What Are the Roles of National and International Institutions to Overcome Barriers in Diffusing Clean Energy Technologies in Asia?: Matching Barriers in Technology Diffusion with the Roles of Institutions

While the international negotiation on climate change does not make much progress in designing the post-Kyoto scheme, technology innovation and transfer is becoming a central issue in the negotiation. In Cancun in 2010, the parties agreed to organize the Technology Executive Committee (TEC) and the Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) (UNFCCC 2011). The developed countries have committed to provide $100 billion yearly to assist the developing countries in mitigation and adaptation through the Green Climate Fund (UNFCCC 2011).1 The scheme of the Fund is currently under discussion at the Transitional Committee for the design of the Green Climate Fund.


Introduction
While the international negotiation on climate change does not make much progress in designing the post-Kyoto scheme, technology innovation and transfer is becoming a central issue in the negotiation.In Cancun in 2010, the parties agreed to organize the Technology Executive Committee (TEC) and the Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) (UNFCCC 2011).The developed countries have committed to provide $100 billion yearly to assist the developing countries in mitigation and adaptation through the Green Climate Fund (UNFCCC 2011). 1 The scheme of the Fund is currently under discussion at the Transitional Committee for the design of the Green Climate Fund.This paper consists of two parts.The first part of the paper attempts to show a broad landscape of barriers in technology diffusion in the developing countries by addressing two levels of barriers.The first level is about the barriers that are commonly observed among the developing countries (Section 2.1).The paper classifies these barriers into technological, financial and institutional barriers.The second level is about the barriers that are technology-specific (Section 2.2 and 2.3).Section 2.3 summaries the results of previous case studies that were 1 The text of the COP document states that [The Conference of the Parties] recognizes that developed country Parties commit, in the context of meaningful mitigation actions and transparency on implementation, to a goal of mobilizing jointly USD 100 billion per year by 2020 to address the needs of developing countries (paragraph 98); agrees that, in accordance with paragraph 1(e) of the Bali Action Plan, funds provided to developing country Parties may come from a wide variety of sources, public and private, bilateral and multilateral, including alternative sources (paragraph 99); and decides that a significant share of new multilateral funding for adaptation should flow through the Green Climate Fund (paragraph 100).conducted to uncover technology-specific barriers in diffusing clean energy technologies in Asia.These case studies include both technologies for industrial use such as wind, bio-energy and building energy efficiency and technologies for individual use such as LED (Light Emitting Diode) and Photovoltaic (PV) panels.It also contains technologies at the innovation stage such as Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) and Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS).Section 2.3 presents an analysis of the barriers through a comparison of the results of the case studies.
The second part of the paper explores roles of institutions to overcome identified barriers in diffusing clear energy technologies in Asia (Section 3).It addresses theoretical discussions on functions (or roles) of international and national institutions in technology innovation.It then attempts to match the barriers in technology diffusion identified in Section 2 with the functions of national and international institutions.The results of matching indicate that there are important roles of institutions both at the early and advanced stages of technological development to encourage R&D cooperation from the public site (early stage) and enhance the enabling environment and facilitate finance for the technologies (advanced stage).

Studies on barriers in technology diffusion in the developing countries
Understanding barriers in technology diffusion lead to important lessons in designing policy instruments and institutions for diffusing clean energy technologies in the developing countries.With this understanding, researching about barriers has been part of the tasks under the UNFCCC as well as United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) (UNFCCC 2011; UNEP Risø Centre on Energy, Climate and Sustainable Development 2011).Painuly indicates that there are several levels to explore and analyze such barriers.Painuly adds that the first level is a broad category of barriers and the lower levels include more detail and specific barriers (Painuly 2001).Section 2.1 illustrates barriers at the first level.Section 2.2 lists case studies that address barriers at a lower level that are more technology specific.Section 2.3 presents an analysis of the barriers through a comparison of the results of the case studies.

Barriers commonly observed among the developing countries
The barriers at the first level are the barriers that are commonly observed among the developing countries.There are substantial amounts of research projects that have attempted to identify the barriers at this level including Painuly (2001), OECD/IEA (2001), Painuly and Fenhann (2002) and Raddy and Painuly (2004).Table 1 summaries key barriers identified through these and other research.The barriers are classified into technological, financial and institutional barriers 2,3 : 2 It is not possible to clearly distinguish barriers into the three classifications.Many barriers relate to more than two classifications.Under the circumstances, the paper attempts to fit each barrier into the most appropriate classification.3Table 1 includes some technology-specific barriers as well as country/region-specific barriers.It is also noted that the table contains selected major barriers only.

Explanations Source(s)
Technological Limited capacity to assess, adopt, adapt and absorb technological options • These technologies are primarily targeted at rural areas or poor customers, who have limited capacity to absorb these technologies.
There is a general resistance to change, which is magnified due to lack of capacity to understand, adopt and adapt the technologies for greater benefit.The capacity constrains are not only linked to its use but in its production.There is limited manufacturing capacity and as a result not much innovation has taken place.Scale-up of manufacturing and therby reduction in the associated costs has not taken place.(Ravindranath and Balachandra pp.1010) Asians tend to learn more effectively by coping, rather than as individuals, when local language is used and with a practical "handson" approach.Also the issue of training in intellectual property rights is important.This is a long term issue but will be important for long

Case studies addressing technology-specific barriers
There are a number of research initiatives that have attempted to identify barriers through the case study approach.The advantage of the case study approach is that it helps to uncover technology-specific barriers, while other studies looking at the developing countries or clean energy as a whole may overlook these barriers.It is observed that many of these case studies are conducted in China and India.This is probably relating to the fact that these two countries have the largest potentials in diffusing clean energy technologies among the developing countries.Another point to note among these case studies is that two popular targets for a case study are wind power and bio-energy (including biomass/ biogas).This is possibly due to the fact that these two technologies are at the stage where they are successfully implemented in some cases but there are still facing barriers to point out for further diffusion.On the other hand, Table 2 also indicates that there are a variety of research interests with respect to the targeted technologies for analysis.Some research interests are geared toward to the technologies at the innovation stage such as IGCC and CCS.Some research interests are directed to the products for individual use rather than industrial use such as hybrid vehicles, LEDs, and PV.The diversity in the targeted technologies for analysis may lead to interesting finding about barriers.

Comparative study on technology-specific barriers
Section 2.3 compares the results of the case studies identified in Section 2.2.Table 3       Table 3. Results of case studies

Barriers for technologies for industrial use: Wind, bio-energy, and energy efficient building
Starting from wind power, the results of Case Study 1 and 11 suggest that there are institutional and technological barriers for diffusion in India and China.According to Case Study 1, the cost of IPR acquisition is a major barrier in India.Case Study 1 points out that "the [Indian] companies had to depend on their European counterparts for all technical aspects and even operation and maintenance issues."Case Study 11 addresses a similar view that technologically, the wind power in India still hinges upon the external development of the industry.It states that "external factors such as the rapidly increasing high-tech characteristics of wind energy technology systems and the fast structural transformations of the industry at the frontier made it difficult for India to cope with the various changes."On the other hand, Case Study 10 provides a positive evaluation on the development of local wind power production in India and China.It observes that "it took China and India less than 10 years to go from having companies with no wind turbine manufacturing experience to companies capable of manufacturing complete wind turbine systems, with almost all components produced locally."The results of these case studies on wind in India and China indicate that although there is a great level of success in producing indigenous local power technologies, there are still technological as well as institutional barriers for further diffusion in these countries.
Bio-energy is similar with wind power with respect to its successful implementation in the developing countries.On the other hand, the results of the case studies on bio-energy suggest that it faces different types of barriers for further diffusion.According to Case Study 12, implementations of bio-energy projects in India have met both technological and institutional barriers in the operational phase such as poor understanding of managing moisture content, lack of knowledge, uncertainty and distrust in the source of information and inadequate training, capacity-building and user education programs.The case study on biogas power generation in Thailand comes to a similar conclusion (Case Study 13).It recognizes the "no centralized information and orientation regarding biogas technologies and the equipments" as well as the lack of understanding and awareness as the major barriers for successful implementation of the technologies.The results of these case studies suggest capacity building and knowledge development play an important role in the successful implementation of bioenergy technologies.
The case study on building energy efficiency also suggests that the technological barriers such as lack of knowledge and awareness as well as the institutional barriers such as lack of information on available technologies are major barriers in this case too (Case Study 8 Thus far, Section 2.3 discussed technology-specific barriers.Another barrier, which this paper could not address this time, are country-specific barriers.It is recognized that in order to design proper policy instruments and institutions, understanding of barriers that are specific to a certain country or region is equally important.With this regard, Case study 10 is an exception among the selected case studies in highlighting several differences between India and China as to how these two countries overcome barriers to diffuse wind power technologies.It demonstrates that "there are two key differences in the policy support mechanisms currently used in China and India; 1) China's recent reliance on local content requirements to encourage locally sourced wind turbines, which does not exist in India; and 2) India's use of a fixed tariff price for wind power, versus China's reliance on competitive bidding to set the price for most of its wind projects."In addition, it discusses key differences on corporate strategies between two Chinese and Indian wind turbine manufacturing firms.This type of comparative studies are much needed in order for us to have better understanding of barriers in the diffusion of clean energy technologies.

Roles of institutions to overcome identified barriers in diffusing clear energy technologies in Asia
Section 2 presented the barriers commonly observed in the developing countries as well as the technology-specific barriers.Section 3 explores roles of institutions to overcome these barriers in diffusing clear energy technologies in Asia.Section 3.1 addresses theoretical discussions on the functions of international and national institutions in technology innovation.Section 3.2 attempts to match the barriers in technology diffusion identified in Section 2 with the functions of national and international institutions.

Theoretical discussions on the functions of international and national institutions in technology diffusion
There are theoretical explorations about the roles of institutions in changing a system in the area of innovation economics and innovation theory.For Joseph Schumpeter, who is the patron of innovation economics, an evolving institution is an important factor for economic growth.
Inspired by Schumpeter, scholars in innovation theory attempt to define functions or roles of institutions in changing a system.Borrás, for example, defines that they are 1) competencebuilding and generation of incentives including production of knowledge, diffusion of knowledge, financial innovation, alignment of actors, guidance of innovators; 2) generation of incentives and reduction of uncertainty including appropriation of knowledge, reduction of technological diversity; and 3) establishment of limits and reduction of uncertainty including reduction of risk and control of knowledge usage (Borrás 2004 At the advanced stages of technological development, institutional support as well as policy arrangement for the involvement of the actors in the private sector such as project developers, equity investors, manufactures, and commercial banks is essential in technology diffusion (GtripleC 2010; Carmody et al. 2007).Providing economic incentives for the private sector are an important measure to improve investment conditions and encourage its participations.Therefore, clean energy and carbon finance vehicles may be also effective to introduce technologies at the advanced stage.For example, the economic policy instruments such as CDM may take an instrumental role.If they are designed well, the schemes under discussion for the post-Kyoto regime such as the bilateral carbon crediting mechanism and the sectoral or program-based crediting mechanism can be also a good policy candidate for technology diffusion.At the national level, an introduction of a feed-in-tariff program has received greater attentions among the developing countries, while other economic instruments such as subsidy, emissions trading, and renewable energy certificate scheme can be also recognized as possible policy options.The investment schemes such as co-investments and loans or risk guarantees may help to reduce risk associated with investment from the private sector (Suzuki 2012).In addition, such an arrangement for building a partnership between the private and the public (Public-Private Partnership: PPP) may leverage the interests of the private sector in developing technologies that would not be attracted to clean energy technologies otherwise.

Matching the barriers in technology diffusion with the functions of national and international institutions
Section 2.3 illustrated technology-specific barriers among different technologies.Section 3.2 attempts to match those barriers with the functions of national and international institutions that were identified in Section 3.1.
The case studies on wind as well as on hybrid vehicles and LED indicated that difficulties associated with IPRs are major barriers in technology diffusions.Indeed, IPRs are complex issues and providing opportunities to learn about the issues can be an important institutional arrangement as the first step.Ockwell, D., J. Watson et al. (2009), on the case of wind in India, states that "there was a need to create awareness among the industry players who do not have deeper understanding of implications of IPR rules and regulations, including those in the context of WTO regime."Preparing patent pools for licensing inventions is often discussed as a necessary arrangement in diffusing clean energy technologies but it requires careful institutional design not to remove incentives for the private sector and discourage its innovational efforts.At the international level, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) can facilitate such venues for the private sector in the developing countries to learn about IPRsrelated issues.
The case study on LED identified the size of the market as a major barrier.This case, together with the case on building energy efficiency, also pointed out high capital cost as a major barrier.
In order to overcome these barriers, the roles of institutions in facilitating and supporting finance are important.On LED, Ockwell, D., J. Watson et al. (2007) states that "as government is already promoting PV integrated energy efficient lighting systems for rural lighting applications, incentives could be provided for LED based PV integrated systems."As for the case on biomass, low priority in finance is recognized as a major barrier.In this case, knowledge sharing and coordination is the key in overcoming the barrier in technology diffusion.At this point, Ockwell, D., J. Watson et al. (2007) demonstrates that "all the briquetting machine manufacturers felt that there is practically no collaboration or communication among them.
The lack of networking and information sharing among the manufacturers is one of the greatest constraints to diffusion of technological developments in the sector.Hence projects aimed at promoting knowledge sharing among the manufacturers and users of biomass briquettes will be very useful for the sector".
The case studies on bio-energy, biomass, and building energy efficiency all emphasized that lack of the enabling environment is the key barrier in technology diffusion.The case study on bio-energy in India highlighted "poor understanding of managing moisture content, lack of Table 4 illustrates both identified barriers and roles of institutions to overcome the identified barriers

Conclusion
This paper consisted of two parts.The first part of the paper attempted to show a broad landscape of barriers in technology diffusion in the developing countries by addressing two levels of barriers: generic barriers and technology-specific barriers (Section 1 and 2).Section 2.3 summarized the results of previous case studies that were conducted to uncover technology-specific barriers in diffusing clean energy technologies in Asia.
The second part of the paper explored roles of institutions to overcome the identified barriers in diffusing clear energy technologies in Asia (Section 3).It attempted to match the barriers in technology diffusion identified in Section 2 with functions of national and international institutions.The results of matching indicated that there are several different roles of institutions including the role to encourage R&D cooperation from the public site for the technologies at the early stages of technological development and the role to enhance the enabling environment and facilitate finance for the technologies at the advanced stages of technological development.
It is recognized that the existing institutions both at the national and international levels have already been working to overcome barriers in diffusing clean energy technologies.For example, at the national level, the governments in the developing countries are conducting various capacity building programs to enhance knowledge of the private sector about clean energy technologies.At the international level, the financial institutions such as the World Bank and Asian Development Bank are facilitating financial support to encourage diffusion of clean energy technologies.At the innovation stage, there are both bilateral (such as the Global CCS Institute for building a network between Australia and the developing countries) and multilateral (such as the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate concluded in April 2011) network to encourage technology innovation.Further research is needed to investigate whether these existing institutions are playing a role in overcoming the barriers that were illustrated in this paper.

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photovoltaics (PVs), it would enable PVs to become more user friendly.(Oliver and Jackson pp.381) • Lack of standardization in system components resulting from the wide range in design features and technical standards, and absence of long-term policy instruments have resulted in manufacturing, servicing and maintenance difficulties of wind turbines.(Jagadeesh pp.162) wind turbines, which does not exist in India, and (2) India's use of a fixed tariff price for wind power, versus China's reliance on competitive bidding to set the price for most of its wind projects.(B) after the mid-1990s.(p.46)

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The starch and palm oil industries are traditional agroindustries, normally run by families in an informal manner and structure.In addition, many companies have an incorrect perception of the reality of the market.In these circumstances, a long term strategy or the development of a business plan is not realistic, nor is it a common practice for these industries.(A: pp.19-20)What Are the Roles of National and International Institutions to Overcome Barriers in Diffusing Clean Energy ... http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54124 knowledge, uncertainty and distrust in the source of information and inadequate training, capacity-building and user education program" as a major hindrance.The case study on biomass in Thailand pointed out a lack of formal training and capacity building among construction workers, lack of awareness of the potential and importance of energy efficiency measures, lack of financing, and lack of qualified personnel.In order to overcome these barriers associated with a lack of the enabling environment, the case study on bio-energy in India suggested promoting collaboration between industry and academia, for field demonstrations, and promoting feedback and communication between developers and implementers (Ravindranath and Rao 2011).It stated that "the development of training schemes could provide a route to alleviating this skill shortage.It is important to ensure that all staff involved in training and development have been adequately trained themselves.Use of R&D institutions in training could be beneficial" (Ravindranath and Rao 2011).As for the technologies at the early stage of technological development, the cooperation in R&D between the pubic and the private sectors as well as the cooperation between local and overseas actors are inevitable in order to overcome technological barriers.As emphasized earlier, the strong initiatives from the public side are needed since it is difficult to expect the private sector to play an important role if the business model is not yet visible.The case study on CCS indicated that "given current policy and market conditions, carbon markets appear marginal or inadequate for CCS applications such as industrial-scale demonstration plants to be economically viable without (potentially significant) additional support"(Dalhammar, C. et al. 2009).The case study on IGCC concluded that "one possible approach to overcoming the risks of high capital costs is for government to share the funding of demonstration activities with industry… Financial support from developed to developing countries would be needed to provide for incremental costs and technology transfer fees, through international financing mechanism" (Ockwell, D., J. Watson et al. 2007; Ockwell, D., J. Watson et al. 2009).

Table 1 .
What Are the Roles of National and International Institutions to Overcome Barriers in Diffusing Clean Energy ... http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54124Barriers (technological, financial and institutional) observed among the developing countries Institutional barriers include lack of explicit forms of institutions such as goals, policies, regulations and incentive programs as well as lack of implicit form of institutions such as information, awareness, social acceptance, and conditions of the surrounding environment.As for explicit forms of institutions, Painuly (2001) points out uncertainty in policies, unsupportive policies, inadequately equipped governmental agency, red tape, lack of governmental faith in renewable energy technologies, lack of policies to integrate renewable energy technologies products with the global market, inadequately equipped governmental agency to handle the product.Lack of infrastructure is another aspect of institutional barriers, pointed out by Painuly (2001), that is, problems related to availability of infrastructure such as roads, connectivity to grid, communications, and other logistics.As for implicit form of institutions, Painuly (2001) points out lack/low level of awareness, inadequate information on product, technology, costs, benefits and potential of the renewable energy technologies, O&M costs, financing sources.Flamos et al. (2008) addresses lack of customer acceptance as an institutional barrier.It points out that "many potential users of sustainable energy technologies have no or little experience with their application and the assistance provided in the development of such technologies is insufficient" (Flamos et al. 2008).
(Painuly 2001;Jagadeesh 2000)e is no longer going into energy (electricity) infrastructure, which is now seen as of interest to the private sector under the neo-liberal or privatization agenda (Thorne,• In general, technology imported from industrialized countries is more efficient but also more expensive than technology manufactured locally, and it therefore requires higher initial investment costs.This is of particular importance for the transfer of environmentally sound technologies.Furthermore, as a result of their typically early commercialization stage, environmentally sound technologies are often considered riskier than existing commercial technologies (Karakosta et al., p.1551) tured locally, and it therefore requires higher initial investment costs.This is of particular importance for the transfer of environmentally sound technologies."Lack of financial institutions to support renewable energy technologies as well as lack of financial instruments is also highlighted as part of the financial barriers(Painuly 2001;Jagadeesh 2000).Section 2.1 addressed barriers that are commonly observed among the developing countries.Section 2.2 illustrates case studies addressing technology-specific barriers.

Table 2
lists the case studies that are reviewed in this paper 4 :

Table 2 .
List of case studies reviewed in this paper Watson et al. 2007; Ockwell, D., J. Watson et al. 2009).This is the most comprehensive research project thus far looking into barriers through the case study approach.The IIIEE at Lund University in Sweden conducted several case studies including Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) and building energy efficiency (Case Study 7 and 8) (Dalhammar, C. et al. 2009).In addition, there are a number of case studies that are conducted on the individual basis (Case Study 9-13).
The Science and Technology Policy Research (SPRU) at University of Sussex and TERI in India jointly conducted a research project looking into barriers through several case studies in India including wind power, IGCC (Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle), LED (Light Emitting Diode), biomass, hybrid vehicles and photovoltaic (PV) panels (Case Study 1-6) (Ockwell, D., J.

organizations/ individuals Information on case study Barriers Country Technology Technological barriers Financial barriers Institutional barriers
summarizes the results of the studies: What Are the Roles of National and International Institutions to Overcome Barriers in Diffusing Clean Energy ... http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54124What Are the Roles of National and International Institutions to Overcome Barriers in Diffusing Clean Energy ... http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54124 What Are the Roles of National and International Institutions to Overcome Barriers in Diffusing Clean Energy ... http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54124What Are the Roles of National and International Institutions to Overcome Barriers in Diffusing Clean Energy ... http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54124 What Are the Roles of National and International Institutions to Overcome Barriers in Diffusing Clean Energy ... http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54124 ).The results of Case Study 8 highlights, as the technological barriers, uncertain energy savings from equipment due to the influence of users behavior, a lack of formal training and capacity building among construction workers, lack of awareness of the potential and importance of energy efficiency measures, lack of financing, and lack of qualified personnel.In the case of building energy efficiency, lack of institutional support is another area of institutional barrier.It points out the lack of government interest in energy efficiency and renewable energy, and insufficient enforcement of existing policies, poor enforcement of building codes and other mandatory standards as major institutional barriers.Other than wind power, there are studies that identify IPRs as a major barrier for technological diffusion.The case study on hybrid vehicles in India is one of them.It indicates that IPRs are the major barrier in this case as well since "IPRs are dominated by a concentrated set of foreign companies" (Case Study 5).It states "all of the companies owning commercially viable hybrid technologies are based in developed countries."Theresults of the case study on LED also suggest that IPRs are the key barrier for the diffusion of LED (Case Study 3).They case study demonstrates that "it is a highly protected technology.As there are various processes involved in manufacturing LED chips, each process is patented and requires huge investment.At present the cost of investing in both chip manufacturing and resolving the IPR issues is substantially high compared to importing the chips."Inthisregard,theremay be important lessons to learn from the previously mentioned case on wind power for producing local technologies despite the existence of IPRs-related barriers.In the case of LED, however, the results of the study indicate there is a separate key barrier for the diffusion of the technology in India.The case study identifies the size of the market as a major financial barrier for technology diffusion in India.It states that there is "no clear indication about the type of market that exists for LED."Furthermore, it stresses that "the leading players worldwide are not considering India as a potential region for investment as they do not see any market in India at present."Interestingly, in contrast to hybrid vehicles and LEDs, the results of the case study on PV in India suggest that IPRs are not an essential barrier for the diffusion of the technology in India (CaseStudy 6).It maintains that mature production technology for silicon cells is available on the market without licenses since related patents have expired.Moreover, an increasing number of Indian firms are planning on producing the entire PV value chain and are expanding into other areas, such as thin film technology.2.3.3.Barriers for technologies at the innovation stage: IGCC and CCSThe results of the case studies on IGCC and CCS indicate that technological barriers are dominant for technologies at the innovation stage (Case Study 2 and 7).Financial and institutional barriers are not relevant for the technologies at the innovation stage.As for CCS, Case Study 7 states "As CCS is not market mature and does not have any commercial examples in operation, this report cannot address CCS system transfer."As for IGCC, Case Study 2 states "It might be premature to comment on IPR issues related to IGCC, since this technology is not considered to be commercial globally".
(Suzuki 2012)mple is a study by Suurs and Hekkert.According to Suurs and Hekkert, there are seven functions of institu-There are also research initiatives that attempt to understand the roles of institutions in diffusing clean energy technologies both at the national and international level, although the focus of research is geared toward the national level rather than the international level.At the international level, a study conducted by de Coninck et al.is an example of such research (de Coninck et al. 2008).This study classifies technology-oriented agreements (TOAs) addressingIt is important to note here that the roles of institutions differ along the technological development of clean energy technologies.At the early stages of technological development, institutional support for the empowerment of research groups is needed to demonstrate and deploy technologies(Suzuki 2012).As the case studies on CCS and IGCC indicated in Section 2, the technologies at the innovation stage require strong R&D efforts to remove technological barriers in order to move forward to the next stage.At the innovation stage, the empowerment of network between international and local research groups is needed to enhance the R&D efforts, especially with a stronger initiative from the public side(Benioff etal.2010; Morey et al. 2011; UNFCCC 2009).