capitalist transformation from Fordist-Keynesianism to neoliberalism, mega-events such as Olympic Games and World Exposition have increasingly been incorporated into urban development plan to boost urban renewal. Seeking the role of mega-event in urban transformation and its related effects have practical significance as mega-event movements have become a worldwide phenomenon. Although the profile of world fairs is reduced and does not have the international impacts that they used to have, Shanghai Expo 2010, the first Expo ever held in a developing country is pinned hope on as the “Turn to Save the World Expo” and is unusually ambitious to bring opportunities in urban transformation. While much attention has been paid to how mega-events can be used in tourism development in previous literature, this research links mega-event to urban development. Specifically, it reviews planning history before Expo 2010, addresses how a mega-event is integrated into city’s overall transformation strategy and what possible challenges a mega-event strategy may encounter related to the ultimate goal of urban transformation. It finds that political added value of mega-events empowers Shanghai to advance its urban agenda and the role of urban planner is vital to deliver a sustainable mega-event.",book:{id:"7470",slug:"an-overview-of-urban-and-regional-planning",title:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning",fullTitle:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning"},signatures:"Lingyue Li",authors:[{id:"247599",title:"Dr.",name:"Xx",middleName:null,surname:"Xx",slug:"xx-xx",fullName:"Xx Xx"}]},{id:"67808",title:"Understanding Urban Mobility and Pedestrian Movement",slug:"understanding-urban-mobility-and-pedestrian-movement",totalDownloads:1358,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Urban environments continue to expand and mutate, both in terms of size of urban area and number of people commuting daily as well as the number of options for personal mobility. City layouts and infrastructure also change constantly, subject to both short-term and long-term imperatives. Transportation networks have attracted particular attention in recent years, due to efforts to incorporate “green” options, enabling positive lifestyle choices such as walking or cycling commutes. In this chapter we explore the pedestrian viewpoint, aids to familiarity with and ease of navigation in the urban environment, and the impact of novel modes of individual transport (as options such as smart urban bicycles and electric scooters increasingly become the norm). We discuss principal factors influencing rapid transit to daily and leisure destinations, such as schools, offices, parks, and entertainment venues, but also those which facilitate rapid evacuation and movement of large crowds from these locations, characterized by high occupation density or throughput. The focus of the chapter is on understanding and representing pedestrian behavior through the agent-based modeling paradigm, allowing both large numbers of individual actions with active awareness of the environment to be simulated and pedestrian group movements to be modeled on real urban networks, together with congestion and evacuation pattern visualization.",book:{id:"7624",slug:"smart-urban-development",title:"Smart Urban Development",fullTitle:"Smart Urban Development"},signatures:"Marija Bezbradica and Heather J. Ruskin",authors:null},{id:"63405",title:"Restructuring Gauteng City Region in South Africa: Is a Transportation Solution the Answer?",slug:"restructuring-gauteng-city-region-in-south-africa-is-a-transportation-solution-the-answer-",totalDownloads:1855,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The Gauteng city region forms the economic hub of socio-economic development and growth in South Africa. The province itself includes the Johannesburg metropolitan city, Ekurhuleni metropolitan city as well as Tshwane municipality—key urban growth regions of Gauteng province, South Africa, and by extension Southern Africa. The region exhibits the rapid urbanisation challenges typical in any developing country city. Rural–urban migration, pressure on infrastructure demand, supply and capacity constraints and mismatches in urban governance structures with respect to service delivery have remained stubborn challenges. Initiatives and strategies to resolve urban traffic congestion such as through road construction and highway expansion (physical instrument), e-tolling of roads (financial instrument), innovative housing and waste management technology deployment (technology instruments) as well as presenting advanced spatial planning and development and management systems (planning and regulatory instruments) have been employed with mixed fortunes in attempts to (re)solve the urban problems in the study area. Making use of a thematic approach and technique, the major urbanisation issues are explored and solutions proffered. Recommendations revolve around the need to implement robust and progressive rafts of projects, programmes, activities, measures and actions to reverse spatial fragmentation and spatially inefficient transport induced and perpetuated disadvantages.",book:{id:"7470",slug:"an-overview-of-urban-and-regional-planning",title:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning",fullTitle:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning"},signatures:"James Chakwizira, Peter Bikam and Thompson A. 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To this end, a random sample of individuals from both areas was asked to fill out a questionnaire. Sound pressure levels were also measured in each of the evaluated areas. The World Health Organization (WHO) considers a quiet area as one in which the measured sound pressure level is up to 55 dB(A). The average measured sound pressure levels were 53.5 and 72.9 dB(A), respectively, in the quiet area and in the area considered acoustically polluted. Data were subjected to a multivariate factor analysis. The main complaints reported by the interviewees were as follows: headache, irritability, poor concentration and insomnia. 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He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. 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At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"onlineFirst.detail",path:"/online-first/81610",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"81610"},fullPath:"/online-first/81610",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()