\r\n\tThe fifth topic is “complications and drug side effects in the treatment of pigmentation disorders”. These include drug allergies, hyper- and hypopigmentation, persistent skin depigmentation, scars, skin burns, and the potential for skin cancer and skin lymphoma. The last topic is called “coping and support along with skin pigmentation diseases”. Increase the quality of life, psychotherapy, team therapy, and asking for understanding and support from family members.
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1. Introduction
Cancer is a generic term, which encompasses a wide group of diseases characterized essentially by an uncontrolled growth and propagation of cells with errors in the division mechanisms known as cell cycle. Cancer constitutes a major public health problem worldwide, since it is the second leading cause of death globally, with 9.6 million deaths estimated in 2018 [1]. Due to the limitations and side effects associated with available cancer treatments nowadays, it is an urgent challenge for medicinal researchers to develop more safe and selective anticancer drugs.
Among the design strategies in drug discovery, special attention has been paid to molecules containing sulfur heterocycles in their structures. Several studies have been carried out with plenty of sulfur heterocycles, including thiophene, thione, benzothiophene, and thiazine, towards different pathologies.
Thiazole ring is present in several anticancer drugs, such as bleomycin, sulfathiazole, thiazofurine, and dasatinib, and its derivatives present excellent pharmacological profiles, making this skeleton an ideal candidate to develop more potent and safer drugs, especially in cancer. Herein, an extensive revision of the most relevant research published in the past 5 years is gathered.
2. Thiazole rings decorated with different fragments
2.1 Thiazole derivatives with in vitro efficacy
Aminothiazoles: Aminothiazoles have been widely used in drug discovery research due to its biological properties. Commercial drugs, such as famotidine, sudoxicam, or cefdinir, contain an aminothiazole core in their structures (Figure 1) [2].
Figure 1.
Some aminothiazole as commercial drugs.
Aminothiazole scaffold can be modified by derivatization of the amino group at position 2 of the thiazole ring. Rostom et al. [3] reported a study based on structural modifications including azomethine, N-formyl, N-acyl, sulfonamide, ureido, and thioureido functionalities. Nine derivatives were evaluated by the NCI in vitro screening panel assay, displaying most of them a promising antitumor activity against particular cell lines.
Sun et al. [4] synthesized a series of N,4-diaryl-1,3-thiazole-2-amines containing three aromatic rings with an amino linker. Compound 1 (Figure 2) was the most cytotoxic agent with IC50 values at the submicromolar level. A further biological evaluation showed that this compound inhibited polymerization and disrupted tubulin microtubule dynamics in a similar way to the natural product combretastatin A-4, besides effectively inducing SGC-7901 cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase.
Figure 2.
Thiazole derivatives as potential antitumor agents.
In other study, a series of tri-substituted aminothiazoles were designed by Lu et al. [5] in order to obtain new antitumoral agents. Compound 2 (Figure 2) displayed a EC50 value of 0.11 μM in hepatocellular carcinoma along with a selectivity towards nontumoral cells greater than 450 times.
A dysregulation of sirtuin 2 (Sirt2) plays an important role in the pathogenesis of cancer, among other diseases. Schiedel et al. [6] designed a series of novel aminothiazole derivatives with the aim of establishing a well-defined SAR model of sirtuin ligands. These thiazole-bearing compounds behaved as selective human sirtuins (hSirt2) inhibitors.
Chalcones: Chalcones are naturally biarylpropenones, which are classified as a subgroup of flavonoids with a broad spectrum of biological activities, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties [7].
A series of 4-amino-5-cinnamoylthiazoles as chalcone-like structures were synthesized and evaluated as antitumor agents, showing most of them significant cytotoxic activity against MCF-7, HepG2, and SW480 cell lines [8]. The most promising analog, compound3 (Figure 2), revealed that it could prevent the proliferation of HepG2 cells by blocking cell cycle at the G2 phase and by inducing apoptosis.
Coumarins: Another strategy of design is the incorporation of a coumarin moiety in molecules containing thiazole. Many coumarin-bearing compounds are reported to have significant therapeutic potential, including anticancer activity through different mechanisms. Jashari et al. [9] reported the synthesis of new derivatives by combining this coumarin core with different heterocycles. The results showed that the compounds containing thiazoles in the structure had the most promising activity against the cancer cell lines tested.
This strategy can be complementary with the inclusion of other structures with recognized biological activities. A series of indole-incorporated thiazolylcoumarins were synthesized and evaluated against a wide range of tumor cell lines [10]. Among the tested compounds, structure 4 (Figure 2) exhibited a broad spectrum of growth inhibition activity with average GI50 values of 1.18–2.44 μM against nine cell lines.
Ayati et al. [11] also reported the synthesis of a series of new coumarin-containing compounds developed from the chalcone-like cinnamoylthiazoles mentioned above. Biological evaluations on the most cytotoxic compound 5 (Figure 2) against MCF-7 cells revealed the induction of apoptosis and blockage of the cell cycle distribution at the G1-phase.
2.2 Thiazole derivatives with in vivo efficacy
For the past 5 years, few examples of scaffolds bearing a thiazole ring have been reported with potent efficacy in xenograft models of various types of cancer. Figure 3 encompasses the most relevant examples gathered in the literature that are going to be discussed herein.
Figure 3.
Representative scaffolds containing thiazole ring with proven in vivo efficacy towards several cancer xenograft models.
Attending to their structure, the thiazole analogs can be grouped as follows.
Diaminothiazoles: In 2015, several diaminothiazole derivatives were evaluated in vitro against wild-type and resistant colon, breast, and uterine cancer cells lines. All of them showed potent activity in all cell lines with IC50 values in the nanomolar range. Among them, DAT1 (4-amino-5-benzoyl-2-(4-methoxyphenylamino)thiazole) (Figure 3) also demonstrated in vivo tumor growth inhibition of around 60% in a taxol-resistant colon cancer model at a dose of 20 mg/kg [12]. More recently, DAT1 has also demonstrated its capacity to induce apoptosis both in vitro and in vivo against colon cancer models with mutated p53 through ERK-mediated upregulation of death receptor 5 (DR5) [13]. All these findings have placed DAT1 as a candidate to be tested in clinical trials.
(Thiazole-2-yl)hydrazones: Di Martile et al. reported that a novel pCAF and GCN5 histone deacetylase inhibitor, named CPTH6 (3-methylcyclopentylidene-[4-(4′-chlorophenyl)thiazol-2-yl] hydrazone) (Figure 3), was able to reduce tumor growth in a spheroid patient-derived lung cancer stem cells (LCSCs) xenograft model accompanied by apoptosis induction and inhibition of α-tubulin acetylation [14]. Likewise, two 2-pyridyl-2,3-thiazole derivatives, TP-07 and TAP-07 (Figure 3), possess cytotoxic activity towards several cancer cell lines without antiproliferative effects to normal cells (IC50 > 30 μM) along with in vivo efficacy against a hepatocellular xenograft cancer model [15]. Thus, both compounds achieved 47% and 73% tumor mass reduction, respectively [15].
Spiroimidazothiazolidines: This class of compounds has demonstrated to be potent inhibitors of the Murine Double Minute-2 (MDM2)-p53 interaction, which ultimately leads to induction of apoptosis. Two analogs withstand in this class of compounds: a) ISA27 (Figure 3), which not only presented tumor growth inhibition in vivo alone in a glioblastoma xenograft model but also a synergistic effect with temozolomide, a first-line treatment drug against brain cancers [16], and b) SM13 (Figure 3), an analog that reduced tumor growth in a human thyroid cancer xenograft model in the absence of p53 transcriptional activity [17].
Piperidinone analogs: Based on previous morpholine and piperidone MDM2 inhibitors, Gonzalez et al. introduced a thiazole ring decorated with a carboxylic acid over the piperidone scaffold. The resulting hit compound, termed AM-6761 (Figure 3), maintained the MDM2 inhibition efficacy and presented an ED50 value of 11 mg/kg in SJSA-1 osteosarcoma xenograft model [18].
Oridonin derivatives: Oridonin is a complex ent-kaurane diterpenoid isolated from the traditional Chinese herb Isodon rubescens, with well-known cytotoxic activity against various human cancers. In 2013, Ding et al. designed a series of novel nitrogen-enriched oridonin derivatives with thiazole-fused A-ring. The hit compound, CYD0618 (Figure 3), induced a threefold shrinkage of the tumor volume in a triple-negative breast cancer MDA-MB-231 xenograft model at a dose of 5 mg/kg, showing much higher efficacy than parent oridonin [19]. Later, Zhou et al. reported another oridonin analog, CYD-6-17 (Figure 3), which significantly inhibited renal cell carcinoma tumor growth in vivo by targeting 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1 (PDPK1) and its downstream pathways [20].
3. Fused thiazole rings decorated with different fragments
Benzothiazoles: In the last few years, benzothiazoles have attracted considerable interest due to their broad spectrum of pharmacological activities, such as antitubercular, antimicrobial, analgesic, and antitumor properties [21].
This moiety can be functionalized with several structural modifications. Novel methylsulfonyl benzothiazoles were synthetized and evaluated against HeLA cell line, with compounds 6 and 7 (Figure 4) showing GI50 values of 0.1 μM or below [22].
Figure 4.
Some thiazole-fused compounds with antitumor activity.
Xie et al. [23] reported a new series of benzothiazole derivatives, with in vitro efficacy against HCT116, MCF-7, U87 MG, and A549 cell lines. Compound 8 (Figure 4) was proved to retain the antiproliferative activity and the inhibitory activity against PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase) and mTORC1 (mammalian target of rapamycin), which are abnormally active in many tumor cells.
Benzothiazole derivatives bearing pyrimidine moiety were synthetized and evaluated for anticancer activity against MCF-7, A549, and A375 cancer cell lines, with significant antitumor activity. A further study of the most promising compounds indicated an effect on the expression of proteins that cause abnormal cell proliferation, such as ERK1/2, NF-kB, and survivin [24].
This moiety can also be used in the design of new molecules with a chalcone-like structure, as it has been mentioned before. Imidazole bearing benzothiazoles were synthetized by Sultana et al. [25] and evaluated against several cancer cell lines. Compounds 9 and 10 (Figure 4) exhibited good cytotoxicity against human breast cancer (MDA MB-231) with IC50 values of 1.3 and 1.2 μM, respectively. These compounds were revealed to induce cell cycle arrest in G2/M phase and to inhibit microtubule assembly.
Imidazoles: Imidazole-based compounds have achieved great progress in medicinal chemistry, since they have showed anticancer, antifungal, antibacterial, and antiparasitic activities, among others [26]. Their use as heterocycles merged with thiazole has attracted great attention in the last years [27, 28] due to its therapeutic properties.
A series of imidazo[2,1-b]thiazole derivatives were evaluated against different tumor cell lines, showing that compounds 11 and 12 (Figure 4) had a significant cytotoxic activity against A549 with IC50 values of 0.92 and 0.78 μM, respectively. These derivatives had proven to induce cell cycle arrest in G2/M phase and apoptosis in this cell line [29]. Ali et al. [30] synthesized a series of imidazo[2,1-b]thiazoles decorated with pyrazoles that turned out to be promising leads to further develop.
Due to the pharmacological properties of the imidazo[2,1-b]thiazole derivatives and coumarin compounds already mentioned, it has been reported a design that embodied both the active pharmacophores in a single molecule in order to evaluate their synergic activity against a series of tumor cell lines [31], showing some of them prominent cytotoxic activity.
Kamal et al. [32] also designed a novel series of imidazole merged with thiazole as chalcone-like derivatives and evaluated their cytotoxic activity against MCF-7, A549, HeLA, DU-145, and HT-29 cell lines. Among the compounds tested, structure 13 (Figure 4) with a pyridyl ring was the most active. This compound also disrupted microtubule dynamics, induced cell cycle arrest in G2/M phase and ultimately trigger apoptosis.
Pyrimidines: Compounds with fused rings can also be formed by merging other heterocyclic moieties with thiazole core. Li et al. [33] reported a novel series of thiazolo[5,4-d]pyrimidine derivatives, which were evaluated against three cancer cell lines. Compound 14 (Figure 4) showed the most potent antiproliferative activity with good selectivity when compared to normal cells (IC50 values of 1.03 μM against MGC803 and 38.95 μM against GES-1). Biological studies indicated that this compound could inhibit the cell colony formation and migration by inducing apoptosis on MGC803 cells.
A series of thiazolo[3,2-a]pyrimidines were synthetized and evaluated in the NCI-60 cell lines panel assay, achieving significant cytotoxicity against some of the cell lines tested [34].
4. Miscellaneous structures bearing thiazole ring
Diazepines: Heterocyclic compounds 1,4-diazepines are considered an interesting moiety in drug research due to their broad range of pharmacological activities, including antibacterial, anti-HIV, anticonvulsant, and anticancer [35]. Ramírez et al. designed a series of novel thiazole-based compounds by fusing this structure with pyrimidine, which has also showed biological properties. The results indicated that some compounds showed promising antitumoral activity, with GI50 values below 2 μM against NCI’s in vitro cell line screening [35].
Pyrazoline: Another heterocyclic structure used in combination with thiazole moiety is the pyrazoline ring. New thiazolyl-pyrazoline derivatives were synthetized, and their cytotoxicity was evaluated against A549 human lung adenocarcinoma and NIH/3 T3 mouse embryonic fibroblast cells, presenting in some cases similar IC50 values to cisplatin [36].
Curcumins: Bayomi et al. [37] synthetized and evaluated a series of new curcumin analogs bearing thiazole as antitumoral and antioxidant agents, showing similar behavior than that of cisplatin and ascorbic acid, respectively.
Thiazolines: Thiazolines are the reduced form of thiazole and also have attracted interest in drug research due to its biological activity. Altintop et al. [38] evaluated a series of new thiazoline-based derivatives bearing a hydrazone moiety. The results showed that some of the compounds were potent inhibitors of DNA synthesis against C6 tumor cells.
5. Thiazole and metal complexes
There is a great variability of transition metals that in combination with different ligands have been reported as antitumoral agents acting through different mechanisms. The literature revealed the considerable interest in the thiazole pharmacophore alone [39], fused to other rings [40], or incorporated into different structures [41] for cancer therapy.
On the other hand, among the most effective and well-studied class of chemotherapeutic agents are the platinum-based drugs, which comprise cisplatin, carboplatin, and oxaliplatin. Given the clinical success of the platinum-based drugs, extensive research efforts have been made to develop alternative metal ions, that is, ruthenium, copper, zinc, and nickel, with antitumor activity.
Copper complexes: Copper complexes have attracted a vast interest due to their bioavailability, increased uptake in cancerous tissues, role in angiogenesis and photophysical properties, among others. The most common types of copper complexes are those incorporating 1,10-phenanthroline (phen) ligands. Planarity of the intercalative ligand is crucial in the binding of these complexes with DNA. The complexes containing nonplanar ligands favored groove binding [42].
Besides, Shakir et al. [43] have reported several Cu (II) complexes derived from benzothiazole and thiazole, which showed greater antioxidant and anticancer activities than the corresponding free ligands in various cell lines.
Studies carried out with several Cu (II) complexes with 2,2,6′,2′′-terpyridines revealed that these complexes are able to promote the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the presence of mild reducing agents. This feature has been exploited to oxidatively break the DNA strands, hence inhibiting the proliferation of tumor cells. In this context, the replacement of two pyridine rings by two thiazole nuclei (compound 15 in Figure 5) also achieved efficient DNA cleavage in several tumor cell lines [44]. Later, Czerwinska et al. corroborated an increase in the antiproliferative effect of these complexes against ovarian carcinoma cells by apoptosis [45].
Figure 5.
Some thiazole-metal complexes with antitumor activity.
In addition, the copper complexes have been recognized as promising drugs for metastatic tumors. For example, copper complexes of pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (Cu(PDTC)2) possessed potent anticancer activity on cisplatin-resistant neuroblastoma cells. Additionally, two copper thiosemicarbazone complexes showed similar effect on cisplatin-resistant neuroblastoma cells and prostate cancer. Xie et al. [46] reported the synthesis and antitumoral activity of two copper complexes of (4R)-2-thioxo-4-thiazolidinecarboxylic acid (TTDC) and 3-rhodaninepropionic acid (RDPA) against prostate cancer, presenting both of them variable potency, likely related to different functional groups on TTDC and RDPA ligands. Owing to the presence of sulfur and amino groups in CuTTDC and CuRDPA, these complexes had emerged as ligands to attach to delivery vehicles, such as peptides or monoclonal antibodies for targeted delivery.
It is notably that a number of copper (II) complexes have been shown to present antitumor activity, through inhibition of human topoisomerase IIα. Recently, Sandhaus et al. [47] have identified a new complex (compound 16 in Figure 5) with potent antiproliferative activity towards colon cancer cell lines (HTC-116, Caco-2, and HT-29) and aggressive breast cancer cell lines (HCC 1500, HCC 70, HCC 1806, and HCC 1395).
Ruthenium complexes: Currently, ruthenium complexes are found to be a promising alternative for platinum because of favorable properties as anticancer drugs. Among the ligands, 2,6-di(thiazol-2-yl)pyridine combined with phenantrolines have demonstrated to act as DNA intercalative agents along with topoisomerase I and IIα inhibitors (compound 17 in Figure 5) [48]. The assays with other ligands, such as 1,3-thiazolidine-2-thione, with 1,4-bis(diphenylphosphino)butane or 2,2′-bipyridine, displayed strong cytotoxicity against breast and prostate cancer cell lines [49].
Platinum and palladium complexes: Platinum and palladium have similar chemical properties and modes of coordination, but the palladium compounds are more labile from a thermodynamic and a kinetic point of view with relation to platinum derivatives.
Rubino and co-workers [50] have reported two new mono-Pt(II) and binuclear chloro-bridged Pd(II) complexes with 2,2′-dithiobis(benzothiazole) as ligand. Only platinum derivative has emerged as an effective inductor of apoptotic death on HepG2 and MCF-7 cells and caused cell cycle arrest at G0/G1 phase while palladium was inactive. On the other hand, the inclusion of 2-(4-substituted)benzothiazoles (compound 18 in Figure 5) as ligands resulted in potent cytotoxic agents through tubulin polymerization in A549 and HeLa cell lines [51].
In addition, thiazolidinone-derived complexes, specifically with (Z)-2-((E)-(1-(pyridin-2-yl)ethylidene)hydrazono)thiazolidin-4-one, were markedly cytotoxic to MCF-7, HepG2, and NCI-H460 and presented better profile than cisplatin [52]. Other relevant strategy is the combination with scaffold with proven anticancer activity. In this context, the coumarin-thiazole analogs complexed with platinum or palladium showed that the Pd complex had higher antitumor effects than its Pt analogs in several cancer cell lines [53].
Other metal complexes and applications: Manganese is a metal that plays a critical role in cell development, and it is required for mitochondrial function. As novelty, Islam et al. [54] have described a new Mn-EDTA complex (compound 19 in Figure 5) incorporating a benzothiazole that has been investigated as potential agents for diagnosis of liver cancer by magnetic resonance.
Cobalt (II) complexes are one of the most studied, and they have been reported as cytotoxic agents in vitro against breast cancer cell lines [55]. However, the cobalt (III) complexes are less known, although a new Co(III)sulfathiazole complex have been reported as cytotoxic compound without genotoxic effects [56].
In recent years, lanthanum (III) complexes are emerging as promising agents due to their more physiological activities and lower toxicities after coordination with ligands. The main mechanism of action associated is the interaction with DNA by intercalation mode. Likewise, these compounds are useful as clinical biomarkers for early diagnosis of the presence of prostate cancer. One of the most relevant lanthanum (III) derivative is 2,3-dihydro-1H-indolo[2,3-b]phenazin-4-(5H)-ylidene)benzothiazole-2-amine (compound 20 in Figure 5) that showed excellent anticancer activity in PC-3 cells [57].
Another relevant option is the gold(I) compounds that can act as prodrugs. Thus, 2-mercapto thiazoline as ligand by reaction with K[Au(CN)2] resulted in the nitrogen-coordinated complex [NCAu(N-mtz)]. On the other hand, reaction with [(Ph3P)AuCl] yielded the sulfur-coordinated complex [(Ph3P)Au(S-mtz)]. Both of them inhibited the growth of tumorigenic cell lines such as the human ovarian carcinoma (A2780), human colon carcinoma (HCT116), and human breast adenocarcinoma (MCF7) [58].
Finally, another strategy to design new complexes as antitumoral agents is the combination of anti-inflammatory derivatives with metals. In this approach, the 1,2-benzothiazines nuclei, which are present in meloxicam and piroxicam, were complexed with ruthenium and osmium to obtain new derivatives with potent activity against cancer cell lines [59].
6. Peptidic thiazoles
Thiazoles and thiazolines are quite common motifs present in peptides isolated from natural sources, many of them known for having biological activity, typically antibacterial. These peptides are biosynthesized from nonribosomal peptide synthase (NRPS) or ribosomally produced and post-translationally modified. Both processes involve cyclodehydrations of cysteine residues to yield thiazolines and subsequent dehydrogenations to give thiazoles [60]. In this context, marine organism (cyanobacteria, fungi, sponges, tunicates, ascidians, etc.) provide an endless source of new structures with biological potential, cancer included [61]. Many isolated thiazole-containing peptides from nature have anticancer properties per se, but more efforts are continuously needed by scientific community to enhance and modulate its anticancer activity through structure modifications. Recent developments in this area are included here and listed by its cyclic/acyclic nature.
6.1 Linear peptides
Cyanobacteria-derived bisebromoamide was isolated and tested against HeLa S3 cells, showing a very low IC50 [62]. It was also shown to induce apoptosis through ERK and mTOR inhibition in renal carcinoma cell lines [63]. A modification of central thiazoline of bisebromoamide by a thiazole and alanine scanning [64] provided new analogs, getting insights in the structural dependence of the cytotoxicity. Four analogs showed nanomolar cytotoxicity activity against human colon tumor cell line HCT116.
P-glycoprotein (P-gp, multidrug resistance protein 1) is overexpressed in patients suffering from chemotherapy resistance. In this sense, cyclic and acyclic (S)-valine-derived thiazole peptide dimers, trimers, and tetramers were found to be potent P-gp efflux transport inhibitors [65]. Based on this hit, further derivatization led to peptidomimetic TTT-28 (Figure 6), which was found to be a potent P-gp transport inhibitor and superior to parent compound in reversal of resistance to placitaxel in SW620/Ad300 and HEK/ABCB1 cell lines [66]. In vivo study [67] showed TTT-28 enhanced intratumoral concentration of placitaxel, inhibiting the growth of ABCB1 overexpressing tumors. Additional extensive derivatizations of TTT-28 in terminal groups and central thiazole building block side chain helped to understand the drug/substrate interactions with P-gp [68]. Modifications on these sites led to divergent effects in ATPase efflux pump, from initial stimulation in TTT-28 to inhibition.
Figure 6.
Thiazole/thiazoline containing peptides and peptidomimetics with anticancer activity.
Polyamides based on 2 and 3 repeating units of 2-aminothiazole-4-carboxylic acid were synthetized [69] and proved to bind selectively to c-MYC quadruplex over other G-quadruplex and duplex DNA and therefore inhibiting c-MYC oncogene transcription. Antiproliferative activity of the tripeptide was found in HeLa cells, caused by apoptotic pathway.
Thiazole scaffold is also present in short peptides known for inhibiting tubulin polymerization. Dolastatin 10 was firstly isolated from Dolabella auricularia and is composed of five unnatural amino acids with a thiazole ring in C-terminal (Figure 6). It was demonstrated as very potent in cell proliferation assays (IC50 < 5.0 nM), but due to its high toxicity at maximum tolerated dose, new analogs have been developed. N-Terminal modified dolastatin analog (PF-06380101) bearing a quaternary amino acid was found to have improved potency and suitable ADME properties for antibody-drug conjugates [70]. Modified dolastatins at thiazole moiety by addition of new functionalities as alcohols, amines, and thiols have also been reported [71]. These analogs also showed low IC50 for several cancerous cell lines.
Another thiazole-containing peptides targeting to tubulin polymerization are the tubulysins (Figure 6), isolated first from myxobacteria. Great number of modifications have been attempted to date, and numerous SAR studies have shed light into tubulysin mode of action (for a review, see ref. [72]).
In this context, a pretubulysin (tubulysin biosynthetic precursors) lacking of C11 acetate and bearing a methyl group at N14 showed efficacy against various in vivo metastatic bladder, breast, and lung cancer models [73]. New tubulysin derivative KEMTUB10 with a N14-benzyl-Tuv and 4-fluorophenyl moiety in Tup exhibited activity in the picomolar range in the main breast cancer cell lines [74]. It blocks cells in G2/M phase of the cell cycle and stimulates apoptosis. In line with these results, attachment of alkyl groups at mentioned Tuv N14 as benzyl, 4-fluorobenzyl, and cyclopropylmethyl in tubulysins also led to superpotent cytotoxic activity [75]. More Tuv modifications have been reported, like the incorporation of tetrahydropyranyl ring by Diels-Alder reaction for conformational restriction of tubulysin [76], but rigidification seemed to affect negatively to polymerization inhibition. Systematic derivatization by substitution of each subunit of tubulysin by diverse moieties, including three-dimensional structural motifs such as cubane and [1.1.1]-bicyclopentane, was reported [77]. A profound structure-activity study indicated that thiazole in Tuv unit cannot be substituted by 3D motifs but can be replaced by aromatics such as pyridine without significant loss of activity.
One objective for researchers working with tubulysins is the improvement of their therapeutic efficacy by the targeted cancer therapy as antibody-drug conjugation (ADC) or small molecule drug conjugates (SMDC), acting the tubulysins as payloads. This represents a very powerful tool, which is already being applied to all class of tubulin inhibitors [78]. Tubulysin warheads are therefore being used in ADC; one of them (AZ13599185) is in phase I clinical trials targeting HER2 receptors, involved in breast cancer development [79]. Following this trend, the modifications of tubulysins for an easier linking to conjugates is a new goal. New derivatizations at C-terminal Tup showed broad tolerance with no loss of activity, enabling more opportunities to conjugate to biomolecules and receptor ligands [80]. Another issue that arose during ADC conjugation of tubulysins to trastuzumab is the metabolism of C11 acetate in vivo, inactivating the payload [81, 82]. The problem was solved replacing the acetate ester by a more inert functionality to esterases like carbamates, retaining the activity. Tubulysin warheads have also been applied in a SMDC strategy in conjugation with folic acid to address folate receptor (FR), expressed in many cancers [83]. The EC1456 conjugate was tested in mice bearing FR-positive xenografts leading to curation of 100%. Results against human vintafolide-resistant xenografts were also positive.
6.2 Cyclic peptides
Cyclic depsipeptide largazole was discovered from cyanobacteria Symploca sp. [84], and its distinctive structural feature is the presence of a thiazole fused linearly to a 4-methylthiazoline and a labile thioester (Figure 6). Largazole possesses great activity as inhibitor of class I histone deacetylase (HDAC) metalloenzymes [85], a promising target for chemotherapy. Many largazole structure-activity relationship studies have been reported. Among multiple sites of modification performed, thiazole-thiazoline fragment located in the macrocycle seems to be the most promising to achieve more potent and selective analogues. Substitution of thiazole by pyridyl residues and depsipeptide framework alteration to peptide isostere led to equipotent largazole analogues but with improved selectivity for different HDACs [86]. The replacement of thiazole and thiazoline by bipyridyl fragments led to derivatives with a similar activity of largazole, but with an improved selectivity for class I HDAC [87].
Largazole inhibition of HDAC is actually attained by largazole thiol derived from thioester hydrolysis. The thiol forms a thiolate-Zn2+ complex [88], a critical binding for the activity, since substitution by other poorer Zn-binding groups correlated to less HDAC inhibition and lower cytotoxicity [89]. The octanoyl side chain on the thioester allows good cell permeability. Thus, modifications can be made for a better membrane permeability and thiol liberation inside the cell. In this sense, controlled release of largazole thiol from an isobutylene-caged largazole thiol derivative, which possesses a high permeability, has been achieved by UV light photoactivation of a thiol-ene triggering reaction [90].
Cyclic thiazole- and oxazoline-containing octapeptides and patellamides, isolated from marine tunicates, have also been an object of modification. It has been shown that changes in the position of thiazoles and oxazolines in ascidiacyclamide can influence their cytotoxic activity, obtaining inactive derivatives and 10 times more active compounds depending on the conformations attained [91].
Apratoxin- and thiazoline-containing depsipeptides are known potent cytotoxins isolated from marine cyanobacteria. Apratoxins are known for being potent anticancer agents and co-translational translocation inhibitors. Different derivatives have been synthetized, involving thiazoline stereogenic configuration change at C30 and substitution in C34 [92] (Figure 6). A new derivative, apratoxin S10 with (R)-C30 thiazoline and the addition of a methyl group at C34, shows potent in vitro angiogenesis and vascularized tumor cell growth inhibition [93]. It showed antipancreatic cancer activity, including in orthotopic pancreatic patient-derived xenograft mouse model [94]. Other derivatizations consisting of thiazoline substitution by piperidinecarboxylic acid moiety have been developed [95]. Apratoxins M16 showed comparable cytotoxicity to apratoxin A in HCT116 cancerous cells.
7. Conclusion
Incorporation of thiazole ring into different molecules have demonstrated to be a novel and promising approach to design more potent and safer antitumor drugs. The results of this chapter might help to enlighten other researchers to better design bioactive molecules. This thiazole ring can be incorporated as part of mono- or fused-cycles, metal complexes, or as a part of peptides. In many of these cases, the deletion of thiazole ring entails the loss of the bioactivity pointing out the importance of this ring for the anticancer activity. Thus, we consider this class of compounds and excellent starting point to achieve future drug candidates to treat cancer.
\n',keywords:"cancer, thiazole, MDM2 inhibitors, mechanism of action, metal complexes, peptides, sulfur",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64932.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64932.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64932",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64932",totalDownloads:1551,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:14,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:5,impactScorePercentile:93,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"August 27th 2018",dateReviewed:"November 27th 2018",datePrePublished:"January 17th 2019",datePublished:"June 10th 2020",dateFinished:"December 26th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Currently, cancer is one of the major health problems of the human population and prominent cause of death. Thiazole ring has demonstrated many pharmacological activities including anticancer. This scaffold has been found alone or incorporated into the diversity of therapeutic active agents such as tiazofurin, dasatinib, and bleomycin, which are well-known antineoplastic drugs. Recently, most of the compounds isolated from natural sources containing thiazole moiety exhibit notable cytotoxicities and present antitumor potential. In this context, several structural changes have been made in the original structure, such as the incorporation of different substituents or the fusion with other carbo- and heterocycles, in order to increase the antitumoral potency. Related to mechanism of action of these derivatives, some of them act through kinase modulation, polymerization inhibition of microtubule, pro-matrix metalloproteinase activation, signal transducer activation of transcription 3, histone deacetylase inhibition, etc.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64932",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64932",book:{id:"8410",slug:"heterocycles-synthesis-and-biological-activities"},signatures:"Sandra Ramos-Inza, Carlos Aydillo, Carmen Sanmartín and Daniel Plano",authors:[{id:"67542",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Sanmartín",fullName:"Carmen Sanmartín",slug:"carmen-sanmartin",email:"sanmartin@unav.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Navarra",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"69223",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Plano",fullName:"Daniel Plano",slug:"daniel-plano",email:"dplano@alumni.unav.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69223/images/420_n.jpg",institution:{name:"University of Navarra",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"286715",title:"BSc.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos-Inza",fullName:"Sandra Ramos-Inza",slug:"sandra-ramos-inza",email:"sramos.2@alumni.unav.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"286716",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Aydillo",fullName:"Carlos Aydillo",slug:"carlos-aydillo",email:"caydillo@unav.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Thiazole rings decorated with different fragments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Thiazole derivatives with in vitro efficacy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Thiazole derivatives with in vivo efficacy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Fused thiazole rings decorated with different fragments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Miscellaneous structures bearing thiazole ring",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Thiazole and metal complexes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"6. Peptidic thiazoles",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"6.1 Linear peptides",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"6.2 Cyclic peptides",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians. 2018;68:394-424. 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DOI: 10.1002/psc.3120'},{id:"B92",body:'Chen Q-Y, Liu Y, Cai W, Luesch H. Improved total synthesis and biological evaluation of potent apratoxin S4 based anticancer agents with differential stability and further enhanced activity. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 2014;57:3011-3029. DOI: 10.1021/jm4019965'},{id:"B93",body:'Cai W, Chen Q-Y, Dang LH, Luesch H. Apratoxin S10, a dual inhibitor of angiogenesis and cancer cell growth to treat highly vascularized tumors. ACS Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 2017;8:1007-1012. DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.7b00192'},{id:"B94",body:'Cai W, Ratnayake R, Gerber MH, Q-y C, Yu Y, Derendorf H, et al. Development of apratoxin S10 (Apra S10) as an anti-pancreatic cancer agent and its preliminary evaluation in an orthotopic patient-derived xenograft (PDX) model. Investigational New Drugs. 2018;10. DOI: 10.1007/s10637-018-0647-0'},{id:"B95",body:'Onda Y, Masuda Y, Yoshida M, Doi T. 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Faculty of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Chemistry, University of Navarra, Spain
Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IdiSNA), Spain
Faculty of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Chemistry, University of Navarra, Spain
Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IdiSNA), Spain
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1. Introduction
1.1 Banks’ commitment to corporate social responsibility
The concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) stems from the need for companies to interconnect the needs of the community with the various sources of profit. The growing interest in CSR issues, especially in banks, is the result of a cultural journey that sees the company react to market changes and to be the protagonist of an increasingly sustainable future.
Corporate social responsibility is understood: “companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis” [1]. In other words, the company integrates social and environmental interest among its strategic objectives. Together with the financial and environmental aspects, the ethical value of banks is more important for the development of both productive and marketing strategies, representing a new tool of competitiveness [2]. At the beginning of the 1970s, the first CSR studies were born to analyze the correlation between social issues and economic performance. However, it was in the 1990s that there was a real explosion of the CSR issue [3, 4].
The prevailing approach up to this period was that there was a negative correlation between the ethical and social orientation of the investor and the economic performance. It was believed that investing in good behavior practices would reduce the number of available investment alternatives and possibly damage economic performance.
The spread of sustainable investments in financial markets, the development of ethical stock market indices and ethical rating methodologies, has helped to affirm the belief that there are economic benefits related to the assumption of corporate social responsibility. In fact, investing in socially responsible behaviors can also bring economic benefits.
In line with these considerations, CSR is not a follow-up to profit, but sees it as a profit-making option. In banking, CSR is an important aspect of the company’s strategy and it must have a substantial value in its business. In other words, it is necessary to integrate CSR into strategies, processes, operations as well as daily relationships with stakeholders. If sustainability enters these areas, then it can effectively contribute to the resilience of the economic and social fabric, foster confidence in the market and the acceleration of the recovery from the crisis [5].
Since the last economic crisis, the deteriorating economy along with numerous banking scandals has provided a new and challenging environment for the banking sector. At the beginning of the crisis, scholars discussed its impact on social investment [6, 7]. Some predicted a sharp reduction in CSR budget costs if they were perceived as non-core assets, while others believed that companies strategically engaged in CSR would continue to spend in this area, despite the challenging economic environment. Banks are blamed primarily for the financial crisis that caused economic turmoil [8, 9].
Corporate scandals, lack of transparency and subsequent government bailouts have undermined public confidence in the banking sector. Several authors argued that the positive results of the CSR be particularly remarkable in the banking sector, as banks have had a reputation tarnished in the wake of the financial crisis [8, 10]. Transparency is very relevant in restoring bank reputation, which may explain why financial companies report significantly more information about CSR than other industries [11]. CSR acts as a protection of the company’s market value in times of crisis [12, 13]. While general mistrust in the financial sector has had a negative effect on reputation and therefore performance, CSR strategies could mitigate these results. In this way, CSR can be considered preventative in times of non-crisis because it improves reputation. However, it is also interesting to consider the effect of CSR in a post-crisis situation as a tool to restore reputation and mitigate a reputational crisis following corporate scandals [14, 15].
Absent or incorrect CSR policies have a much greater negative effect on performance than the positive effects of correct policies. However, the recent recession in the world economy, particularly in Europe, has shed light on some management scandals and the lack of integrity in the European banking sector. This has had a negative impact not only on bank returns but also on bank reputation. Banking governance plays a crucial role in the implementation of CSR practices. It is believed that sustainable measures lead to reputation and performance improvement when management demonstrates strong ethical leadership [16, 17]. In the banking sector, some sustainable policies have not been able to improve reputations and returns since the start of the financial crisis [18]. Unethical practices and mismanagement in several European banks have caused anger, and distrust of the sector that has received public bailouts, while some bank executives have been paid exorbitant bonuses. As a result, the ethical leadership and credibility of the banks were called into question, resulting in a major loss of reputation, as the public perceived discrepancies between the CSR directives of bank executives and their effective behaviors [19]. In this scenario, investments in CSR have failed to improve reputation due to weak business leadership. After one of the deepest economic crises in history, banks perceive CSR as a means of restoring their image and credibility [20, 21, 22, 23]. The banking sector’s commitment to more sustainable practices has interesting implications. In fact, banks can play an important role in economic development [24] because they decide how to allocate financial resources to different companies and sectors. Non-responsible companies pay an additional cost on bank financial income than the companies responsible because investments in CSR reduce risk and are more attractive to lenders [25]. Therefore, the involvement of banks in CSR practices should benefit the bank itself and promote the adoption of sustainable practices by potential borrowers, thereby having a positive impact on sustainable growth [26]. This makes the financial sector unique when considering the effects of CSR practices. In the banking sector, CSR covers many activities such as lending, wealth management, the operation of payment systems and risk management [27]. All of these factors are able to significantly influence society and its surroundings. For this reason, banks should fully integrate CST into their business strategies and see it as a strategic tool that can improve relationships with stakeholders, resulting in positive impacts both in terms of consensus and confidence and performance. If a bank acts in a socially responsible way, it creates the basis for consolidating its long-term presence in the market, emphasizing its contribution to environmental quality and society. CSR’s business affects all stakeholders involved in the business with different capabilities and with different expectations [28]. The CSR is taking on a crucial role among academics and researchers, thanks to its ability to jointly consider all aspects of operations: economic, environmental and social [29]. This is the approach of the so-called triple bottom line [30], according to which the assessment of benefits must cover not only the economic aspects, but also the environmental and social aspects.
Undoubtedly, there is the need for integrated communication between the criteria for implementing CSR practices. Disclosure of CSR is regulated by national and international self-regulatory measures. It is a voluntary disclosure and this faculty is linked to the very essence of ethics, inevitably influenced by specific business activities and difficult to define without proper contextualization.
Among the most relevant CSR provisions are the OECD Guidelines [31], which suggest that integrated relationships should be adopted. In addition, the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) guidelines for sustainable reporting include the principles needed to define report content (Materiality, stakeholder inclusion, sustainable context and comprehensiveness) and relationship quality. They also include standard disclosure: organizational strategy and profile, management approach and performance indicators (economic, environmental and social).
European banks are more concerned about environmental, social and governance issues than their competitors based in other parts of the world. This can be confirmed, for example, by the proportion of signatories to Equator Principles [32], with European institutions accounting for 42% of all adopters compared to North American, Latin American and Asian entities, representing 17%, 12% and 9% of all signatories respectively [33].
European banks, as the first to adopt sustainability practices, can be a benchmark for their peers in other regions. In addition, in Community area the banking sector is known for the relevance of bank income in overall financial intermediation compared to other regions, such as the United States, where capital markets are the main source of financing. In fact, in the European banking-based financial system [34], banking is three times the EU’s total GDP [35], unlike other advanced economies, namely the United States, where a market-based system prevails that derives in a lower percentage of banking intermediation in the economy, where bank assets roughly correspond to GDP.
Today, banks pay attention to corporate social responsibility as an additional lever of innovation and development to better compete in the market in the medium and long term. Taking a CSR path is an opportunity for the bank to: (i) improve proactive risk governance by integrating social, environmental and government variables into their corporate governance system; (ii) listen to the needs of your stakeholders and innovate the development of products, services and business models; (iii) make explicit the implications that the role of money brokerage has on the company and maximize the creation of a shared value.
2. An empirical analysis of CSR in global systematically important institutions
This chapter presents the results of a survey of a sample of banks belonging to the Global Systematically Important Institutions (G-SII) universe, as defined by the EBA. The list of banks included in this section follows the EBA’s guidelines on the dissemination of indicators of global systemic importance in order not only to increase the transparency of the G-SII identification process, but also to achieve a level playing field in terms of disclosure requirements between systemically important institutions and other large institutions. The EBA guidelines directly follow the Recommendations of the Basel Committee to identify global systemically important banks (G-SIBs) and provide data that help assess the systemic riskiness of EU banks.
In line with the EBA’s guidelines, all European institutions with a leverage ratio of more than 200 billion euros are required to participate in this disclosure. Our sample includes 25 G-SII operating on European territory in 2018. The following table (Table 1) shows the banks included in the sample. Of the 25 banks, 5 are from the United Kingdom, 4 in Spain and Sweden respectively, 3 in France, 2 in Germany and Italy and 1 for Austria, Belgium, Denmark and the Netherlands respectively.
Financial institution
Country
Erste Group
Austria
Kbc
Belgium
Danske Bank
Denmark
Bnp Paribas
France
Credit Agricole
France
Societe Generale
France
Commerzbank
Germany
Deutsche Bank
Germany
Intesa Sanpaolo
Italy
Unicredit
Italy
Abn Amro
Netherlands
Dnb
Norway
Santander
Spain
Bbva.Mc
Spain
La Caixa
Spain
Sabadell
Spain
Nordea
Sweden
Seb
Sweden
Handelsbanken
Sweden
Swedbank
Sweden
Barclays
UK
Hsbc
UK
Lloyds
UK
Rbs
UK
Standard Chartered
UK
Table 1.
Sample.
In terms of assets managed in December 2018 (Figure 1), UK banks are at the top of the ranking (36% of assets attributable to the entire sample). In second place are Spanish banks with 18% of assets managed, followed by German banks with 12% and Italian banks with 11%. Overall, French and Swedish banks manage 18% of the assets. Netherlands ranks seventh with only 3%, followed by Austria and Norway with a total of 4% of assets managed. Finally, the Belgian and Danish banks are included in the final part of the rankings, with a total of 0.02% and 0.01% respectively.
Figure 1.
Total asset by country.
In order to ascertain the degree of integration of CSR practices by the selected banks, several areas of investigation were analyzed, selected because they were considered relevant according to an analysis of the studies on the subject.
The research focused on four areas of investigation, relating to the composition, size and configuration of the Boards of Directors of the 25 banks examined. In particular, they were examined for each company:
The size of the board of directors
The presence of independent directors on the board
The presence of women on the board
The presence of endo-council committees specifically dedicated to sustainability issues.
In order to achieve our goal, we analyzed all the bank’s official documents on governance and sustainability policies, as well as we used Datastream database with regard to some qualitative aspects.
2.1 CSR in bank’s corporate governance systems: introductory notes
The importance and efficiency of CSR practices in banks depends almost exclusively on the board of directors and the information provided to stakeholders. The CSR disclosure helps to increase the well-being of stakeholders and communicate information on the bank’s economic, social and environmental performance [36]. This reporting also reduces the information asymmetry between shareholders and bank executives [37]. In line with these considerations, CSR is a valuable tool to increase shareholder confidence and improve the bank’s ethical behavior. It is therefore one of the key factors in influencing the bank’s competitiveness and long-term success [38].
The growing interest in CSR has led many countries to introduce their respective regulatory frameworks. CSR regulations have been imposed for banks in different countries over the years (e.g. 2003 in Austria, 2007 in Malaysia, 2009 in Sweden, 2010 in China, 2012 in Spain, 2016 in Belgium and 2017 in Hungary and Singapore). Other countries, such as Australia, Canada and Cyprus, have soft regulations in the form of recommendations to encourage the disclosure of CSR [39]. Banks should follow standards (e.g. GRI, designed for the financial services sector) or employ independent external auditors to ensure the quality and reliability of the information disclosed.
The efficiency of the banks’ board of directors is important to ensure their stability, compliance with regulations, the protection of stakeholders as well as to form long-term strategies that also include sustainability issues [37, 40, 41]. Diversity in the composition of the Board of Directors is considered one of the key elements to resolve complex issues and satisfy the interests of different actors. Diversity on company boards should improve good corporate governance. The diversity of the Board of Directors is examined in terms of the composition of the board of directors with a focus on the size of the board, the independence of the board of directors and gender diversity.
2.1.1 Board size
The size of the board of directors in banks is much larger than the boards of directors of non-financial corporations [42]. These differences in the size of the board of directors may depend on the complexity of banking activities and regulatory recommendations. Several studies examine the relationship between the size of the board of directors and the various performance measures of banks. The size of a bank’s board of directors has positive effects on performance; this is probably due to the fact that banks are complex businesses and the advantages of larger boards outweigh costs, improving monitoring functions and mitigating risks.
In order for the Board of Directors to carry out its functions efficiently, it is necessary to diversify the skills and experience of its members [43]. More board members are associated with better monitoring mechanisms for performing their functions as well as an improvement in CSR practices [44]. As more directors provide a more diverse and broader variety of skills and opinions, larger boards of directors are expected to focus more on the CSR [45, 46]. The banking sector, being subject to strict information disclosure requirements, is more transparent than non-financial companies.
2.1.2 Independent director
Also the independence of the Board of Directors is considered one of the most efficient governance mechanisms [47]. Independence is linked to the presence of non-executive directors who ensure the correct behavior of the company [37, 48]. Independent directors therefore act as guardians of the company’s legitimacy by ensuring compliance with regulations and meeting the expectations of the external environment, including social and environmental concerns [49]. Non-executive directors can be guided by personal interests and consequently pursue goals that are misaligned with the company’s strategy. Since CSR information is obtained by management, there is a risk of spreading misleading information [50]. In that case, independent directors may reduce that risk. Much of the existing literature is agreed that non-executive board members are positively associated with the disclosure of the CSR of banks or its quality [49].
2.1.3 Board’s diversity
Nowadays a large part of CSR studies believe that a key success factor is represented by the diversity of the board in terms of gender, ethnicity or background. Diversity on boards, expressed in terms of the number of women on the board, should increase the independence of the board and focus on the interests of different stakeholders [40]. Leadership styles based on gender diversity suggest that women tend to be more democratic, showing more empathy for diversity [39, 51]. This indicates that women should have a positive influence on the functioning of the board of directors as they should promote collaboration and integration of more complex issues in discussions and decision-making. Much of the literature on the subject is in agreement in affirming the positive association between the number of women on the board of directors and the information on the CSR of the banks [43, 45, 48].
2.1.4 CSR committee
Finally, it is worth noting that in recent year companies, in order to achieve sustainability goals, more frequently choose to set up a committee. The CSR or Sustainability Committee assists the Board of Directors in overseeing the company’s liability practices, but they can also play a key role in monitoring and evaluating the company’s CSR performance by ensuring compliance with regulations that manage sustainability risks. In other words, the CSR Committee helps to improve the ethical culture of the company by ensuring that the potentially dangerous risks to the company’s reputation are properly assessed [52, 53].
The CSR advisory committee periodically reports to the board on sustainability issues affecting the company, while managing public disclosure on sustainability issues. The existence of a CSR committee is evidence of the company’s commitment to CSR and therefore to the pursuit of ethical and sustainable objectives [54, 55].
In line with these considerations, a company that decides to set up a CSR committee demonstrates not only its CSR commitment to stakeholders, but also its intention to make sustainability a key strategy to improve the extent or quality of sustainability disclosure [56, 57, 58].
2.2 Empirical results
The size of the board of directors as a lever to make the function of the bank’s board of directors efficient is analyzed by several academics and scholars. In line with the introductory considerations, a greater number of members of the board of directors is associated with better monitoring mechanisms for carrying out the functions of the board as well as an improvement in CSR practices. In line with these considerations, the analysis carried out revealed that the average size of Board of Directors is 13 members within a range that varies from a minimum of 6 to a maximum of 21 members. Although a positive correlation between the number of members of the Board of Directors and size - measured in terms of assets managed - can be detected, it does not however assume particularly significant values (correlation coefficient: 0,14) (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Board size.
The second area of investigation concerned the examination of the number of independent directors. In line with existing literature, independent directors can reduce the risk of manipulation or distortion of CSR reporting. The boards of directors of the banks examined present an average of 64% of independent directors, in a range that varies from a minimum of 24% to a maximum of 64%. Only in one case is the board of directors made up exclusively of independent directors. However, it should be noted that most banks have at least 50% of independent directors (18 out of 25 banks), while in the remaining 7 banks the percentage of independent directors varies between 24% and 45% (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Number of independent directors.
Gender diversity on boards of directors, usually expressed in terms of the number of women on the board of directors, should have a positive influence on the functioning of the board of directors and information on banks’ CSR.
The empirical analysis shows that in 2018, the representation of women on the boards of directors of the banks analyzed was 35%. In three of the banks examined, the number of women on the board of directors is equal to the number of men. 18 of the banks examined have a percentage of women on the board of directors of more than 30%, while in the remaining 7 banks there is a percentage varying between 13 and 29% (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Number of women on the board.
Establishing a committee dedicated to CSR is a widespread practice (92% of the sample). The analysis showed a strong heterogeneity in the behavior of banks. On the one hand, some banks decide to set up coordination committees that control other units dedicated to specific CSR issues. On the other hand, in other cases there is cooperation between officials at group level or committees focusing on specific issues relating to the environment, society and governance. The range of activities carried out by CSR functions include: stimulating CSR initiatives and increasing internal awareness of CSR issues; formulation and monitoring of policy and accountability programmes; responsibility for coordinating and implementing the company’s sustainability strategy and action plan; measures to deliver the sustainability strategy and achieve agreed company-wide goals. In the cases examined, there is often a special committee for responsible investments in the asset management business area to ensure that banks’ responsible investment policy is respected (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
CSR committee.
3. Conclusion
The concept of Corporate Social Responsibility stems from the need for companies to interconnect the needs of the community with the various sources of profit. The growing interest in CSR issues, especially in banks, is the result of a cultural journey that sees the company reacting to market changes and being the protagonist of an increasingly sustainable future.
Banks integrate social and environmental interest into their strategic objectives. Together with the financial and environmental aspects, the ethical value of the banks assumes greater importance for the development of both production and marketing strategies, representing a new tool for competitiveness.
Banks pay attention to corporate social responsibility as an additional lever of innovation and development to better compete on the market in the medium and long term. More precisely, CSR contributes to the improvement of proactive risk management, integrating it with social, environmental and government variables; improves the relationship with stakeholders, promoting an analysis of the needs of bank interlocutors and the development of products, services and commercial models. Finally, the CSR makes explicit the implications that the role of intermediation of money has on society and favors the creation of a shared value. In light of the above, this chapter has set itself the objective of exploring the level of integration of Corporate Social Responsibility in the banking system. To achieve this, we carried out an exploratory analysis on a sample of 25 banks, belonging to the universe of Global Systematically Important Institutions in 2018. All the bank’s official documents on governance and sustainability policies were analysed, and we used the Datastream database for some qualitative aspects. Our study focused on four areas of investigation relating to the composition, size and configuration of the boards of directors.
The main results show a favorable attitude of banks towards the integration of sustainable policies. More precisely, with regard to the first area ofinvestigation, a greater number of members of the board of directors (average of 13 directors) are associated with an improvement in CSR practices.
The examination of the number of independent directors (second area of investigation), as a tool to reduce the risk of manipulation or distortion of CSR relationships, showed positive trends. In fact, the boards of directors of the banks examined present an average of 64% of the independent directors.
A further crucial element for examining the implementation of CSR policies in banks concerns gender diversity on boards of directors. It is believed that more women on the board of directors positively influence the functioning of the board of directors and the disclosure on CSRs in banks. In 2018 the representation of women on the boards of banks of the banks analyzed was 35%.
Finally, the last area of investigation relating to the presence of a committee dedicated to CSR reveals a strong heterogeneity in the behavior of banks. On the one hand, some banks decide to set up coordination committees that control other units dedicated to specific CSR issues. On the other hand, in other cases there is cooperation between group level officials or committees focused on specific issues relating to the environment, society and governance. In the cases examined, there is often a special committee for responsible investment in the commercial asset management sector to ensure compliance with the responsible investment policy of banks.
To sum up, the integration of CSR policies will allow banks to compete better on the market in the medium and long term, satisfy the requests of their stakeholders as well as protect the ethical and social values of the banks themselves.
This chapter represents an exploratory study on the level of integration of CSR practices in banks and in particular on the boards of directors of banks. The elements considered in this study may be further investigated, through future empirical analyzes. Future research could be oriented towards an in-depth examination of the sustainable investments put in place by banks over time.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Author contributions
This article is the result of the joint efforts of the authors, who equally contributed to the work.
\n',keywords:"corporate social responsibility, corporate reputation, financial institutions",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73906.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73906.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73906",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73906",totalDownloads:382,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"October 13th 2020",datePrePublished:"November 3rd 2020",datePublished:"March 16th 2022",dateFinished:"November 3rd 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Corporate social responsibility originates from the company’s behavioral problems. Corporate governance can be considered an environment of trust, ethics and moral values and in recent years has gained enormous importance. In addition, other factors that have been responsible for the new corporate governance paradigm are a stricter respect for the environment and the demand for greater corporate responsibility towards its shareholders and customers. Ecosystem load capacity is described with resource consumption input–output models. In line with this, the company should not use more than one resource that can be regenerated. Considering an organization as part of a broader social and economic system implies that these effects must be taken into account, not only for the measurement of the costs and value created in the present, but also in a future perspective for the company. In this context banks, which carry out the fundamental role as financial intermediaries, are linked with different stakeholder interests, both in economic and social field. This chapter analyzes the main novelties which has influenced corporate governance of them by reviewing its main phases. The chapter secondly addresses the specific features of board of directors by analyzing a sample of 25 banks defined as Global Systematically Important Institutions in 2018 following the EBA guidelines.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73906",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73906",signatures:"Stefano Dell’Atti, Francesca Donofrio and Grazia Onorato",book:{id:"9032",type:"book",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Corporate Social Responsibility",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility",publishedDate:"March 16th 2022",bookSignature:"Beatrice Orlando",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9032.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-939-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-938-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-940-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"232969",title:"Prof.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Orlando",slug:"beatrice-orlando",fullName:"Beatrice Orlando"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"324554",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"Dell'Atti",fullName:"Stefano Dell'Atti",slug:"stefano-dell'atti",email:"stefano.dellatti@unifg.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"324555",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesca",middleName:null,surname:"Donofrio",fullName:"Francesca Donofrio",slug:"francesca-donofrio",email:"francesca.donofrio@uniba.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Bari Aldo Moro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"324556",title:"Dr.",name:"Grazia",middleName:null,surname:"Onorato",fullName:"Grazia Onorato",slug:"grazia-onorato",email:"grazia.onorato@uniba.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Bari Aldo Moro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Banks’ commitment to corporate social responsibility",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. An empirical analysis of CSR in global systematically important institutions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.1 CSR in bank’s corporate governance systems: introductory notes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.1 Board size",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.2 Independent director",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.1.3 Board’s diversity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.1.4 CSR committee",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.2 Empirical results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"3. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Conflicts of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Author contributions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Commission Of The European Communities. GREEN PAPER: Promoting a European framework for Corporate Social Responsibility. 2001'},{id:"B2",body:'Bedoui HE. 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Department of Economics, University of Foggia, Italy
Department of Economics, Management and Business Law, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Italy
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Physical Sciences, Technology and Engineering Board
\\n\\n
Chemistry
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Ayben Kilislioglu - Department of Chemical Engineering Istanbul University, İstanbul, Turkey
\\n\\t
Goran Nikolic - Faculty of Technology, University of Nis, Leskovac, Serbia
\\n\\t
Mark T. Stauffer - Associate Professor of Chemistry, The University of Pittsburgh, USA
\\n\\t
Margarita Stoytcheva - Autonomous University of Baja California Engineering Institute Mexicali, Baja California, Mexico
Joao Luis Garcia Rosa - Associate Professor Bio-inspired Computing Laboratory (BioCom) Department of Computer Science University of Sao Paulo (USP) at Sao Carlos, Brazil
\\n\\t
Jan Valdman - Institute of Mathematics and Biomathematics, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic Institute of Information Theory and Automation of the ASCR, Prague, Czech Republic
\\n
\\n\\n
Earth and Planetary Science
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Jill S. M. Coleman - Department of Geography, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA
\\n\\t
İbrahim Küçük Erciyes - Üniversitesi Department of Astronomy and Space Sciences Melikgazi, Kayseri, Turkey
\\n\\t
Pasquale Imperatore - Electromagnetic Environmental Sensing (IREA), Italian National Council of Research (CNR), Naples, Italy
\\n\\t
Mohammad Mokhtari - Director of National Center for Earthquake Prediction International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES), Tehran, Iran
\\n
\\n\\n
Engineering
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Narottam Das - University of Southern Queensland, Australia
\\n\\t
Jose Ignacio Huertas - Energy and Climate Change Research Group; Instituto Tecnológico y Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Mexico
Likun Pan - Engineering Research Center for Nanophotonics and Advanced Instrument, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, East China Normal University, China
\\n\\t
Mukul Chandra Paul - Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute Jadavpur, Kolkata, India
\\n\\t
Stephen E. Saddow - Electrical Engineering Department, University of South Florida, USA
\\n\\t
Ali Demir Sezer - Marmara University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, İstanbul, Turkey
\\n\\t
Krzysztof Zboinski - Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Transport, Warsaw, Poland
\\n
\\n\\n
Materials Science
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Vadim Glebovsky - Senior Researcher, Institute of Solid State Physics, Chernogolovka, Russia Expert of the Russian Fund for Basic Research, Moscow, Russia
\\n\\t
Jianjun Liu - State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure of Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
\\n\\t
Pietro Mandracci - Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Italy
\\n\\t
Waldemar Alfredo Monteiro - Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares Materials Science and Technology Center (MSTC) São Paulo, SP, Brazil
Toshio Ogawa - Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Shizuoka Institute of Science and Technology, Toyosawa, Fukuroi, Shizuoka, Japan
\\n
\\n\\n
Mathematics
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Paul Bracken - Department of Mathematics University of Texas, Edinburg, TX, USA
\\n
\\n\\n
Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Muhammad Akhyar - Farrukh Nano-Chemistry Lab. Registrar, GC University Lahore, Pakistan
\\n\\t
Khan Maaz - Chinese Academy of Sciences, China & The Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, Pakistan
\\n
\\n\\n
Physics
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Izabela Naydenova - Lecturer, School of Physics Principal Investigator, IEO Centre College of Sciences and Health Dublin Institute of Technology Dublin, Ireland
\\n\\t
Mitsuru Nenoi - National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Japan
\\n\\t
Christos Volos - Physics Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
\\n
\\n\\n
Robotics
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Alejandra Barrera - Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, México
\\n\\t
Dusan M. Stipanovic - Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
\\n\\t
Andrzej Zak - Polish Naval Academy Faculty of Navigation and Naval Weapons Institute of Naval Weapons and Computer Science, Gdynia, Poland
Petr Konvalina - Faculty of Agriculture, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Czech Republic
\\n
\\n\\n
Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Chunfa Huang - Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, USA
\\n\\t
Michael Kormann - University Children's Clinic Department of Pediatrics I, Pediatric Infectiology & Immunology, Translational Genomics and Gene Therapy in Pediatrics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
\\n\\t
Bin WU - Ph.D. HCLD Scientific Laboratory Director, Assisted Reproductive Technology Arizona Center for Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility Tucson, Arizona , USA
\\n
\\n\\n
Environmental Sciences
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Juan A. Blanco - Senior Researcher & Marie Curie Research Fellow Dep. Ciencias del Medio Natural, Universidad Publica de Navarra Campus de Arrosadia, Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
\\n\\t
Mikkola Heimo - University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
\\n\\t
Bernardo Llamas Moya - Politechnical University of Madrid, Spain
\\n\\t
Toonika Rinken - Department of Environmental Chemistry, University of Tartu, Estonia
\\n
\\n\\n
Immunology and Microbiology
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran - Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, India
Isabel Gigli - Facultad de Agronomia-UNLPam, Argentina
\\n\\t
Milad Manafi - Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran
\\n\\t
Rita Payan-Carreira - Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Departamento de Zootecnia, Portugal
\\n
\\n\\n
Medicine
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Mazen Almasri - King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Dentistry Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dentistry
\\n\\t
Craig Atwood - University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\\n\\t
Oreste Capelli - Clinical Governance, Local Health Authority, Modena, Italy Public Health
\\n\\t
Michael Firstenberg - Assistant Professor of Surgery and Integrative Medicine NorthEast Ohio Medical University, USA & Akron City Hospital - Summa Health System, USA Surgery
\\n\\t
Parul Ichhpujani - MD Government Medical College & Hospital, Department of Ophthalmology, India
Amidou Samie - University of Venda, SA Infectious Diseases
\\n\\t
Shailendra K. Saxena - CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India Infectious Diseases
\\n\\t
Dan T. Simionescu - Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson SC, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\\n\\t
Ke Xu - Tianjin Lung Cancer Institute Tianjin Medical University General Hospital Tianjin, China Oncology
\\n
\\n\\n
Ophthalmology
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Hojjat Ahmadzadehfar - University Hospital Bonn Department of Nuclear Medicine Bonn, Germany Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\\n\\t
Miroslav Blumenberg - Department of Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, NY, USA Dermatology
\\n\\t
Wilfred Bonney - University of Dundee, Scotland, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\\n\\t
Christakis Constantinides - Department of Cardiovascular Medicine University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\\n\\t
Atef Mohamed Mostafa Darwish - Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Egypt Gynecology
\\n\\t
Ana Polona Mivšek - University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Midwifery
\\n\\t
Gyula Mozsik - First Department of Medicine, Medical and Health Centre, University of Pécs, Hungary
\\n\\t
Shimon Rumelt - Western Galilee-Nahariya Medical Center, Nahariya, Israel Ophthalmology
\\n\\t
Marcelo Saad - S. Paulo Medical College of Acupuncture, SP, Brazil Complementary and Alternative Medicine
\\n\\t
Minoru Tomizawa - National Hospital Organization Shimoshizu Hospital, Japan Gastroenterology
\\n\\t
Pierre Vereecken - Centre Hospitalier Valida and Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Belgium Dermatology
\\n
\\n\\n
Gastroenterology
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Hany Aly - Director, Division of Newborn Services The George Washington University Hospital Washington, USA Pediatrics
\\n\\t
Yannis Dionyssiotis - National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\\n\\t
Alina Gonzales- Quevedo Instituto de Neurología y Neurocirugía Havana, Cuba Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n\\t
Margarita Guenova - National Specialized Hospital for Active Treatment of Haematological Diseases, Bulgaria
\\n\\t
Eliska Potlukova - Clinic of Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland Edocrinology
\\n\\t
Raymond L. Rosales -The Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines & Metropolitan Medical Center, Manila, Philippines & St. Luke's Medical Center International Institute in Neuroscience, Quezon City, Philippines Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n\\t
Alessandro Rozim - Zorzi University of Campinas, Departamento de Ortopedia e Traumatologia, Campinas, SP, Brazil Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\\n\\t
Dieter Schoepf - University of Bonn, Germany Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n
\\n\\n
Hematology
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Hesham Abd El-Dayem - National Liver Institute, Menoufeyia University, Egypt Hepatology
\\n\\t
Fayez Bahmad - Health Science Faculty of the University of Brasilia Instructor of Otology at Brasilia University Hospital Brasilia, Brazil Otorhinolaryngology
\\n\\t
Peter A. Clark - Saint Joseph's University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA Bioethics
\\n\\t
Celso Pereira - Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal Immunology, Allergology and Rheumatology
\\n\\t
Luis Rodrigo - Asturias Central University Hospital (HUCA) School of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain Hepatology & Gastroenterology
\\n\\t
Dennis Wat - Liverpool Heart and Chest Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, UK Pulmonology
\\n
\\n\\n
Social Sciences and Humanities Board
\\n\\n
Business, Management and Economics
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Vito Bobek - University of Applied Sciences, FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria
Joao Luis Garcia Rosa - Associate Professor Bio-inspired Computing Laboratory (BioCom) Department of Computer Science University of Sao Paulo (USP) at Sao Carlos, Brazil
\n\t
Jan Valdman - Institute of Mathematics and Biomathematics, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic Institute of Information Theory and Automation of the ASCR, Prague, Czech Republic
\n
\n\n
Earth and Planetary Science
\n\n
\n\t
Jill S. M. Coleman - Department of Geography, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA
\n\t
İbrahim Küçük Erciyes - Üniversitesi Department of Astronomy and Space Sciences Melikgazi, Kayseri, Turkey
\n\t
Pasquale Imperatore - Electromagnetic Environmental Sensing (IREA), Italian National Council of Research (CNR), Naples, Italy
\n\t
Mohammad Mokhtari - Director of National Center for Earthquake Prediction International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES), Tehran, Iran
\n
\n\n
Engineering
\n\n
\n\t
Narottam Das - University of Southern Queensland, Australia
\n\t
Jose Ignacio Huertas - Energy and Climate Change Research Group; Instituto Tecnológico y Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Mexico
Likun Pan - Engineering Research Center for Nanophotonics and Advanced Instrument, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, East China Normal University, China
\n\t
Mukul Chandra Paul - Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute Jadavpur, Kolkata, India
\n\t
Stephen E. Saddow - Electrical Engineering Department, University of South Florida, USA
\n\t
Ali Demir Sezer - Marmara University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, İstanbul, Turkey
\n\t
Krzysztof Zboinski - Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Transport, Warsaw, Poland
\n
\n\n
Materials Science
\n\n
\n\t
Vadim Glebovsky - Senior Researcher, Institute of Solid State Physics, Chernogolovka, Russia Expert of the Russian Fund for Basic Research, Moscow, Russia
\n\t
Jianjun Liu - State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure of Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
\n\t
Pietro Mandracci - Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Italy
\n\t
Waldemar Alfredo Monteiro - Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares Materials Science and Technology Center (MSTC) São Paulo, SP, Brazil
Toshio Ogawa - Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Shizuoka Institute of Science and Technology, Toyosawa, Fukuroi, Shizuoka, Japan
\n
\n\n
Mathematics
\n\n
\n\t
Paul Bracken - Department of Mathematics University of Texas, Edinburg, TX, USA
\n
\n\n
Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials
\n\n
\n\t
Muhammad Akhyar - Farrukh Nano-Chemistry Lab. Registrar, GC University Lahore, Pakistan
\n\t
Khan Maaz - Chinese Academy of Sciences, China & The Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, Pakistan
\n
\n\n
Physics
\n\n
\n\t
Izabela Naydenova - Lecturer, School of Physics Principal Investigator, IEO Centre College of Sciences and Health Dublin Institute of Technology Dublin, Ireland
\n\t
Mitsuru Nenoi - National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Japan
\n\t
Christos Volos - Physics Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
\n
\n\n
Robotics
\n\n
\n\t
Alejandra Barrera - Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, México
\n\t
Dusan M. Stipanovic - Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
\n\t
Andrzej Zak - Polish Naval Academy Faculty of Navigation and Naval Weapons Institute of Naval Weapons and Computer Science, Gdynia, Poland
Petr Konvalina - Faculty of Agriculture, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Czech Republic
\n
\n\n
Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology
\n\n
\n\t
Chunfa Huang - Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, USA
\n\t
Michael Kormann - University Children's Clinic Department of Pediatrics I, Pediatric Infectiology & Immunology, Translational Genomics and Gene Therapy in Pediatrics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
\n\t
Bin WU - Ph.D. HCLD Scientific Laboratory Director, Assisted Reproductive Technology Arizona Center for Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility Tucson, Arizona , USA
\n
\n\n
Environmental Sciences
\n\n
\n\t
Juan A. Blanco - Senior Researcher & Marie Curie Research Fellow Dep. Ciencias del Medio Natural, Universidad Publica de Navarra Campus de Arrosadia, Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
\n\t
Mikkola Heimo - University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
\n\t
Bernardo Llamas Moya - Politechnical University of Madrid, Spain
\n\t
Toonika Rinken - Department of Environmental Chemistry, University of Tartu, Estonia
\n
\n\n
Immunology and Microbiology
\n\n
\n\t
Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran - Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, India
Isabel Gigli - Facultad de Agronomia-UNLPam, Argentina
\n\t
Milad Manafi - Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran
\n\t
Rita Payan-Carreira - Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Departamento de Zootecnia, Portugal
\n
\n\n
Medicine
\n\n
\n\t
Mazen Almasri - King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Dentistry Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dentistry
\n\t
Craig Atwood - University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\n\t
Oreste Capelli - Clinical Governance, Local Health Authority, Modena, Italy Public Health
\n\t
Michael Firstenberg - Assistant Professor of Surgery and Integrative Medicine NorthEast Ohio Medical University, USA & Akron City Hospital - Summa Health System, USA Surgery
\n\t
Parul Ichhpujani - MD Government Medical College & Hospital, Department of Ophthalmology, India
Amidou Samie - University of Venda, SA Infectious Diseases
\n\t
Shailendra K. Saxena - CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India Infectious Diseases
\n\t
Dan T. Simionescu - Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson SC, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\n\t
Ke Xu - Tianjin Lung Cancer Institute Tianjin Medical University General Hospital Tianjin, China Oncology
\n
\n\n
Ophthalmology
\n\n
\n\t
Hojjat Ahmadzadehfar - University Hospital Bonn Department of Nuclear Medicine Bonn, Germany Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Miroslav Blumenberg - Department of Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, NY, USA Dermatology
\n\t
Wilfred Bonney - University of Dundee, Scotland, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Christakis Constantinides - Department of Cardiovascular Medicine University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Atef Mohamed Mostafa Darwish - Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Egypt Gynecology
\n\t
Ana Polona Mivšek - University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Midwifery
\n\t
Gyula Mozsik - First Department of Medicine, Medical and Health Centre, University of Pécs, Hungary
\n\t
Shimon Rumelt - Western Galilee-Nahariya Medical Center, Nahariya, Israel Ophthalmology
\n\t
Marcelo Saad - S. Paulo Medical College of Acupuncture, SP, Brazil Complementary and Alternative Medicine
\n\t
Minoru Tomizawa - National Hospital Organization Shimoshizu Hospital, Japan Gastroenterology
\n\t
Pierre Vereecken - Centre Hospitalier Valida and Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Belgium Dermatology
\n
\n\n
Gastroenterology
\n\n
\n\t
Hany Aly - Director, Division of Newborn Services The George Washington University Hospital Washington, USA Pediatrics
\n\t
Yannis Dionyssiotis - National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\n\t
Alina Gonzales- Quevedo Instituto de Neurología y Neurocirugía Havana, Cuba Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n\t
Margarita Guenova - National Specialized Hospital for Active Treatment of Haematological Diseases, Bulgaria
\n\t
Eliska Potlukova - Clinic of Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland Edocrinology
\n\t
Raymond L. Rosales -The Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines & Metropolitan Medical Center, Manila, Philippines & St. Luke's Medical Center International Institute in Neuroscience, Quezon City, Philippines Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n\t
Alessandro Rozim - Zorzi University of Campinas, Departamento de Ortopedia e Traumatologia, Campinas, SP, Brazil Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\n\t
Dieter Schoepf - University of Bonn, Germany Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n
\n\n
Hematology
\n\n
\n\t
Hesham Abd El-Dayem - National Liver Institute, Menoufeyia University, Egypt Hepatology
\n\t
Fayez Bahmad - Health Science Faculty of the University of Brasilia Instructor of Otology at Brasilia University Hospital Brasilia, Brazil Otorhinolaryngology
\n\t
Peter A. Clark - Saint Joseph's University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA Bioethics
\n\t
Celso Pereira - Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal Immunology, Allergology and Rheumatology
\n\t
Luis Rodrigo - Asturias Central University Hospital (HUCA) School of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain Hepatology & Gastroenterology
\n\t
Dennis Wat - Liverpool Heart and Chest Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, UK Pulmonology
\n
\n\n
Social Sciences and Humanities Board
\n\n
Business, Management and Economics
\n\n
\n\t
Vito Bobek - University of Applied Sciences, FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria
Denis Erasga - De La Salle University, Phillippines
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Rosario Laratta - Associate Professor of Social Policy and Development Graduate School of Governance Studies, Meiji University, Japan
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It is documented that textiles can be coated with multifunctional materials in form of thin films or nanoparticles to acquire characteristics that can improve the protection and comfort of the wearer. The capacity of oxide nanostructures to inhibit fungal development and neutralize bacteria is a direct consequence of their wetting behavior [1–6]. Moreover, the radical modification of wetting behavior of nanostructures from hydrophilic to hydrophobic when changing the pulsed laser deposition (PLD) ambient will be thoroughly discussed.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"L. Duta, A.C. Popescu, I. Zgura, N. Preda and I.N. Mihailescu",authors:[{id:"17636",title:"Prof.",name:"Ion N.",middleName:null,surname:"Mihailescu",slug:"ion-n.-mihailescu",fullName:"Ion N. Mihailescu"},{id:"23532",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Popescu",slug:"andrei-popescu",fullName:"Andrei Popescu"},{id:"174343",title:"Dr.",name:"Liviu",middleName:null,surname:"Duta",slug:"liviu-duta",fullName:"Liviu Duta"},{id:"174344",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Zgura",slug:"irina-zgura",fullName:"Irina Zgura"},{id:"174345",title:"Dr.",name:"Ligia",middleName:null,surname:"Frunza",slug:"ligia-frunza",fullName:"Ligia Frunza"}]},{id:"64392",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80542",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors",totalDownloads:3328,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Corrosion is a natural process driven by energy consideration. Inhibition is a preventive measure against corrosive attack on metallic materials. Corrosion inhibitors have been frequently studied, since they offer simple solution for protection of metals against corrosion in aqueous environment. Mineral acids like hydrochloric and sulfuric acids are most widely used in pickling baths to remove the metal oxides formed on the surface. The multidisciplinary aspect of corrosion problems combined with the distributed responsibilities associated with such problems only increase the complexity of the subject. Inhibitors are used in industrial and commercial processes to minimize both the metal loss and acid consumption.",book:{id:"7550",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors",fullTitle:"Corrosion Inhibitors"},signatures:"Geethamani Palanisamy",authors:[{id:"253697",title:"Dr.",name:"Geethamani",middleName:null,surname:"Palanisamy",slug:"geethamani-palanisamy",fullName:"Geethamani Palanisamy"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"48768",title:"TiO2 -Based Surfaces with Special Wettability – From Nature to Biomimetic Application",slug:"tio2-based-surfaces-with-special-wettability-from-nature-to-biomimetic-application",totalDownloads:5046,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Super-wetting/antiwetting surfaces with extremely high contrast of surface energy and liquid adhesion have attracted a lot of interest in both fundamental research and industry. Various types of special wetting surfaces can be constructed by adjusting the topographical structure and chemical composition. In this chapter, recent advance of the super-wetting/antiwetting surfaces with special solid/liquid adhesion has been reviewed, with a focus on the biomimetic fabrication and applications of TiO2-based surfaces. Special super-wettability examples include lotus-leaf-inspired surfaces with low adhesion, rose-petal-inspired surfaces with high adhesion, spider silk bio-inspired surfaces with directional adhesion, fish-scale-inspired underwater superoleophobic surface, and artificial surfaces with controllable or stimuli-responsive liquid adhesion. In addition, we will review some potential applications related to artificial antiwetting surface with controllable adhesion, e.g., self-cleaning, antifogging/anti-icing, micro-droplet manipulation, fog/water collection, water/oil separation, anti-bioadhesion, micro-template for patterning, and friction reduction. Finally, the difficulty and prospects of this renascent and rapidly developing field are also briefly proposed and discussed.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"Jian-Ying Huang and Yue-Kun Lai",authors:[{id:"175512",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuekun",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"yuekun-lai",fullName:"Yuekun Lai"}]},{id:"64392",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors",totalDownloads:3330,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:"Corrosion is a natural process driven by energy consideration. Inhibition is a preventive measure against corrosive attack on metallic materials. Corrosion inhibitors have been frequently studied, since they offer simple solution for protection of metals against corrosion in aqueous environment. Mineral acids like hydrochloric and sulfuric acids are most widely used in pickling baths to remove the metal oxides formed on the surface. The multidisciplinary aspect of corrosion problems combined with the distributed responsibilities associated with such problems only increase the complexity of the subject. Inhibitors are used in industrial and commercial processes to minimize both the metal loss and acid consumption.",book:{id:"7550",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors",fullTitle:"Corrosion Inhibitors"},signatures:"Geethamani Palanisamy",authors:[{id:"253697",title:"Dr.",name:"Geethamani",middleName:null,surname:"Palanisamy",slug:"geethamani-palanisamy",fullName:"Geethamani Palanisamy"}]},{id:"68236",title:"The Arrhenius Acid and Base Theory",slug:"the-arrhenius-acid-and-base-theory",totalDownloads:1392,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Swedish Svante Arrhenius, in 1884 proposed the concept of acid and base based on the theory of ionization. According to Arrhenius, the acids are the hydrogen-containing compounds which give H+ ions or protons on dissociation in water and bases are the hydroxide compounds which give OH− ions on dissociation in water. This concept is only applicable to those compounds which dissolved in aqueous solution (or you can say where water is the solvent). It covers many common acids, bases and their chemical reactions, but there are also other compounds that have the characteristics of acids and bases but they do not fit into Arrhenius concept.",book:{id:"10050",slug:"corrosion",title:"Corrosion",fullTitle:"Corrosion"},signatures:"Shikha Munjal and Aakash Singh",authors:[{id:"290524",title:"Ms.",name:"Shikha",middleName:null,surname:"Munjal",slug:"shikha-munjal",fullName:"Shikha Munjal"}]},{id:"71924",title:"Technological Background and Properties of Thin Film Semiconductors",slug:"technological-background-and-properties-of-thin-film-semiconductors",totalDownloads:897,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Especially with the development of nanotechnology and polymer science, interest in research and production of both efficient and lower-cost semiconductor thin film materials is increasing day by day. The use of nano-structured thin films for efficient use of solar cells in production of n-type semiconductor materials is one of the most important sources of energy and new-generation energy. Considering the indicated trends and energy requirements, it has been important to transfer this technology in detail regarding the surface technologies related to the semiconductor materials produced with thin film technologies instead of bulk materials. With this aim, this book chapter “Technological Background and Properties of Thin Film Semiconductors” includes a brief story about semiconductors, band gap theory, thin film applications, and besides traditional thin film processing methods finally a new technology called aerosol deposition technique which allows room temperature processing of several materials for semiconductor applications, respectively. It is thought that it will make important contributions to the relevant field and bring a new perspective and direct scientific research in “process-structure–property-performance” relation.",book:{id:"10061",slug:"21st-century-surface-science-a-handbook",title:"21st Century Surface Science",fullTitle:"21st Century Surface Science - a Handbook"},signatures:"Orkut Sancakoglu",authors:[{id:"177188",title:"Dr.",name:"Orkut",middleName:null,surname:"Sancakoğlu",slug:"orkut-sancakoglu",fullName:"Orkut Sancakoğlu"}]},{id:"60426",title:"Applications of Viscoelastic Fluids Involving Hydrodynamic Stability and Heat Transfer",slug:"applications-of-viscoelastic-fluids-involving-hydrodynamic-stability-and-heat-transfer",totalDownloads:1341,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Rayleigh and Marangoni convection and rheology are linked in the thermal convection of viscoelastic fluids to some recent technological applications. Such technology developments as the ones presented here undoubtedly shall be based on interdisciplinary projects involving not only rheology or fluid mechanics but several other disciplines. Three practical applications which use Rayleigh or Marangoni convection in their working principle are presented along with some technical details. This contribution focus mainly on the physical mechanism and the involved hydrodynamics of some lab and industrial applications. Finally, a short discussion on the role play by the convective mechanisms is given in order to provide integration of the exposed ideas.",book:{id:"6702",slug:"polymer-rheology",title:"Polymer Rheology",fullTitle:"Polymer Rheology"},signatures:"Ildebrando Pérez-Reyes, René Osvaldo Vargas-Aguilar, Samuel\nBernardo Pérez-Vega and Alejandro Sebastián Ortiz-Pérez",authors:[{id:"183938",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Perez-Vega",slug:"samuel-perez-vega",fullName:"Samuel Perez-Vega"},{id:"186659",title:"Prof.",name:"Ildebrando",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Reyes",slug:"ildebrando-perez-reyes",fullName:"Ildebrando Pérez-Reyes"},{id:"242858",title:"Prof.",name:"Rene Osvaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Vargas-Aguilar",slug:"rene-osvaldo-vargas-aguilar",fullName:"Rene Osvaldo Vargas-Aguilar"},{id:"242859",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz-Perez",slug:"alejandro-sebastian-ortiz-perez",fullName:"Alejandro Sebastian Ortiz-Perez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"160",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
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Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{}},subseries:{item:{id:"25",type:"subseries",title:"Evolutionary Computation",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. 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Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. 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