Collaborative Forest Management in Uganda: Benefits, Implementation Challenges and Future Directions

In many countries including Uganda, management of forest resources has moved away from command and control system to a more participatory approach that require involvement of a broad spectrum of stakeholders. The introduction of Participatory Forest Management (PFM) was sparked by several factors: both international and local. At the international level, treaties and accords such as the Tropical Forest Action Plan (TFAP), an outgrowth of the agenda 21 framework initiated in Rio-de-Janeiro in 1992, sought to reverse the loss of forests through the involvement of stakeholders, especially adjacent communities. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (1992) highlights the importance of sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefits that arise from biodiversity resources. At the local level, the original argument for increasing community participation in the maintenance of rural conservation projects stemmed from the need to better target people's needs, incorporate local knowledge, ensure that benefits were equitably distributed and lower management costs (Wily, 1998). The inclusion of communities in the management of state-owned or formerly state-owned forest resources has become increasingly common in the last 25 years. Almost all countries in Africa, and many in Asia, are promoting the participation of rural communities in the management and utilisation of natural forests and woodlands through some form of Participatory Forest Management (PFM) (Wily & Dewees, 2001). Many countries have now developed, or are in the process of developing, changes to national policies and legislation that institutionalise PFM. PFM encompasses a wide range of different co-management arrangements with different levels of control from relatively conservative “benefit sharing” to genuine “community-based natural resource management” where local communities have full control over management of the resource and the allocation of costs and benefits (Wily, 2002). Participatory forest management encompass processes and mechanisms that enable people who have a direct stake in forest resources to be part of decision-making in all aspects of forest management, from managing resources to formulating and implementing institutional frameworks. Notable among the participatory forestry management approaches are Joint Forest Management (JFM), Community Based Forest Management (CBFM) and Collaborative Forest Management (CFM). All these approaches tend to


Introduction
In many countries including Uganda, management of forest resources has moved away from command and control system to a more participatory approach that require involvement of a broad spectrum of stakeholders. The introduction of Participatory Forest Management (PFM) was sparked by several factors: both international and local. At the international level, treaties and accords such as the Tropical Forest Action Plan (TFAP), an outgrowth of the agenda 21 framework initiated in Rio-de-Janeiro in 1992, sought to reverse the loss of forests through the involvement of stakeholders, especially adjacent communities. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (1992) highlights the importance of sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefits that arise from biodiversity resources. At the local level, the original argument for increasing community participation in the maintenance of rural conservation projects stemmed from the need to better target people's needs, incorporate local knowledge, ensure that benefits were equitably distributed and lower management costs (Wily, 1998). The inclusion of communities in the management of state-owned or formerly state-owned forest resources has become increasingly common in the last 25 years. Almost all countries in Africa, and many in Asia, are promoting the participation of rural communities in the management and utilisation of natural forests and woodlands through some form of Participatory Forest Management (PFM) (Wily & Dewees, 2001). Many countries have now developed, or are in the process of developing, changes to national policies and legislation that institutionalise PFM. PFM encompasses a wide range of different co-management arrangements with different levels of control from relatively conservative "benefit sharing" to genuine "community-based natural resource management" where local communities have full control over management of the resource and the allocation of costs and benefits (Wily, 2002). Participatory forest management encompass processes and mechanisms that enable people who have a direct stake in forest resources to be part of decision-making in all aspects of forest management, from managing resources to formulating and implementing institutional frameworks. Notable among the participatory forestry management approaches are Joint Forest Management (JFM), Community Based Forest Management (CBFM) and Collaborative Forest Management (CFM). All these approaches tend to emphasize decentralisation or devolution of forest management rights and responsibilities to forest adjacent communities with the aim of producing positive social, economic and ecological outcomes (Carter & Grownow, 2005). Joint forest management is the type of participatory approach that allows forest adjacent communities to enter into agreements with government and other forest owners to share the costs and benefits of forest management by signing joint management agreements (Wily, 1998). Under this arrangement, local communities are co-managers of the forest owned by the central or regional government. It considers communities as "rightful beneficiaries" than as "logical source of authority and management". J F M m a y a l s o b e d e f i n e d a s a specific arrangement among different social actors around the forest sharing of rights and responsibilities in managing a specific body of resource (Borrini-Feyerabend, 1996). Community Based Forest Management (CBFM) is management of forests exclusively based on the efforts of the local communities, and at times with limited extension advice from government. In CBFM, both the ownership and user rights over the forest resource belong to the community. In CBFM, local communities declare-and ultimately, gazette-village, group or private forest reserves on village land. Under this arrangement, communities are both owners and managers of the forest Resource (Blomley et al., 2010). CFM in general is loosely defined as a working partnership between the key stakeholders in the management of a given forest-the key stakeholders being local forest users and state forest departments, as well as parties such as local governments, civil groups and non-governmental organisations, and the private sector (Carter & Gronow, 2005). In Uganda, the form of Participatory Forest Management approaches adopted for managing forest resources include Collaborative Forest Management (CFM), Community Forests (CFs) and Private Forests (PFs) (Strengthening and Empowering Civil Society For Participatory Forest Management in East Africa [EMPAFORM], 2008). CFs is the forest management approach where communities register as legal entities for purpose of seeking gazettement of a forested communal land as a Community Forest and henceforth manage it for the common good of the community. PFs is the forest management approach where local community members manage own trees on private land or participate in the management of private natural forests, private plantations, forests owned by cultural and traditional institutions. CFM is the most widely used and adopted form of participatory forest approach in Uganda today. It is a forest management approach where communities enter into agreement with the National Forestry Authority (NFA) in case of Central Forest Reserves and District Forestry Services (DFS) local governments in case of Local Forest Reserves to manage part or the whole of gazetted forest reserve. CFM is defined as a structured collaboration between governments, interested organisations and community groups, and other stakeholders to achieve sustainable forest use. It defines a local community's rights to use and/or participate in forest management and focuses on improving the livelihoods of the forest adjacent communities through mutually enforceable plans but the government does not surrender ownership of the forest to partner stakeholders (National Forestry Authority [NFA], 2003) and is the most widely used form of PFM in Uganda. CFM is a co-management arrangement widely practiced in India, Nepal, Philippines and Latin America (Ghate, 2003;Malla, 2000) as government forest agencies and other actors recognise its potential in supporting local well-being and sustainable forest management. CFM has also gained recognition as a means of flow benefits to local people and is widely practiced in many African countries like Tanzania, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria, Gambia, Ghana, Mali and South Africa (Willy, 2002). Many Scholars (Borrini-Feyerabend, 1997;Ghate, 2003;Malla 2000;Victor, 1996) believe that CFM provides local incentives for conservation of forest resources by sharing the costs and benefits of conservation. They further note that the implementation of CFM may result into ecological, socio-economic, institutional, infrastructural and policy impacts to both the communities and forestry sub-sector. The ecological impacts may include stabilised and/or forest resource use patterns and improved quality and or condition of forests. The economic impacts include improved livelihoods through sale of forest products, increased skills, employment and exclusion of non-CFM actors from accessing forest resources. Other authors (Beck, 2000;Campbell et al., 2003) notes that the impact of CFM on community livelihoods directly influences people's participation or involvement. They argue that participation and commitment of communities under CFM encourages regulated legal access to socio-economic benefits. The more the community are involved in CFM, the fewer the number of illegal activities in the forest managed under CFM and the higher diameter at breast height, the basal area and density of trees. In contrast, lack of community involvement may result in high occurrence of illegal activities and lower basal area and density of trees. It is thus argued that providing socio-economic benefits to communities under CFM results into sustainable utilisation of forest resources by local communities and hence improved conditions of the forest. Improvement in the condition of the forest may also lead to increased socio-economic benefits derived by the communities and increased community participation in CFM (Ghate, 2003). If CFM provides no socio-economic benefits to communities, illegal activities may increase leading to forest degradation. Degradation of the forest may lead to loss of socioeconomic benefits to communities leading to loss of community participation in CFM. Building on experiences from India (Kothari et al., 1996;Poffenberger & McGean, 1996), collaborative forest management (CFM) was adopted in Uganda in 1993 around Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, BINP (Wild & Mutebi, 1996), and by 1996, collaborative initiatives had spread to other protected areas (national parks) such as Mt Elgon, Kibale, Mgahinga, and Murchsion falls (UWA, 2001). In the forest sector, research on CFM began in 1996 with pilot activities in some selected Ugandan forests, for example Butto-Buvuma (Gombya-Ssembajjwe & Banana, 2000). The Forest Department, however, held consultations from 1996 to 1997, and on July 1998, the CFM programme was officially launched (Scott, 2000). Since then, pilot activities were initiated by the Forest Department (FD), emphasising equitable distribution of benefits, participation of local people at all stages, gaining consensus on the terms of management and representation; instilling the sense of ownership and authority over the resource in local management partners, ensuring flexibility on the part of the Forest Department towards the potential compromise and building mutual trust and respect as a strong foundation for future partnership. This has now been institutionalised in the 2001 Uganda Forest Policy (Ministry of Water Lands and Environment [MWLE], 2001) and in the National Forestry and Tree Planting Act, of 2003(Government of Uganda, 2003. Guidelines have also been put in place for the implementation of CFM arrangements in the forest sector (MWLE, 2003). The CFM programme is currently being practiced in all the seven forest management ranges as designated by the NFA. A total of 27 CFM agreements have so far signed, 30 Application approved by NFA for CFM implementation and 28 initiated (Driciru, 2011). However, the actual benefits accruing to local communities under the CFM agreement are largely unknown. Little is also known regarding the impact of CFM on the livelihoods of people. According to Scher et al., (2004) an understanding of CFM actual benefits on the peoples' livelihoods around Protected Areas (PAs) are critical in sustainable forest management. Information is also lacking to show whether CFM has improved the condition of the forest by way of controlled illegal forest access, yet this information is essential for strengthening both the CFM policy development and implementation in Uganda. Due to entrenched power structures within both government institutions and communities, it is not easy to promote social justice and sustainable livelihoods through. Overall, mechanisms of CFM are diversifying, reflecting a greater recognition of the need for partnerships in forest management. This chapter analyses the reviews Uganda's experience in CFM to date Benefits, Strengths, Implementation Challenges and Future Directions in Uganda. It identifies a number of possible strategies and makes recommendations on how to improve CFM. The analysis done in this chapter may be used to improve or re-arrange the idea about participatory Forestry Management not only in Uganda but also in other countries with similar situations.

Status of forest resources in Uganda
Currently, there are about 4.9 million hectares of forest in Uganda (24% of the present total land area) (National Biomass Study, 2003). The forest resources comprise areas classified as savannah woodland (80.5%), natural forest (tropical high forest, 18.7%) and less than 1% of forest plantations. The existing natural forests on private land and in government reserves, together with the on-farm tree resources are the major focus of the N a t i o n a l F o r e s t P l a n ( N F P ) , w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n o f f o r e s t management (MWLE, 2002). In terms of land ownership, 70% of the forest area is on private and customary land, while 30% is in the permanent forest estate (PFE), such as Forest Reserves (central and local), National Parks and Wildlife Reserves. Of the PFE's 1,881,000 ha, 1,145,000 ha (60.9%), is managed by the National Forestry Authority (NFA) as Central Forest Reserves (CFRs), 5,000 ha (0.3%) is controlled by District Forestry Services (DFS) of local governments as Local Forest Reserves (LFRs) and 731,000 ha (38.8%) is managed by the Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA). The majority of private forests are woodlands, and are being depleted rapidly due to restrictions on harvesting of wood and wood products from gazetted protected areas (Jacovelli & Carvalho, 1999). A huge dependency (>90%) on fuelwood from the rapidly increasing population is clearly accelerating the problem.

The principles of CFM
According to Scott (2000), CFM must be flexible and responsive to the inputs and participation of all the parties. CFM is guided by the following principles: (a) it should be implemented by the authorities and departments responsible for forest management. CFM must be initiated and implemented by the Forest Department (FD) in partnership with other interested parties. It should be seen as an approach towards management, not as something outsiders are imposing; (b) sustainable forest management is the major objective. Sustainable forest management is the long term aim of CFM, and as much as we try to meet other aims, such as fair benefits to both partners and equity in benefit sharing within the community, this key objective is paramount; (c) the focus is not on the output but rather on how the output is arrived at. For example, the end products of negotiations are an agreement and management plan. However, the important thing is not the documents, but rather the process of negotiation that produced them. The output will be as strong or weak as the process that led to it; (d) there must be real and complete participation of all partners from the beginning. If other stakeholders are to be partners, then they must be involved in all decisions. It is not real participation if you go to the other partners and start to discuss management if a large proportion of the decisions have already been made without them; (e) the process takes time, ''rapid'' is never ''participatory''. If the process is rushed, it will not give the other party the chance to fully participate. This approach is new for the community and the FD, they will need time to adjust and feel comfortable in their new roles; (f) It should result in a fair deal for all parties. If the FD expects considerable benefits from CFM, then they should not be surprised if the other parties also expect considerable benefits. The natural tendency is to give what you get; (g) it must result in a fair distribution of benefits. In addition to ensuring a fair distribution of benefits between the community and the FD, it is vital that the benefits from CFM are shared fairly within the community; (h) flexibility is very important in CFM. The FD must be open minded, and go into the process with a clear understanding of their own objective but a fully open regarding how these objectives can be satisfied through collaboration; (i) responsibilities agreed through CFM must be appropriate. It is important during negotiations that the different partners agree to the responsibility that are appropriate. One partner will not be able to do everything. It is most beneficial if both parties take on responsibilities that maximize their capacity; (j) it should address the real issues. In order for CFM to work, it must address real issues both on the side of the FD and on the side of other partners. It should be tackled head on and a solution sought that suits both parties. Compromise on both sides will be essential; (k) it must offer long term security. In order to adopt a long-term perspective to the management of forests, both partners must be sure of their long-term security to rights and benefits; (l) all interest groups must be involved. Everybody within the community with an interest in the forest must be involved during the process of arriving at an agreement. If they are not involved in decision making that affects their lives, they are unlikely to respect and abide by the agreement and management plan; (m) agreements should be arrived at through consensus. The majority of the population must be in agreement with the decisions if they are to abide by them and be enforced by them. It is, therefore, critical to gain consensus to the greatest possible extent.

The rationale, goal, purpose and objectives of the CFM process in Uganda
Sustainable management of forest resources in Uganda has remained a challenge to forest managers and policy makers because the population is highly dependent on them for timber, agriculture, energy production and other non-timber forest products (Turyahabwe & Tweheyo, 2010). In addition, forest agencies responsible for forest management have been unsuccessfully in their effort to sustainably manage forests due to breakdown in law and order, ineffective rules and inadequate funding to manage forest resources (Banana et al., 2007). Since most of the forest reserves are small and scattered over a large area, the governmental lacks both financial and human resource to monitor the use of the resources (Buyinza & Nabalegwa, 2007). Therefore, in the current forest policy, there has been a shift of control of forest resources, especially those outside protected areas from state controlled to community level in an attempt to improve management (Kugonza et al., 2009). CFM was viewed as the one approach to achieving improved and more efficient management of the country's forest estate. The rationale behind CFM approach include: (i) a recognition that forest reserves can only be adequately managed if cooperation of forest adjacent communities is obtained; (ii) a desire to overcome conflicts with neighbouring communities; (iii) a desire to create opportunities for local people to contribute towards protection ad rehabilitation of forest resources thus reducing the costs of management; (iv) a philosophical commitment to human rights and thus to fair and equitable treatment of communities living adjacent to forest to forest reserves that they have traditionally utilised for products and services; (v) a mechanism for supporting sustainable forest based livelihoods in poor rural communities; (vi) an awareness that forest reserves are decreasing while human population is increasing; and (vii) a move towards participatory approaches and decentralised governance in natural resources management. The goal of CFM is to contribute to the overall goal of the National Forestry Authority in sustainable forest management. The purpose is to enhance sustainable forest management through the active participation of interested parties. The specific objectives are to improve forest management through: (a) reduced costs (fairer distribution of the costs of management); (b) fairer distribution of benefits, responsibilities, decision-making authority in management; (c) reduction of conflicts over resource use; (d) creating awareness about benefits of forests; (e) creating a sense of ownership over forest resources; (f) sharing knowledge and skills (both FD and community sharing with one another; and (g) keeping abreast with trends in the rest of the world.

The larger forest sector and national context
In the larger forest sector and national context: (i) Makerere University was in the process of re-orienting its curriculum to incorporate courses in community forestry; (ii) Decentralization process aimed at creating strong local level administration; planning at the sub-county level is today nearer to the local users than before when it was done at the district level; (iii) as a result of decentralization, environmental committees at the Local Council levels were already being formed and it was envisaged that forest management issues could be addressed in these committees; (iv) the wide range of actors already operating in the forest sector provided a good opportunity for an agency like FD to play a catalytic role in integrating management efforts.

The community perspective
From the community side, concern was already being expressed about environmental degradation in the context of appreciating the value of the forest. Community members also exhibited behavioural changes, such as reporting of illegal harvesting. They also expressed willingness to take responsibility for the management of the forest so long as they can benefit from it.

National legal and policy provisions on CFM
The Constitution of the Republic of Uganda (1995), which is the supreme law, in Article 13 provides for the protection of natural resources including forestry and Article 27 provides for the sustainable management of natural resources. The traditional, protectionist approach of policing forest reserves has not been effective in reducing widespread illegal activities, has not favoured local communities in sharing the benefits from protected forest areas, and has been a source of conflict between the lead agencies and communities. The constitution thus gives ownership of resources to the people while government holds the resources in trust for all citizens. The 1995 Constitution of Uganda also incorporated decentralisation into the directives of the national policy (Government of Uganda [GOU] 1995[GOU] , 1997. The government of Uganda views participation of local people and community based organisations in forest management as a practical and equitable alternative to traditional top-down approaches to forest management (MWLE 2002). It is believed that actors and agencies with grassroots experience such as NGOs and CBOs will mediate participation of local authorities and their institutions in sustainable forest management. Following the enactment of the Resistance Councils and Committees Statute in 1987, the National Resistance Movement (NRM) government of Uganda embarked on the process of devolution of power to the district councils including the management of natural resources. In 1993, the Local Government Statute was passed and as a result some powers and responsibilities to manage forest resources were transferred from the central to local government authorities (GOU, 1993). This was further emphasised by passing of the National Environment Act (1995) and the Local Government Act of 1997 (Government of Uganda 1995Uganda , 1997. Along with other public service functions, the objectives for decentralising forestry were to: (i) enhance the role of local government with more developed responsibility to plan and implement forestry activities; (ii) reduce the burden on public finances by empowering local government to outsource financial resources and manage forestry activities; and (iii) encourage participation of local communities and farmers in the management of forest resources. The current 2001 Forestry Policy envisages that government will promote innovative approaches to community participation in forest management on both government and private forestlands and this is intended to provide a balance between the protectionist approach to forest management and open access to forest resources that may be destructive. The development of Collaborative Forest Management is intended to define the rights, roles and responsibilities of partners and provide a basis for sharing benefits from improved forest management. Therefore the CFM process is guided by principles that partners have to adhere to (Box 1).

Policy principles and opportunities specific to CFM
The 2001 National Forestry Policy for Uganda emphasizes government commitment to "promote innovative approaches to community participation in forest management on both government and private forest land" (MWLE, 2001). The Policy puts a strong emphasis on public involvement especially, forest adjacent communities, and benefit from sustainable forest management, including the application of CFM. It says in part: "Collaborative Forest Management will define the rights, roles and responsibilities of partners and the basis for sharing benefits from improved management. There will be a specific focus on wide stakeholder participation, collective responsibility and equity and on improving the livelihoods of forest dependent communities". The National Forestry and Tree Planting Act (2003) lay out a legal framework for the development of CFM agreements for various categories of forest reserves in Uganda (GOU, 2003). Section 15 of the Act says that one or more responsible bodies may enter into a CFM arrangement with the Central or Local Government for the purpose of the management of the whole or part of a Central or Local Forest Reserve in accordance with generally acceptable principles of forest management as may be prescribed in guidelines issued by the Minister. A responsible body refers to a body appointed to manage, maintain and control a forest reserve and includes; the National Forestry Authority, a Local Council, a Local Community, a leady agency, a private contractor, a non-governmental organisation or stakeholders (NFA, 2003). A Responsible Body may be the National Forestry Authority (Section 52 of the Act) to manage Central Forest Reserves (CFRs) and the District Forestry Services (Section 48) to manage and Local Forest Reserves (LFRs). Section 15 of the National Forestry and Tree Planting Act (2003) mandates Responsible Bodies to enter into Collaborative Forest Management arrangements between the themselves and any forest user group(s). Section 28 of the National Forestry and Tree Planting Act (2003) also commits the Responsible Bodies to prepare management plans for all forest reserves and further guides that this "shall be in consultation with the local community", thus further emphasising the spirit of Uganda's CFM approaches. The Local Government Act (1997) assigns management of forest resources to local government and sub-county councils (Local Governments Act Part IV).The National Forestry and Tree Planting Act 2003 (Section 48) further obliges the District Local Government to establish a forestry office that is responsible for management of forest resources in the district. To guide the step by step process of undertaking Collaborative Forest Management are CFM Guidelines (2003) that have been put in place. Part 3 of the CFM Guidelines describes the purpose for CFM as including: rehabilitation of degraded forests, maintenance of forest reserve boundaries, and regulation of access to forest products, joint law enforcement and public participation in forest management (GOU, 2003). Further to the development of CFM Guidelines are the CFM Regulations which will additionally provide for the rules and requirements for CFM and pave way for better understanding of the roles and responsibilities of concerned parties. The National Forest Plan (NFP) 2002, a sectoral plan for

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A process approach based on learning by doing -communities as well as forest resource managers learn from one another. This means that more time is taken to build trust and relationships.  Meaningful participation and shared analysis -communities getting deeply involved. Stakeholders are given enough time to adjust to new roles.  There is negotiation and consensus building -exchange of opinion, the buy-andtake approach. There is discussion of real problems that concern the parties and resources involved to fairly address local community livelihoods  Appropriate representation and responsibilities -with due consideration of women, the elderly and the disadvantage groups.  A supporting legal and policy framework. This involves analysing, understanding and sharing information on policy and legal provisions for CFM within the CFM Guidelines  Building capacity for change -tolerating one another. Stakeholders are empowered to take lead and efforts to ensure good representation of all stakeholders.  Long term perspective -forestry enterprises are long term and thus agreements must be stable and honoured by all parties.  Transparent communication to attract marginalized stakeholders. Information is put in a format understandable to all stakeholders including women, youth and disadvantaged groups.
www.intechopen.com forestry development in Uganda that provides a framework for implementing 2001 Uganda Forestry Policy into action clarifies under makes provision for CFM by encouraging partnerships between lead forest agencies and local communities to enhance people's access to, utilisation of forest products.

Power relations and their impact on CFM
Forest Reserves were largely established during the colonial times with most of them being gazetted between the years 1920-1960 (Turyahabwe & Banana, 2008). This drew out forests from the public sector into the protective hands of the state. This also disbanded communal property ownership, access and management. This meant that forest reserves belong to government and that communities have lesser power over these resources. A power analysis of the status quo is provided examining the specific relationships relevant to proposed CFM advocacy work. Table 1 provides the management arrangements, characteristics and how they affect collaborative approaches. Based on the analysis in this Table 1, there is a strong indication for proponents of participatory forest management approaches to influence a shift in power relationship. The unequal relationships are based on the fact that forests can only be managed by a corporate entity and there are policy and legal frameworks on which to build PFM work.

Current programmes under CFM in Uganda 2.4.1 Integrated forest management planning process
In order to meet the policy demand for CFM, an integrated forest management process is being used to develop management plans for forest reserves. The purpose of adopting such a process is to ensure that local communities participate in the planning and decision making process in forest management. Basically the process involves about 10 steps: (i) formation of reserve planning team, (ii) inauguration and training of reserve planning team, (iii) resource assessment and inventories, (iv) socio-economic surveys, (v) information gathering from maps, old plans, reserve settlement agreements, logging history, etc, (vi) preparation of draft management plans, (vii) reserve planning workshop, (viii) review of draft management plan, and (ix) submission of final plan

Promotion of private and community forests
In accordance with the 2001 Uganda Forest policy, the government through the Forest Sector Support Department (FSSD) is encouraging the establishment of plantations and dedicated forests as a means of enriching the off reserve timber resources. A scheme is being developed to provide loans and grants for private companies and individuals to embark on forest plantations and dedicated forest as a means enriching the off reserve timber resource. With the 'right of veto' given to farmers and landowners in the procedure for felling trees off forest reserves, they are motivated to tend young indigenous trees and plant more trees.

Community forest committees
A major drawback to the CFM programme was the lack of a recognizable and well informed body who will liaise with the FSSD and the forest fringe communities to ensure that their aspirations, knowledge and needs from forest resources and forest management is expressed and realized. To this end, Community Forest Committees are being formed to: (a) permanently represent the forest fringe communities on forest management issues at the national level and to improve upon the knowledge and capacity for collaboration at the local level; (b) enhance and encourage widespread participation in forestry matter especially those that will affect the communities; (c) mobilize wide stakeholder awareness and participation in the forest management planning process; (d) educate and assist in the development of social responsibility agreements; and (e) monitor the implementation of the social responsibility agreements. Specifically, participating communities will play important roles and responsibilities at the national, regional, district and local levels. At the national, regional and district levels the partners will: (i) participate in forest policy review and formulation; (ii) prepare proposals to promote the welfare of communities through forest resources management; and (iii) make general recommendations on forestry that will lead in to improving forest management.

Forest fires protection
Over the past decade most forest reserves and off reserves in Uganda have been experiencing annual forest fires. The communities are therefore expected to help in preventing and fighting forest fires in their community. This is done through: (i) planting green fire belts along the forest boundary; (ii) education of local communities on the dangers of fire and fire management especially during the dry seasons; (iii) formation of fire volunteer squads; and (iv) development and enforcement of by-laws to protect fire and sanctioning forest offenders. In addition to this collaboration, participating communities can suggest measures to conserve forest resources in their locality. They will also be responsible for encouraging and supporting the arrest and reporting of offenders to the FSSD, NFA and/or the police. In line with their protective functions, participating communities under CFM are encouraged to check the permits of people they suspect to be engaging in illegal operations.

Forest rehabilitation
The taungya system has been the main way in which communities were traditionally involved in forest management. A review of the past taungya system was done and this helped to inform the development of pilot programs. The review also helped the FSSD to develop new strategies and systems for forest rehabilitation called "the modified taungya system. In 2001 the government of Uganda lunched plantation activities as one of its poverty reduction strategies. In the modified taungya and plantation development programme, CFM and forest fringe communities are expected to: (a) assist in the identification of degraded portions of the forest for rehabilitation; (b) establish nurseries from which the FSSD will obtain seedlings for forest rehabilitation; (c) undertake forest rehabilitation activities such as tree planting, transplanting, tree tending operations; and (d) encourage and assist communities to plant trees on their farms.

Boundary cleaning and patrolling
The boundaries of the forest reserve are cleaned to ensure that farms are not extended to the reserves. In addition, it ensures that wildlife in the forest do not enter into the farms of those who share a common boundary with the forest reserve. Most often, NFA use the forest guards to patrol and clean the forest boundary at regular intervals. Currently local communities are given contracts to perform such duties.

Collaboration in the utilization of timber off-cuts
Uganda's Forest Policy is committed to promoting peoples' participation in resource management and a more equitable sharing of benefits from forest resources. One of the strategies of the policy is the promotion of public awareness programs as a positive community building action, to generate raw materials and income while improving the quality of the environment. Sawn timber is conveyed to the big towns and no conscious effort is made to sell lumber to the local people. Besides, huge quantities of off-cuts and sometimes logs are left behind in the forest as "waste". The communities believe that they could profitably utilize the wood and have entered into discussions with the lead forest agencies (NFA and DFS) to collect and use the wood. Their only wish is to have access to such timber to convert into merchantable and profitable products. This is likely to encourage the establishment of forest-based enterprises and generate employment. Ultimately, this will help improve upon the standard of living of forest fringe communities.

Community contracts jobs through boundary maintenance, seedling production, plantation development
Systems are now being implemented under which forest fringe communities enter into contracts to clean forest reserve boundaries in return for cash payments. Additionally some are also contracted to establish green-fire breaks to prevent wildfires from entering into forest reserves. The possibility of involving communities in patrolling is underway and if proved positive that system would also be adopted. Under CFM, some communities under a pilot scheme have been assisted to set up and manage their own tree nurseries to produce seedlings both for planting and sale. Apart from supporting such nurseries through the supply of inputs and offer of technical advice, NFA has been promoting the sale of seedlings from the community nurseries either through their own purchases or linking them up with tree growers to ensure their viability. It is anticipated that more of such nurseries would be set up to supply seedlings for planting in connection with the government's plantation programme.

Forest reserve management planning
This programme focuses on three aspects of forest management through a series of workshops and consultations including: (i) involvement of communities in forest management planning; (ii) integrated forest management process; and (iii) revenue sharing from management of forest and forest resources. To this end the issue of rights and revenues from forest management have been reviewed and recommendation made in the review of forest legislations.

Management of non-timber forest products (NTFPs)
This programme involves local people extraction of forest resources largely focusing on the exploitation of NTFPs for household and commercial uses. The programme also target different aspects of NTFPs exploitation, production, processing and management.

CFM operational concerns 2.5.1 Concerns of responsible bodies
There are a number of concerns for responsible bodies and these includes the following: (i) whereas it is government policy to promote community participation in forest management www.intechopen.com on government and private forest land, today participatory forest management initiatives target (rather focus) on Central Forest Reserves. This has resulted into pressure onto the NFA in terms of capacity to meet the demands by communities. It is high time these initiatives started on private forest land and Local Forest Reserves that are managed by local governments; (ii) in Uganda a nine stage process (Box 2) has been developed that has to be followed by communities applying for CFM. This process takes time and leads to anxiety. It is clear that the time and skills are inadequate in NFA for community mobilization and effective sensitization of the communities. Along the process is local political interference that favours illegal activities that applicants often prefer to indulge in illegal activities than undertake an Agreement. Subsequently there are delays in signing agreements which at times causes apathy in community; (iii) there is a general lack of capacity for implementation of CFM-inadequate staffing at NFA and DFS to monitor and give backstopping (support) to field staff. Some decision makers are still sceptical about CFM therefore need for sensitization at all levels; (iv) Quite often communities are lured to present CFM applications (again by self seeking and self appointed leaders) that do not have good intention for genuine partnerships for collaboration with the National Forestry Authority and other responsible bodies. Some communities think that an Agreement with responsible body is a permit for undertaking unacceptable activities such as charcoal burning and cultivation of crops. Thus responsible bodies are, however, re-orienting their thinking before they undertake the CFM process; (v) good governance in CFM requires sufficient funding. So far there is inadequate funding by NFA and DFS for CFM implementation and sometimes this funding is sporadic. Such delay in funding breaks the momentum of activities in the field; (vi) there are very few Community Based Organizations with experience in facilitating the CFM process and usually these cover a relatively limited area of the country. The National Forestry Authority would be more than willing to establish working relations with such NGOs to role out CFM activities. Many NGOs have created a culture of giving handouts (food and materials) to communities and this has created a dependency syndrome with communities demanding to be given handouts. Whereas this is a positive Social Responsibility approach, it stands to demean the stigma of CFM.

Box 2. CFM process in Uganda
Step 1: Initiating the process Step 2: Preparing an application for CFM Step 3: Meeting between applicant and responsible body Step 4: Participatory situation analysis Step 5: Initial Negotiation and drafting a CFM plan Step 6: Institutional formation and development Step 7: Continuation of Negotiations Step 8: Review of the Plan and Agreement by stakeholders Step 9: Implementation of the CFM Agreement and Plan

Stakeholders concerns
Like responsible bodies, there are also a number of concerns for stakeholders involved in CFM operation. (i) Parties involved in CFM agreements always have a hidden agendaforest resources managers opt for CFM to solve encroachment and not necessarily as a management tool and the communities take on CFM to legalise illegal activities in the forests; (ii) there is a lack of forest committees at district and sub county level that would hold responsible Bodies accountable. These committees would also fight for the plight of forestry extension under NAADS. The committees would also guide local political patronage to bless collaborative forest management, community forests and private forestry; (iii) funding for collaborative approaches/activities is limited. Communities argue that if government and development partners can fund private tree farmers planting trees on Central Forest Reserves, why not identify funds for implementation of forestry friendly economic activities such as apiary, harnessing of white ants, collection of rattan and mushrooms for collaborating communities and funds for community and private forests? (iv) Lack of tangible benefits from CFM participation and lack of guidelines for benefit sharing. The burden of roles and responsibilities that are transferred to communities under the signed Agreements are not commensurate to the benefits; (v) corruption and illegal practices/activities that erode sustainable forest resource management and jeopardizes communities and members of the private sector who would otherwise have interests in private forestry. There is a general lack of professionalism in the sector with politicians wanting to get involved in the decisions that affect the electorate and this is a disappointment to committed and contending communities; (vii) the management of community forests is regulated by the National Forestry and Tree Planting Act, 2003 while the establishment of the Community Land Associations (CLAs) is regulated under the Uganda Land Act, 1998(GOU, 1998. This has caused management delays in gazettement of Community Forests which is dependant upon an established Communal Land Associations (CLA). Establishment of CLAs has lagged behind because the implementation of the Land Act has been slow. Therefore the CLAs have not been instituted and yet Community Forests can only be gazetted if the CLAs are in place. The interest of the community is the standing forest and any barrier to communities securing their interest is dismay to participatory forest management approaches. Many communities had expressed interest in registering CLAs but in vain; (viii) The initial lifespan of CFM agreements range between 5 and 10 years with a provision to extend them for longer periods if implemented to satisfaction. However, the benefits of some listed activities, particularly restoration of degraded forest areas would come much later. The time frame for CFM agreements with the "Responsible Bodies" is 10 years. Comparatively, the Tree Planting Permits issued by NFA to private tree planters is minimum 20 years. The 10 year period does not provide sufficient motivation for tree planting under CFM given that most trees require more than 10 years to mature. To that effect, communities are entering CFM half-heartedly. Communities would prefer a relatively longer period; (ix) communities allege that CFM is only earmarked for only degraded forest reserves or degraded compartments of forest reserves. Not only do they find nothing left to share as benefits, but also de-motivated for having been handed a degraded resource. Coupled with the 10 years margin, then this becomes totally a disincentive for communities to actively engage in CFM; (x) many of the communities are manipulated by the self seeking persons who enter into leadership and never want to retire. Someone becomes chairperson of a CFM group for as long as he lives; later becoming a proxy representative of the www.intechopen.com Responsible Body (in this case the National Forestry Authority) with whom the community signed an agreement; (xi) Unpractical provisions within CFM agreements whereby many of the responsibilities to be executed by local communities (Box 3) and CBOs are written to be executed together with NFA. Yet going by the limited number of NFA staff, it is inconceivable that that would be practical and feasible.
A more practical approach would entail, among others, inclusion of provisions with regard to: (a) type and limits of fines, procedures for collecting exhibit and accounting for them, and reporting about them; (b) procedures for arresting or submission of names of culprits to NFA for arrest; and (c) custody of exhibits (e.g. illegal timber) and their recording before handing over to superior authorities e.g. NFA. Police etc.
(xii) Most of the CFM agreements are signed with local community, NFA, NGOs and Local Governments. No reference is made to the private sector or business community, cultural institutions, research institutions etc, where they may have strategic roles to support CFM. The role of Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA) in relation to wildlife within the CFM Agreements is not strong either; monitoring plan is a crucial instrument that should be annexed to the agreement. A key weakness was that there was no independent system for monitoring. Communities cannot be the "judge and party" and there is need to have an objective, independent monitoring system and most of these plans are not yet made where CFM agreements have been signed; (xiii) CFM negotiations exhibited different interests. It is the goal of NFA to maintain the wide range of values of forest resources, including both use and non-use values. To the communities the immediate attraction is to access the tangible use values. In most management plans, there are 3 types of management zones, namely: (a) buffer zone, (b) production zone and (c) strict nature reserve. Human interference is highly restricted in strict nature reserves. NFA recognizes these zones but it did not appear that communities were fully mobilized to understand and appreciate the rationale for such zoning. This message will have to be consistently communicated because in some forest reserves, the closest areas to the communities are strict nature reserves that they cannot access; (xiv) matching of benefits and costs-Communities are eager to come on board for CFM in order to gain regulated access to forest products. That eagerness overshadows the need for a basic understanding of how the potential benefits compare with costs communities incur for certain responsibilities they accept to take on e.g. joint patrols and sometimes supervision, arresting culprits, collect and provide information about illegal timber harvesting, participate in fighting wild fire, sensitizing communities about conservation to mention but a few. Owing to fewer numbers of NFA staff around protected areas and poor funding, they cannot always respond to community request for activities that are to be carried out jointly e.g. patrols.

Box 3: Roles and Responsibilities of communities under CFM
 Impose fines on culprits with NFA  Arrest culprits with NFA  Impound illegally harvested timber with NFA  Patrol the forest with NFA www.intechopen.com

Gaps in CFM policy and legal framework in Uganda
The practice of CFM in its present stage is yet to deliver on poverty reduction and forest conservation because of a number of issues relating to rights, privileges, roles and responsibilities. There are many implementation, conceptual as well as policy framework issues which need to be thoroughly re-examined along the key milestones. There is need to move from considering communities as forest user groups to appreciating user groups as forest managers. Finally former user groups need to be seen to become forest owners and therefore managers of the resource. The detailed account of the policy gaps are as follows: (i) the 2001 Forestry Policy provides for CFM but not community based forest management and therefore the communities are only obliged to collaborate with "responsible bodies". The law only accords them "responsible body" status when it comes to establishment of community forests and private forests on land that is communally owned by the communities or privately owned respectively; (ii) although sharing the resources is provided for in the policy, there are no guidelines for forest-benefit sharing. Quite often communities are left with low value items (mushrooms, water ponds, medicinal species etc). The high value products (reserved timber species and revenue from forestry services such as eco-tourism) are maintained by the Responsible Body (NFA). The CFM Agreement for Hanga-Kidwera community in Masindi district for example says in part: " Local inhabitants are privileged to obtain free of charge and in reasonable quantities to the discretion of the forest officer, bush firewood, bush poles, timber from unreserved tree species and sand for domestic use only. Domestic animals are allowed to visit water and salt lick points in the reserve". Forests, there are no guiding principles to be followed before acceptance by the District Land Board, the District Council or even the Minister; (vii) transfer of property rights and control of resources to communities is provided for as a strategy and opportunity in the 2001 Forestry Policy but has never become a reality because forest resource managers are sceptical and pessimistic about CFM being a viable arrangement with fears that communities may indulge in illegal activities rather than implement the agreed plan.
(viii) There is a lack of information and lack of information dissemination to communities about the available opportunities in participatory forest management. Section 91 of the National Forestry and Tree Planting Act 2003 provides for access to information on forest www.intechopen.com products and services. Quite often information does not trickle down to the end users, especially local communities. CFM benefits to the communities are not well articulated. CFM information (such as its contribution to livelihoods improvement, fuel wood for more than 92% of Uganda's population, value for environmental conservation, contribution to rainfall and soil protection) is not reflected in government statistics. Therefore, the importance and contribution of CFM to the gross development strategies of the communities and the country are underestimated. This undermines the significance of CFM to rural livelihoods especially for the forest dependant poor; (ix) CFM agreements (wherever they are signed) have been drafted in English with less than 10% of the community members being able to comprehend the contents of the agreement (Organizational Capacity Assessment [OCA] Report, 2006). The issues contained therein are therefore not appropriately deciphered and has always been a major hindrance to the negotiation and implementation process. Chances of getting distorted information are high. This provides a window for manipulation of the unsuspecting communities by self seeking and opportunistic CFM leaders. Above all that, communities can not hire offices and staff; therefore their documents are kept with the Chairperson of the group and this establishes an additional barrier of access to information; (x) CFM Agreements have a life span of 10 years yet many forestry activities are of a longer gestation period. For example trees take 20 years and above to mature. Private tree farmers in Central Forest Reserves are given permits of up to 50 years. This is a disincentive for communities to undertake long term and lucrative investments under CFM restricting them to subsistence tendencies (collection of mushrooms, rattan and hunting); (xi) Gender and equality is a mere formality under the CFM agreement. It is intended to serve the interests of the "Responsible Body" as a counterpart to the agreement. Equal participation, fairness and sharing of benefits have left a lot to be desired. Women and the elderly have fallen victims of this inequity problem with approximately 80% of the women in the agreements not being able to tell the simplest of CFM and not knowing their rights (EMPAFORM, 2006). Disadvantaged members of the community such as persons with disability, the old and vulnerable groups have little in the know about CFM. Males still dominate and take up most of the decision making positions as evidenced by the (OCA, 2006); (xii) the 2001 Forestry Policy empowers civil society organizations to be at the forefront in the management of forest resources in the country. However, there are no networks of civil societies at grass roots level fighting for CFM issues. Some of the active forestry associations, for example, the Uganda Forestry Working Group, Forestry Governance Learning Group, Mabira Forest Integrated Community Organization, Nature Conservation and Promotion Association, etc. have only expressed interest in big policy issues rather than community issues; (xiii) there is a general failure to recognize value of forest resources by decision makers (including national and local politicians) and attaching low priority to CFM. This has resulted into poor governance fuelling forest destruction, over-exploitation and encroachment to the detriment of the CFM goal. In as long as encroachment and or illegalities is seen as the easiest way to access forest resources, collaborative forest management, community forests and private forest approaches will be denied an opportunity to take root; (xiv) Failure to recognize the value of forest resources has led to critical lack of extension and/or advisory service provision to communities. It may be argued that communities have preferred enterprises with immediate returns such as piggery, poultry, maize, beans, etc.
Communities have little motivation to indulge in long-term activities that involves planting, www.intechopen.com growing and protecting trees. It may be true that high poverty levels, immediate needs like medical bills and basic household requirements are a motivation for enterprises with quick returns. However, it is also true that demand driven forestry extension service delivery has failed and communities have received little advice from the National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS). The National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS) has reluctantly adopted forestry activities as enterprises and therefore market opportunities for forest products and services remain in oblivion. No wonder that forestry does not feature in most NAADS strategic enterprises. There is also inadequate understanding of forestry based livelihood opportunities despite efforts for its inclusion in the Poverty Eradication Action Programme (PEAP); (xv) benefits from forest reserves have remained hidden. There is a lack of market information and therefore CFM communities remain attached to the traditional opportunities. This jeopardizes CFM approach to support community livelihoods initiatives.
It is a fact that trees take too long to grow, but it is also a fact that many communities have not been introduced to alternatives that are of a short-term income generating nature. Ecotourism and activities that reduce stress from the forest could be introduced as alternatives and providing a right balance between long-term and short-term investment options; (xvi) There is political jeopardy and interference by government directly supporting encroachment in gazetted forest reserves and degazettement of reserves with preference to large scale agricultural investors ( This has resulted into lack of respect for professionalism on the part of government; lack of respect for the CBO/CSOs voice and opinion in this regard and therefore reduces the speed of implementing CFM approach. Recent media reports have indicated that politicians have interfered with the management of forest resources) and neglected a call by the civil society to "keep eyes on but hands off" the management of forest resources.

Awareness creation and capacity building
The need for capacity building focusing on those capacities needed for local stakeholders to adjust to changing ecological and socio-economic circumstances and institutional circumstances, including both adverse events and opportunities for livelihood improvement. The emphasis on changes means that both Resource Capacities (RCs) and Institutional Capacities (ICs) of local stakeholders need to be strengthened, where: Resource capacities (RCs) refer to adequacy in terms of "hardware" (funds, equipment, material and infrastructure) and "software" (information, knowledge and skills; and Institutional Capacities (ICs) (or governance capacities) relate to the enabling institutional environment, which allows for a cost effective use of RCs. ICs encompass several factors associated with the concept of good governance, including: (a) adequate information, Net Working and Information exchange; (b) transparency in management procedures; (c) Accountability, both upwards (to higher administrative levels) and downwards (to civil society); (d) inclusive/ participatory decision making processes and adequate representation; of local interests in decision-making fora; (e) managerial skills (in particular regarding financial matters, group dynamics); (f) cost effectiveness, business skills and management; (g) sustainability strategies and mechanisms; and (h) recourses mobilization and management skills.

Sustainability of the resource through investments in forestry
Promoting on-farm forestry and management of forests on private lands are critical. There is need for NFA to should popularise hitherto unknown species so that communities can benefit from their commercial exploitation.

Strengthening the partnership arrangements
The Community-Government partnership should: (i) include the private sector/ Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) as a partner in the assessment of CFM because private operators often: (a) replace forestry services where these have inadequate means of operation; (b) pre-finance forest related initiatives involving communities including diversification of forestry related income generating activities; and (c) easily link to other government programmes like NAADS for leverage and synergy especially in the area of capacity building; (ii) move beyond forests and consider forest management in a landscape perspective, where forests are only one amongst the possible uses of land by rural populations; (iii) mainstream CFM into Local Government Development Plans. This would open doors for capturing and mainstreaming indigenous knowledge (IK) into local planning and natural resource management initiatives. It would also avail the communities the opportunity to tap into Local Government resources for community development projects.

Development of Forestry Based Enterprises (FBEs)
Support Forest Enterprise development as alternative livelihoods. Viable forest enterprises depend not only on market demand but also on the sustainable management of resources. However, there are constraints that will affect FBEs and they should be addressed. These include: (a) inadequate information on markets; (b) weak linkages between small suppliers and large buyers; (c) limited access to credit, finance, capital and technology; and (d) shortage of business and technical skills.

Provision of incentives for community participation in forest management
Under the CFM agreements, communities have been allocated specific compartments to co manage with the NFA. However, when it comes to joint protection work (community and NFA), the community's work extends beyond the boundaries of the designated compartments. There is therefore concern among the community that the NFA should reward them for their role in the protection of forests outside their CFM compartments. Perhaps a study could be commissioned to determine how much NFA is saving through CFM. A scheme could then be worked out to pay the community a percentage of the NFA savings as an incentive. This will definitely boost community morale and interest in forestry. It will also help them to directly link their development to conservation.

Streamlining service provider activities in all NFA management ranges
According to the NFA field staff, the relationship between the service providers so far has been cordial. However, there is need to stream line the activities of the NGOs providing services to the communities so that resources and benefits are equitably shared among the www.intechopen.com communities. For example: (a) the NGOs should reinforce and complement each other rather than seeing themselves as competitors. The most important thing in the end is delivery of services to the target group, the communities; (b) the NFA field staff is of the opinion that all the service providers and NFA should develop a joint work plan for CFM implementation; (c) the service providers can, within the period of their projects, build and shape partnerships with each other and NFA and develop a joint programme of action on common themes e.g. support to income generating activities, exchange visits, training etc.

Improving and developing internal organization which should reflect the needs of member CBOs
Some of the activities could include: maintaining, developing and strengthening partnerships and networking; securing finances to fund CFM activities; building capacity of CBOs to implement the CFM agreements; developing and delivering core conservation activities; developing and delivering livelihood activities through FBEs; investment in forestry by CBOs.

Conclusion
The future for participatory approaches in Uganda that includes CFM on gazetted forest reserves, community forests and private forests is bright. The struggle though remains incorporation of such initiatives in the bigger Environment and Natural Resources sector, mainstreaming it into the Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP) pillar (now National Planning Authority Master Plan) on natural resources. Making sure it is in the Non-sectoral Conditional Grants, mainstreaming in the District Development Plans and making sure there are resources for implementing activities that make participatory approaches a success. It is clear that: (i) Communities need to move from positions as subordinate beneficiaries, receiving a share of access, products or other benefits, into positions where they may themselves regulate this source of livelihood and with longer-term perspectives; (ii) CFM promotes good governance and accountability in the management of gazetted forests. Collaborative Forest Management reduces the ills associated with policing, and provides for access rights and may serve as an insurance against degazettement of Forest Reserves.

Recommendations based on identified policy and legal gaps
It is desired by proponents of CFM that time has come for not just demanding government's support for continuing CFM as it now exist but rather to revitalize the campaign for truly benefit-oriented and equitable model of people's participation in forest management. This means restating the basic premises of collaborative forest management in Uganda and pointing to the broad directions of policy change that are required. The following recommendations are made to the corresponding policy gaps: i. There is need for harmonizing legislation, reviewing guidelines and finalizing regulations. The guidelines that require immediate attention include guidelines for forest benefit sharing, transfer of property rights, forest resource control by communities. ii. There is need for the government of Uganda to build the capacity of institutions to undertake CFM. This includes building the capacity of the Forestry Inspection Division to provide guidance on CFM implementation, NFA to step up its manpower and resources for collaborative initiatives and the DFS to pilot CFM. It is also recommended that government undertakes to establish Forestry Committees provided for in the National Forestry and Tree Planting Act. These Committees will provide a forum to discuss collaborative forestry issues with due consideration of the needs of the communities. iii. Currently, CFM is mainly undertaken by the National Forestry Authority. It is recommended that CFM is implemented by the District Forest Services and Private Forest owners. The PEAP recommends facilitation of the District Forest Services to undertake its activities (including CFM). It is recommended that this is implemented. This will not only improve forestry activities in the districts but also build their capacity to undertake collaborative forest management approach. iv. Government should finalize guidelines for registration and declaration of Community and Private Forests to allay the anxiety arising from communities interested in registering CFs and individuals interested in registering their private forests. This will also provide the District Land Boards, the District Council and the Minister to provide guidance and speed up the process of registration of the forests. v. There is a need for advocacy work to advocate for the transfer of property rights and control of resources to communities who would like to become owners, and users of forest resources. This means that there is need to build a strong case to demonstrate that communities are capable of managing the resources regardless of the scepticism of forest resource managers. vi. There is sufficient information that needs to be packaged and disseminated to the communities. An effort needs to be made to translate such information into vernacular languages understood by communities in the different regions. vii. There is need for Responsible bodies to translate CFM Agreements into vernacular languages local in the area where the Agreement is to be undertaken. This is to provide an opportunity for the community to be able to comprehend the contents of the agreement and avoid manipulation by unscrupulous CFM leaders. It is further recommended that each member should also be provided with own copy for reference from time to time. viii. Whereas the 10 years of a CFM Agreement is tagged to the 10 years of the forest management plan, it is recommended that this period be revised to allow for projects that require a much longer time -e.g. tree planting. ix. Affirmative action needs to be taken into account to streamline gender and equity issues in CFM Agreements. Special sensitisation meetings for women, the elderly and other vulnerable groups need to be undertaken so as to empower such groups to be able to negotiate and make informed decisions. This is the only way to allow for equal participation, fairness and sharing of benefits. x. There is need for grassroots networks of civil societies/NGOs/CBOs that will provide a forum for to fight for participatory forest management issues at forest reserve level. This will also help develop both the capacity of communities to implement collaborative approaches, providing conducive climate for community and private forests, building the capacity of "Responsible Bodies" to implement such approaches xi. It is important for central government to improve the budget allocation for CFM implementation under the PEAP/NAADS and within the Environment and Natural Resources Sector. It is also important that Local Governments provide necessary support to the District Forest Services to undertake participatory forest management approaches. Advocacy work needs to be stepped up at policy level to influence government on good governance issues in the forest sector, the role of both the political and civil leadership, accountability of responsible institutions, and collaborative forest management. There is need for civil society to influence government plans to incorporate collaborative forest management issues in overall government priority plans.

Acknowledgement
We do acknowledge National Forestry Authority (NFA), and EMPAFORM (Strengthening and Empowering Civil Society for Participatory Forest Management) for enabling us access their documents.