Lessons Learned from 30 Years of Assessing U.S. Coastal Water

The 1972 Clean Water Act (CWA) established goals and regulations regarding water quality in the U.S. water resources, including coastal waters. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was charged with implementing the CWA’s goals and with helping states, and tribes meet their mandate to periodically monitor and assess water quality in their jurisdictions. In response, the EPA initiated the Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (EMAP) to develop and test effective methods of assessing water quality in lakes, rivers and streams, and estuaries at state and national scales. EMAP-Estuaries commenced in 1990, devising sampling designs and protocols for estuaries, testing potential indicators, establishing assessment, and reporting methods. Estuarine research and development efforts continued in a series of subsequent programs, each adapting and adopting the best practices of earlier programs, each becoming more national in scale, and each integrating state and tribal participation to a greater degree. Recent surveys have included an assessment of coastal Great Lakes waters. This chapter recounts the history of assessments in coastal waters, emphasizing the current approach while highlighting examples of lessons learned over the 30-year development period leading to the National Coastal Condition Assessment.


Introduction
The 1960s were a decade of growing awareness and concern regarding the declining quality of the surface waters of the U.S., most dramatically exemplified when the Cuyahoga River, Ohio caught fire in the summer of 1969. In response, the U.S. Congress passed the Clean Water Act (CWA) in 1972 [1], establishing goals and regulations governing the restoration and maintenance of the nation's water resources, including coastal regions. The CWA also specifically addressed the need for monitoring water quality. Section 305b of the CWA required states and tribes to survey and periodically report on the overall condition of their surface waters, including coastal waters. In addition to the state programs, numerous other water quality monitoring and research programs were initiated in major estuarine systems, such as Chesapeake Bay, Narragansett Bay, Tampa Bay, and Puget Sound.

Key features of EPA's coastal assessments
During the summer of 2010, nearly 50 field crews visited 1104 pre-selected sampling stations in U.S. estuaries and Great Lakes coastal waters. Onsite, the crews collected environmental data and sampled the water column, sediments, and benthic and fish communities. Preserved samples were shipped to a dozen or so laboratories for analysis, and laboratory and field data were ultimately compiled into databases for analysis and reporting. In the following sub-sections, we outline the NCCA procedures used to select sampling stations, collect samples and information onsite, and assess and report ecological conditions at various scales. Further details regarding the implementation and evolution of assessment methods are described in Section 3.

Selecting sites
The NCCA employed a rigorous design process to meet several key assessment goals. First, the coastal waters to be assessed-the target population-was precisely specified. The target population was carefully defined as: (i) all estuarine waters in the conterminous U.S. from the "head-of-salt" (landward extent of waters with salinity greater than 0.5 ppm) to the boundary with the open ocean and (ii) Great Lakes of the U.S nearshore coastal waters located within 5 km of shore and less than 30 m in depth. EMAP included some inland river sections, river mouths, tidal streams and ponds, and sections of the continental shelf. However, NCCA excluded such waters as tidal streams and deep central channels of major rivers and bays, non-estuarine shorelines to better accommodate state needs. A GIS file specifying the areal coverage of the study regions-the sample frame-was compiled for subsequent use in selecting sampling sites. The sample frame for the 2010 NCCA comprised an area of 91,700 sq. km of coastal marine and fresh water.
Next, sampling sites were selected using a probabilistic, stratified survey design. That is, the target region was divided into strata-multiple nested assessment units that fairly represented the nation and various subregions designated for evaluation [23]. The largest domains were the five reporting regions: (1) The Atlantic coast of the northeastern U.S. from Maine through Virginia (including Chesapeake Bay); (2) the Atlantic coast of the southeastern U.S. from North Carolina through Biscayne Bay in south Florida; (3) the Gulf of Mexico coast of the U.S. from Biscayne Bay through Texas; (4) the Pacific coast of the western U.S. from Washington through California; and (5) the U.S. coasts of the Great Lakes. These strata were subdivided to delineate the coastal waters of the 21 ocean states and the five Great Lakes, and some larger units were in turn further subdivided to highlight important water bodies or regions designated for special study. The 2010 NCCA sampling design recognized a total of 64 distinct strata, which could be combined as needed for analysis or reporting at multiple spatial scales. Survey planners specified the number of sites allotted to each stratum based on cost effectiveness and survey priorities. The five primary reporting regions and the distribution of sampling sites in the 2010 NCCA survey are shown in Figure 2.
Sample sites were then selected probabilistically, but not randomly, using a process termed the Generalized Random Tessellation Survey (GRTS) design [23]. The GRTS method employs an intricate algorithm that ensures uniform and unbiased station placement, thereby minimizing clumping that may result if sites were selected using a purely randomized approach. A weighting factor, called the inclusion probability, was provided for each site. The factor was calculated as the stratum area divided by the number of sites in the stratum and was used during the analysis stage to estimate regional condition (see Section 2.3). Finally, the survey design procedure identified both "base" and "oversample" locations. Sampling was mandatory at the base sites, and oversample sites were designated as replacements for inaccessible base sites or to be used by states in other regional assessments or enhancements. At least 50 base sites were allocated to each of the five reporting regions and to strata receiving an enhanced assessment. A sample size of 50 sites was considered adequate to yield results with reasonable statistical confidence [23]. Ten percent of the base sites were designated as "revisit sites", to be sampled twice during the same summer period in order to estimate intra-site variability. Additionally, 25% of sites were identified as "return sites"-stations to be repeatedly reassessed over the course of four subsequent NCCA surveys. These return sites increase the ability to quantify temporal variance and to aid in detecting change over time [24]. Further details of the entire NCCA site selection process is available in a non-technical overview of monitoring design topics provided online [25].

Implementing coastal surveys
The 2010 NCCA survey was a highly orchestrated campaign mounted to assess the nation's coastal waters. Implementation included training field crews, documenting sampling and analysis methods, collecting information and physical samples onsite, coordinating sample analysis, building databases, and performing quality assurance (QA) reviews.
Nearly 50 field crews composed of state, tribal, EPA personnel, and contractor staff, were deployed to collect samples and information during a summer index sampling period-June through September. Prior to the field season, the crews were rigorously trained by EPA trainers regarding NCCA protocols stipulated in the Site Evaluation Manual, Field Operations Manual, and Quality Assurance Project Plan [22]. During time on station, field crews would (i) record field conditions, including Secchi depth, vertical profiles of temperature, salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen, and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) intensity; (ii) collect surface water samples for lab analysis of nutrients, chlorophyll, and human health indicators; (iii) collect grab sediment samples for analysis of contaminant concentrations, grain size, toxicity, and total organic carbon; (iv) collect and preserve separate sediment samples for characterization of the benthic macroinvertebrate community; and (v) collect fin-fish from within a proscribed distance from the site to characterize the local fish community and provide tissue for analysis of lipid and contaminant content ( Table 1). The field data were submitted as either physical or electronic data sheets to NCCA headquarters for compilation. Preserved water, sediment, and fish samples were shipped to approve national or state laboratories for analysis and results were submitted to NCCA headquarters. Each site generated hundreds of field and laboratory data values that were organized into files by type (e.g., field data, water quality data, benthic census data, etc.), and maintained as "raw files" in a centralized database by information management specialists. The raw files were then subjected to a stringent two-phase QA review process, first checking for basic compliance with submission requirements (e.g., proper units, range checks, and conformity with standard taxonomic terminology). Any revisions to the raw files were carefully documented, and finalized files were made available at the NCCA public website [26].
One of the hallmarks of the NCCA, and the NCA which preceded it, has been the emphasis on the cooperation and participation of the states and tribes in planning and conducting the assessment within their respective jurisdictions. Not only are states and tribes key to survey implementation, they are the entities responsible under the Clean Water Act (CWA), Section 305b, to report to Congress regarding the extent to which the nation's waters support the CWA goals. From the research and development phase to the current operational program, numerous workshops and training sessions have been held to build technical expertise regarding monitoring design, sampling, data analysis, and interpretation of results. Through this technical transfer, numerous organizations have modified their local monitoring efforts to incorporate NCCA methods and approaches to assessing the condition of coastal resources. State and tribal partners have been active participants in the ongoing assessments of the performance of current indicators, and in the selection and testing of developmental indicators needed to respond to emerging environmental issues.

Assessing status and trends
Following the lead of earlier EPA coastal surveys, the NCCA approach had two primary goals regarding assessment: (1) evaluate the status of four major components of coastal ecosystems-the water column, sediment, and benthic and fish communities, and (2) ascertain how conditions change over time (i.e., trends). For each of the key assessment components, conditions were evaluated based on a suite of core indicators and indices constructed from them. For instance, water quality was assessed using five measured indicators (concentrations of nutrients, chlorophyll, and dissolved oxygen, and water clarity) and a water quality index was then crafted from the five components. The assessment process first evaluated conditions at each site, rating each indicator and index as good, fair, or poor based on regionally determined assessment thresholds. Details regarding the indicators, indices, and thresholds used in assessments are presented in Section 3 of this chapter.
Once sites were evaluated, regional and national conditions were calculated. Recall that the survey design process had assigned each site a weighting factor equal to the area represented by the station. Regional assessments were then expressed as the percent of the region in good, fair, poor, or unassessed condition. For instance, the percent area of the Pacific coast in good condition was simply calculated as the sum of weighting factors associated with Pacific sites rated as good, divided by the total area of the Pacific coastal region (sum of all Pacific site weights). Assessments were calculated for the nation, for the five primary reporting regions (Figure 2), and for any state or designated research area containing a statistically-sufficient number of sites.
The survey design procedure further provided a measure of the uncertainty in the condition estimates, expressed as the 95th percentile confidence interval (CI), which was calculated as the binomial proportion confidence interval adjusted for possible spatial gradients in indicator measurements [23,27]. Operationally, the confidence intervals were calculated using a complex computer-intensive algorithm, coded in the R-programing language, available at EPA's Aquatic Resource Monitoring website [25].
As the number of surveys conducted increases, the NCCA documents change over time. Typically, trends have been evaluated by analyzing what happens at an individual location, much as a physician monitors trends in the weight of an individual patient. In contrast, trends for NCCA were evaluated at the population level, i.e., trends in the proportion of sites in good condition. These population level trends were evaluated by noting statistically significant changes, i.e., condition estimates displaying non-overlapping CIs, determined over a series of comparable surveys. Since the early 1990s, coastal survey methods have evolved significantly over time. In some cases, new analyses can be applied to old data. In other cases, methodological differences have precluded trend analyses over the entire 30-year period. Eventually, trends in national assessments will reflect only NCCA surveys conducted from 2010 onward.
Water Quality -Science, Assessments and Policy 8

Communicating results
The approaches used to communicate survey results in summary reports reflect how the coastal survey approach evolved and innovated. Early regional EMAP surveys were essentially data reports prepared for a technical audience of monitoring practitioners. These terse reports emphasized methodology and reported results in tables, weighted-CDF plots, and bar plots e.g., [11]. While invaluable to technical staff and managers, these statistical summary reports attracted little public attention. In contrast, the national reports summarizing the EMAP-NCA surveys-the National Coastal Condition Reports NCCR I-IV [16][17][18][19]-were primarily prepared to be informative and understandable to the general public. These attractive and sizable documents were organized by region, featured highlights about local issues and showcased abundant photos and illustrations, as well as were available in hardcopy. In particular, NCCR-II and NCCR-III presented maps with site conditions portrayed by color-coded symbols. The NCCR reports' use of pie charts conveyed assessment results concisely and intuitively, but without adequate expression of uncertainty.
Beginning with the NARS-NCCA 2010, the reporting strategy changed substantially to accommodate the approach of conducting relatively standardized assessments on a regular schedule. The reports focused on delivering assessment results  concisely and quickly, primarily tailored for a technical audience of environmental managers. The reports are only accessible online and include fewer highlightsections or explanatory graphics but continue to present material intuitively for public viewing. Graphics prominently display estimates of uncertainty and express change over time (Figure 3). The online 2015 NCCA report (in preparation) notably features an interactive "dashboard" graphic that allows the viewer to select the results in summary form as well as to access the data associated with the display. Importantly, the coastal reporting format is evolving in concert with the reporting approaches of other NARS surveys, thereby facilitating cross-resource assessment and modeling efforts.

NCCA method highlights
In this section we take a closer look at the methods used to assess the major components of coastal ecosystems-the water column, sediment, and benthic and fish communities. One issue was recognized early in the NCA program when national-scale surveys were undertaken-the U.S. coastal regions are extraordinarily diverse. The northeastern states reflect relatively late deglaciation, featuring minimal run-off from small watersheds into well-mixed coastal waters. Large drowned-river estuaries dominate the mid-Atlantic states, where environmental conditions are heavily influenced by the densely populated coastal communities. Estuaries along the southeastern states and the Gulf of Mexico reflect interaction with large, flat watersheds; these regions are subject to distinct sub-tropical biophysical processes. In contrast, there are far fewer estuaries along the Pacific coast because of the absence of a coastal plain, and coastal processes there are uniquely affected by strong ocean currents and upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich water. How should surveys account for such diversity and differentiate natural from anthropogenic sources and responses?
In response to these challenges, survey planners initially relied on the advice of regional estuarine experts convened to suggest assessment indicators and provide benchmark values used to distinguish good, fair, and poor conditions. In reports we emphasized that these cut-points were appropriate for the surveys only, and generally distinct from regulatory thresholds. For each component assessment, several indicators of condition were evaluated separately and then combined into an overall index. In some cases, as is described below, the initial suite of indicators, indices, and benchmark values were modified and refined based on lessons learned. For instance, local benthic indices were replaced with a single index applicable nationwide; the fish community index was refashioned to better reflect ecological rather than human health conditions; and several human-health indicators were introduced. In the following sections, we describe the indicators and thresholds currently specifically employed in the NCCA surveys while highlight lessons learned from 30 years of experimenting and refining techniques.

Assessing water quality
The water column is a notoriously dynamic environment. Physical and biological process interact to create rapid and highly localized interactions of light, nutrients, algal growth and predation, and a host of quickly changing abiotic factors. Despite these challenges, deepening concerns regarding cultural eutrophication in coastal waters motivated survey planners to devise a strategy for assessing coastal water quality. Cultural eutrophication is the detrimental degradation of water quality often associated with nutrient over-enrichment [28,29]. The NCCA assessment approach consisted of employing indicators that measure eutrophication-related symptoms and problems such as nutrient over-enrichment, excessive algal blooms, hypoxia or anoxia, low water transparency, etc. To moderate the inherent variability of such measures, the indicators were then combined into an index that is less dynamic than the individual components. Table 2 lists the five core indicators and thresholds used in recent NCCA surveys to assess water quality in estuaries and the Great Lakes. Nutrient and chlorophyll concentrations were measured in surface water, dissolved oxygen levels were determined in bottom water, and water clarity was established at each site. These measures were then combined into a water quality index (WQI) that captured conditions likely to be indicative of problematic eutrophication regardless of when in summer sampling occurred [17]. For instance, the WQI might record excessive dissolved nutrients in early season, excessive algal production and poor water clarity in mid-season or hypoxic, turbid conditions in late season. Essentially, the WQI reflects a "preponderance of evidence"; the index is a more robust indicator of problematic eutrophication symptoms than the core indicators.
Thresholds generally varied by region. For instance, less stringent nutrient thresholds were specified for the West coast region, which experiences natural upwelling in summer [30], and more conservative guidelines were applied when assessing the tropical waters of southern Florida to protect submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) beds. Assessment methods differed slightly when evaluating nutrients and water clarity in estuaries and the Great Lakes, recognizing the distinct ecologies and assessment histories in these environments. See details of the coastal water quality approach at pp. 11-15 of reference [19].
The NCCA approach of assessing nutrient status in estuaries continues to evolve. Early surveys measured nutrients as dissolved inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus (DIN and DIP). While DIN and DIP concentrations are valid indicators of nutrient enrichment status, they are unreliable measures of nutrient availability later in the season because they are generally assimilated into algal biomass in spring and early summer [19]. This is particularly problematic for NCCA surveys, which sample throughout the summer index period. In contrast, total nitrogen and phosphorus (TN and TP) are less variable and are related to chlorophyll concentrations [31]. Consequently, TN and TP were added as core indicators beginning in 2010 and were used to evaluate nutrient status in subsequent NCCA surveys. Since regional TN and TP thresholds have not yet been established, TN and TP were treated as exploratory indicators, rated as low, moderate, high, and very high based on the 25th, 50th, and 75th quartile values of the measured 2010 TN and TP values. The water quality index (WQI) continued to be calculated with DIN and DIP as described in Table 2, reflecting the key role of dissolved nutrients in eutrophication processes [17,31].

Assessing sediment quality
Contaminants from agricultural, industrial, and nonpoint sources find their way to coastal waters where they may adsorb onto suspended particles and settle to the sediment. There, metals and organic pollutants are ingested by benthic-dwelling organisms and may become concentrated throughout the food web and adversely affect fish, pelagic mammals, and human consumers of aquatic organisms. To monitor sediment contamination, all EPA coastal assessments since the 1990s followed the approach of NOAA's Status and Trends program [32] and collected sediment grab samples and measured a suite of 74 metal, PAH, PCB, and pesticide contaminants in surficial sediment samples ( Table 1). The impacts of the pollutants on benthic organisms were evaluated against the effects-based sediment quality guidelines, ERL (effects range low) and ERM (effects range median) [33]. ERL values are the concentration levels below which adverse bioeffects are unlikely, and ERM values signify the concentration above which adverse effects are likely. Sediments were also characterized by measuring grain size and total organic carbon (TOC) concentrations and were further tested for toxicity arising from either natural or anthropogenic sources by exposing amphipods to sediments in laboratory assays [34,35].  Prior to the NCCA 2010, estuarine surveys evaluated sediment quality based on three core metrics: (1) sediment contaminants were evaluated as good, fair, or poor based on the number of ERL or ERM exceedances evident at a site; (2) toxicity was rated as good or poor if the survival rate of the amphipod Ampelisca abdita exceeded or was less than 80%, respectively; and (3) TOC was rated against concentration thresholds of 2 and 5%. A sediment quality index (SQI) was then calculated reflecting the ratings of the individual core components. Details are further explained in the National Coastal Condition Report IV [19].

Water quality indicators Estuary thresholds Great Lakes thresholds
Several modifications were introduced into NCCA surveys conducted in 2010 and later. Pollutant levels in estuaries were expressed as mean ERM quotients (mERMQ )-the ratio of a contaminant concentration to its ERM value, designated as mERMQ [36,37]. Estuarine sediment contaminants were evaluated in a more nuanced manner, using the mERMQ and a logistic regression model approach [38] to better estimate the adverse effects of pollutants on benthic organisms. Estuarine sediment toxicity tests were primarily conducted using the amphipod species  Leptocheirus plumulosus and Eohaustorius estuarius (in California), which could be cultured in the laboratory and gave more consistent results than Ampelisca abdita. TOC was no longer used to assess sediment quality because it could have positive and negative impacts on organisms, complicating interpretation. The sediment quality index (SQI) was constructed from the remaining two core metrics to summarize overall sediment condition. Similar to the estuarine approach, the Great Lakes sediment quality index utilizes a mean sediment quality guideline quotient method and a toxicity test. The mean Probable Effect Concentration Quotient (mPEC-Q ), rather than the mERM-Q , is used in the Great Lakes [39], along with using the freshwater amphipod Hyalella azteca to assess toxicity (Table 3). Further details concerning the evolution and calculation of methods are available in the NCCA 2010 technical report [40].

Assessing benthic community condition
All EPA estuarine surveys since the 1990s collected sediment grab samples of benthic macroinvertebrate communities for assessment of ecological condition based on measures of diversity, species richness, and dominance. The benthos is a key component of estuarine ecosystems, serving as important food source for higher trophic levels and maintaining sediment and water quality. Benthic communities respond to contaminant concentrations, dissolved oxygen stress, salinity fluctuations and physical disturbance, and are relatively immobile and therefore integrate the effect of adverse conditions over months and years.
Separate regional, benthic-community condition indices were developed during the EMAP programs of the 1990s, including for the Virginian [41], Carolinian [42] and Louisianan [43,44] biogeographic provinces. Later, an index was created for the Acadian Province (Maine through Cape Cod waters) [45]. No specific index was developed for the Pacific coast; rather, sites were assessed based on observed vs. expected species richness [30]. These benthic indices were used in estuarine assessments prior to NCCA 2015. Benthic communities in the Great Lakes were evaluated using an oligochaete trophic index (OTI) based on the classification of oligochaete species by their tolerance to organic enrichment [46,47]. Table 4 presents a summary of these regional benthic indices. The NCCA 2010 Technical Appendix [40] provides further detail regarding the development and calculation of the indices.
While the separate estuarine indices performed well in the region for which they were developed, they were developed using different statistical models and metrics. Because the different indices might not be comparable, combining the separate indices into a nationwide evaluation tool was problematic. In response, a nationalscale index called M-AMBI (multivariate-AZTI marine biotic index) was adapted to provide a single index applicable to all U.S. estuarine waters [48,49]. This index is based on benthic indices that were successfully deployed in Europe and elsewhere [50,51]. AMBI is an abundance-weighted tolerance index, while M-AMBI combines AMBI, species richness and species diversity together using factor analysis calculated for a given habitat. The resulting index was shown to be comparable to several local indices [49] and was better correlated with land use variables [52]. The resulting scores are based on comparison of a sites' position along a pollution gradient [49].

Assessing fish tissue contaminants
Many aquatic organisms in coastal regions are inadvertent inheritors of a legacy of disturbances often associated with human practices. For instance, chemical pollutants from farms and cities delivered to coastal waters enter the food web and accumulate, threatening fish and higher trophic-level communities, humans included. To assess the ecological danger to aquatic communities, EPA's coastal surveys since the 1990s have measured concentrations of metals, PCBs, PAHs, and pesticides (Table 1) in demersal and pelagic fish collected at sampling stations. Prior to the NCCA 2010 survey, sites were evaluated by comparing contaminant concentrations against human health fish-consumption advisory thresholds as a surrogate for ecologically-relevant benchmarks [53]. When both humans and wildlife were similarly sensitive to specific contaminant exposures, the surrogate used for the assessment was meaningful. Beginning with the NCCA 2010 survey, an ecological risk-based approach using wildlife endpoints was incorporated to better align with the ecosystem focus of the NCCA surveys.
The ecological risk approach assessed contaminant levels in whole-body fish tissue following the methods of EPA's ecological risk assessment [54]. The primary goal of this NCCA index, therefore, was to evaluate the potential risk that consuming contaminated fish poses to predators other than humans. Because such "wild" predators consume the entire fish, the NCCA protocol measured contaminant concentrations in the entire fish collected in the survey, rather than measuring contaminant levels in just the fillet-the protocol formerly used when human health was the focus. Operationally, the process first identified mammalian, avian, and piscivorous "receptors," i.e., predator species that consume coastal fish and could be adversely affected by contaminants in the prey-fish. Table 5 lists the freshwater and marine receptors selected for analysis based on their diet (predominantly fish) and availability of data in the literature. The literature studies were reviewed to identify the Lowest Observed Adverse Effects Level or LOAEL for each receptor, that is,  the contaminant concentration likely to elicit toxicological effects. The minimum contaminant LOAEL found for any member of a receptor group was designated as an impairment threshold, and was used to rate survey sites as good, fair, or poor (   with earlier survey results and cannot be used to inform human consumption advisories. Refer to the NCCA 2010 technical appendix for further details [34].

Addressing human-health concerns and emerging issues
Along with evaluating the ecological condition of several major ecological compartments of coastal ecosystems, the NCCA also addressed several matters regarding human health and emerging issues. For instance, in the Great Lakes with the support of the Great Lakes Restoration Initiative (GLRI) [55], the concentrations in fish tissue of the contaminants mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), flame retardant polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) were measured in the Great Lakes NCCA surveys and evaluated against human health screening values [40]. The NCCA also initiated a surveywide monitoring program quantifying aqueous concentrations of the algal toxins microcystin and cylindrospermopsin, as well as mercury in fish muscle. Several exploratory studies were also undertaken to address important issues such as ocean acidification and the distribution of micro-plastics in coastal water. Newer assessment techniques are also under investigation, such as exploring the use of underwater cameras and environmental genetic screening to monitor the expansion of invasive organisms in the Great Lakes.

Conclusion
In retrospect, the mandate issued to the U.S. EPA by the Clean Water Act in 1972 to compile a national assessment of water quality was a bold and challenging directive. No blueprint was available to indicate the best approach of conducting a large-scale assessment program. Tactics regarding monitoring designs, sampling strategies, indicators, thresholds, assessment protocols, etc. all needed to be developed from scratch. The EPA adopted a pragmatic approach to assessing coastal regions, exploring and testing methodologies regionally, and then gradually building a national program based on the best practices learned over 30 years of experimentation. While the NARS-coastal surveys and assessments are not perfect, they represent the first nationally consistent effort, based on current practices, to assess the Nation's coastal waters through time. The data and results represent information available for evaluating national policy and a basis for the scientific community to evaluate coastal waters from many perspectives.
The evolution of methodologies and approaches for the NCCA is an ongoing process. Future surveys will continue the practices of adapting current methods to the latest best practices and the adaptation of new strategies, while striving to strike a balance between consistency and creative exploration. The continued importance of partnerships among federal, state and tribal agencies cannot be over-emphasized in achieving the aims of the monitoring program. Such cooperation has proven to be both efficient and productive, and the enhanced capacity of states and tribes to conduct assessments independently is particularly valuable in assuring a sustainable monitoring program. Particularly striking has been the deep commitment of many individuals, research scientists, program planners, crew members, information managers, analysts, communicators, and partners, who have offered feedback and criticism to continuously improve the coastal assessment process. Finally, the development and evolution of coastal assessment expertise described in this chapter is similarly evident in sister NARS programs that assess lakes, rivers and streams, and wetlands. Descriptions of these programs are presented elsewhere in this book.