\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6539",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Wastewater and Water Quality",title:"Wastewater and Water Quality",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Water is accepted as the most important source of life. It is assumed that life began in water and spread from there to the whole world. But water has been polluted anthropogenically since the beginning of the industrial revolution in the late 19th century. At the end of the 20th century, most water sources cannot be used for aquaculture, irrigation, and human use. Therefore, for sustainable development, we have to protect our water sources on Earth, because it's the only planet we have!",isbn:"978-1-78923-621-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-620-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-539-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71219",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"wastewater-and-water-quality",numberOfPages:228,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"011810f6bbc0d25f6590e1169231962f",bookSignature:"Taner Yonar",publishedDate:"August 29th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6539.jpg",numberOfDownloads:15707,numberOfWosCitations:31,numberOfCrossrefCitations:31,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:61,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:123,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 2nd 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 23rd 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 20th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 12th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 11th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"32956",title:"Dr.",name:"Taner",middleName:null,surname:"Yonar",slug:"taner-yonar",fullName:"Taner Yonar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32956/images/5748_n.png",biography:"Dr. Taner Yonar is an Associate Professor of Uludag University, Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department. He has received his B.Sc. (1996) degree in Environmental Engineering Department, Uludag University. He has M.Sc. (1999) and Ph.D. (2005) degrees in Environmental Technology from Uludag University, Institute of Sciences. He did his post-doctoral research in the UK, at Newcastle University, Chemical Engineering and Advanced Materials Department (2011). He teaches graduate and undergraduate level courses in Environmental Engineering on water and wastewater treatment and advanced treatment technologies. He works on advanced oxidation, membrane processes, and electrochemical processes. He is the author of over 65 research papers.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Uludağ University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1354",title:"Wastewater Engineering",slug:"technology-environmental-engineering-wastewater-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"61484",title:"Recent Drifts in pH-Sensitive Reverse Osmosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75897",slug:"recent-drifts-in-ph-sensitive-reverse-osmosis",totalDownloads:1437,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Preparation of some smart PAm-ZTS pH-responsive membranes, via reactions between ZTS and PAm under different conditions, was conducted for testing pressure-driven reverse osmosis membranes (PDROMs) in active rejection of Ce4+, Pr3+, Sm3+, Gd3+, Dy3+, and Ho3+ ionic lanthanide species in their 3+ and 4+ states. Recent theoretical models to designate the membrane operations were mathematically itemized, after selective characterization of the PDROMs. The pH scale response of the membrane was confirmed using static adsorption and hydraulic pervasion result estimations. The flux across the PAm-ZTS membrane decreased with the lowering pH value, with drastic decreases between pH 4 and 7, and was both reversible and durable with pH shifts between ~3 and ~8. At lower pH 3, the individual pores were in a closed-state due to the prolonged structure of the amide chains on the porous surfaces. In contrast, at pH 8, the higher pH value, the membrane pores were in an open-state format, because of the collapsed structures of the amide chains. This grants a clear possible approach for manufacturing some pH-responsive composite membranes and inspires further design for their stimuli-responsive actions by incorporating molecularly designed macromolecules, synthesized by controlled polymerization.",signatures:"Gehan Mohamed Ibrahim and Belal El-Gammal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61484",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61484",authors:[{id:"216095",title:"Prof.",name:"Belal",surname:"Elgammal",slug:"belal-elgammal",fullName:"Belal Elgammal"},{id:"219496",title:"Dr.",name:"Gehan",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"gehan-ibrahim",fullName:"Gehan Ibrahim"}],corrections:null},{id:"60850",title:"Wastewater Treatment Using Membrane Technology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76624",slug:"wastewater-treatment-using-membrane-technology",totalDownloads:2969,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:29,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Water contamination by heavy metals, cyanides and dyes is increasing globally and needs to be addressed as this will lead to water scarcity as well as water quality. Different techniques have been used to clean and renew water for human consumption and agricultural purposes but they each have limitations. Among those techniques, membrane technology is promising to solve the issues. Nanotechnology present a great potential in wastewater treatment to improve treatment efficiency of wastewater treatment plants. In addition, nanotechnology supplement water supply through safe use of modern water sources. This chapter reviews recent development in membrane technology for wastewater treatment. Different types of membrane technologies, their properties, mechanisms advantages, limitations and promising solutions have been discussed.",signatures:"Azile Nqombolo, Anele Mpupa, Richard M. Moutloali and Philiswa\nN. Nomngongo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60850",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60850",authors:[{id:"191669",title:"Dr.",name:"Philiswa",surname:"Nomngongo",slug:"philiswa-nomngongo",fullName:"Philiswa Nomngongo"}],corrections:null},{id:"61318",title:"Efficient Removal Approach of Micropollutants in Wastewater Using Membrane Bioreactor",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75183",slug:"efficient-removal-approach-of-micropollutants-in-wastewater-using-membrane-bioreactor",totalDownloads:1255,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the recent past years, micropollutants that are pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) have been used extensively and have been discovered in raw sewage, wastewater treatment plants, effluents, surface, and groundwater with concentrations from ng/L to several μg/L. Even though many of these compounds are still not determined online, monitoring technology improvements progressed. Today’s wastewater treatment plants are not constructed to remove these micropollutants yet. Conventional activated sludge processes are used in the treatment of municipal wastewater but are not specifically designed for the removal of micropollutants. The remaining pharmaceuticals mix into surface waters. At that stage, they can adversely affect the aquatic environment and may cause issues for drinking water production. As the conventional methods are insufficient for removing the micropollutants, other alternative treatment methods can be applied such as coagulation-flocculation, activated carbon adsorption (powdered activated carbon and granular activated carbon), advanced oxidation processes, membrane processes, and membrane bioreactor. It has been observed that membrane bioreactor (MBR) can achieve higher and more consistent micropollutants removal. The removal of micropollutants is based on physicochemical properties of micropollutants and the conditions of treatment. Due to recent technical innovations and cost reductions of the actual membranes, the membrane bioreactor takes attention. In this study, membrane bioreactor experiments for micropollutants in drinking use, wastewater, and surface waters were investigated in detail based on literature investigations, and the feasibility of this method was evaluated.",signatures:"Berna Kırıl Mert, Nihan Ozengin, Esra Can Dogan and Coskun\nAydıner",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61318",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61318",authors:[{id:"72055",title:"Dr.",name:"Berna",surname:"Kiril Mert",slug:"berna-kiril-mert",fullName:"Berna Kiril Mert"},{id:"202746",title:"Dr.",name:"Coskun",surname:"Aydiner",slug:"coskun-aydiner",fullName:"Coskun Aydiner"},{id:"204849",title:"Dr.",name:"Nihan",surname:"Goral",slug:"nihan-goral",fullName:"Nihan Goral"},{id:"232731",title:"Dr.",name:"Esra",surname:"Can Dogan",slug:"esra-can-dogan",fullName:"Esra Can Dogan"}],corrections:null},{id:"60826",title:"Applications of Combined Electrocoagulation and Electrooxidation Treatment to Industrial Wastewaters",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75460",slug:"applications-of-combined-electrocoagulation-and-electrooxidation-treatment-to-industrial-wastewaters",totalDownloads:1354,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In recent years, it is aimed to reuse wastewater to form an economical input and to manage it sustainably without threatening human life and ecosystem. High pollutant removal yield from wastewaters was achieved using electrocoagulation method without adding any chemical coagulant or flocculants, thus reducing the amount of sludge. However, electrocoagulation (EC) is an inefficient method for the removal of stable and dissolved organic pollutants. Electrooxidation (EOx), which was evaluated as one of the most promising technologies for the treatment of wastewater containing soluble organic compounds, can directly and indirectly oxidize small organic pollutants. Although electrooxidation provides full mineralization of the organic matter, if suspended solids are present, energy consumption is increased. Since EC is a fast but incomplete process and EOx is a complete but slow process, combining the two processes offers a practical hybrid. In this chapter, mechanisms and applications of EC, EOx, and their combinations will be widely discussed.",signatures:"Baran Özyurt and Şule Camcıoğlu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60826",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60826",authors:[{id:"210089",title:"MSc.",name:"Baran",surname:"Ozyurt",slug:"baran-ozyurt",fullName:"Baran Ozyurt"},{id:"224179",title:"Dr.",name:"Şule",surname:"Camcıoğlu",slug:"sule-camcioglu",fullName:"Şule Camcıoğlu"}],corrections:null},{id:"59940",title:"Intelligent Modeling Approach to Predict Effluent Quality of Wastewater Treatment Process",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74984",slug:"intelligent-modeling-approach-to-predict-effluent-quality-of-wastewater-treatment-process",totalDownloads:1095,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Monitoring of effluent quality remains a challenge to the wastewater treatment process (WWTP). In order to provide a reliable tool for the online monitoring of effluent quality, an intelligent modeling approach, which consists of online sensors and an effluent quality predicting plant, is developed to predict effluent quality in this chapter. The intelligent modeling approach, based on a self-organizing fuzzy neural network (SOFNN), is able to enhance the modeling performance by organizing the structure and adjusting the parameters simultaneously. The experimental studies of intelligent modeling approach have been performed on several systems to verify the effectiveness. The comparison with other existing methods has been made and demonstrated that the intelligent modeling approach is of better performance.",signatures:"Hong-Gui Han, Xiao-Long Wu, Lu Zhang and Jun-Fei Qiao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59940",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59940",authors:[{id:"22195",title:"Prof.",name:"Junfei",surname:"Qiao",slug:"junfei-qiao",fullName:"Junfei Qiao"},{id:"227688",title:"Prof.",name:"Honggui",surname:"Han",slug:"honggui-han",fullName:"Honggui Han"},{id:"229390",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaolong",surname:"Wu",slug:"xiaolong-wu",fullName:"Xiaolong Wu"}],corrections:null},{id:"61077",title:"Treatment of Textile Wastewater Using a Novel Electrocoagulation Reactor Design",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76876",slug:"treatment-of-textile-wastewater-using-a-novel-electrocoagulation-reactor-design",totalDownloads:1175,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study explored the best operating conditions for a novel electrocoagulation (EC) reactor with the rotating anode for textile wastewater treatment. The influence of operating parameters like interelectrode distance (IED), current density (CD), temperature, pH, operating time (RT) and rotation speed on the removal efficiency of the contaminant was studied. A comparative study was done using conventional model with static electrodes in two phases under same textile wastewater. The findings revealed that the optimal conditions for textile wastewater treatment were attained at RT = 10 min, CD = 4 mA/cm2, rotation speed = 150 rpm, temperature = 25°C, IED = 1 cm and pH = 4.57. The removal efficiencies of color, biological oxygen demand (BOD), turbidity, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total suspended solid (TSS) were 98.50, 95.55, 96, 98 and 97.10%, respectively, within the first 10 min of the reaction. The results of the experiment reveal that the newly designed reactor incorporated with cathode rings and rotated anode impellers provide a superior treatment efficiency within a short reaction time. The novel EC reactor with a rotating anode significantly enhanced textile wastewater treatment compared to the conventional model. The values of adsorption and passivation resistance validated the pollutants removal rate.",signatures:"Ahmed Samir Naje, Mohammed A. Ajeel, \nPeter Adeniyi Alaba and Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61077",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61077",authors:[{id:"236414",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Samir",slug:"ahmed-samir",fullName:"Ahmed Samir"},{id:"237449",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreeshivadasan",surname:"Chelliapan",slug:"shreeshivadasan-chelliapan",fullName:"Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan"},{id:"237453",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed",surname:"A. Ajeel",slug:"mohammed-a.-ajeel",fullName:"Mohammed A. Ajeel"}],corrections:null},{id:"60369",title:"Innovation of Coagulation-Flocculation Processes Using Biopolyelectrolytes and Zeta Potential for Water Reuse",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75898",slug:"innovation-of-coagulation-flocculation-processes-using-biopolyelectrolytes-and-zeta-potential-for-wa",totalDownloads:1256,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The coagulation-flocculation process is one of the conventional technologies used for the treatment of different types of industrial wastewater. The zeta potential is a key parameter that allows to determine the effective pH, the type and the correct biopolyelectrolyte dose to return the water quality using coagulation-flocculation. In this chapter, we present the application of a natural cationic biopolyelectrolyte (chitosan) to make the separation and recovery of cellulose fiber more efficient and to increase the reuse of treated water from the pulp and paper industry. The result of the coagulation-flocculation test at pH 5.4 and a chitosan dose = 10 mg/L shows that the treated water has the following values: biochemical oxygen demand = 150 mg O2/L, turbidity = 5 FAU, total suspended solids = 2 mg/L, chemical oxygen demand = 200 mg/L and hardness = 250 mg CaCO3/L. The quality of water obtained allows its discharge to a natural water body, in which it is possible to continue with a biological treatment stage, or to reuse the treated water for the manufacture of paper. Additionally, this coagulation-flocculation process can be coupled to an advanced oxidation process to increase the quality of the water and mineralize the content of organic material.",signatures:"Eduardo A. López-Maldonado and Mercedes T. Oropeza-Guzmán",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60369",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60369",authors:[{id:"221925",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo A.",surname:"López-Maldonado",slug:"eduardo-a.-lopez-maldonado",fullName:"Eduardo A. López-Maldonado"},{id:"241287",title:"Dr.",name:"Mercedes T.",surname:"Oropeza-Guzman",slug:"mercedes-t.-oropeza-guzman",fullName:"Mercedes T. Oropeza-Guzman"}],corrections:null},{id:"60085",title:"The Role of Bacteria on the Breakdown of Recalcitrant Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) Compounds in Wastewater",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75400",slug:"the-role-of-bacteria-on-the-breakdown-of-recalcitrant-polychlorinated-biphenyls-pcbs-compounds-in-wa",totalDownloads:814,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pseudomonas aeruginosa was used to assess their potentials to degrade PCBs at concentrations of 1.0 μg/mL. An aliquot of 1.0 μL of the bacterial suspension with an optical density of 1.0 at 600 nm was used as an inoculum of the assay. Isolates were analysed for their ability to degrade PCB (Aroclor 1260) by measuring a shift in the wavemax using Cary 300 UV-visible spectrophotometer for a period of 96 hours. The presence /absence of the compounds was checked using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) UFLC Shimadzu using florescence detector pump RF-20A and system gold column C18 (CTO-20A) after 96 h. PCBs were extracted from wastewater samples from both Gaborone and Mafikeng using the Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe (QuEChERS) extraction kit, and analysis was performed using the gas chromatography mass spectrometer (GC-MS). The bacteria were able to degrade these compounds under different pH values of 5.0, 7.0, 8.0, and 9.0 and temperatures of 20, 27, 30, and 35°C. Degradation occurred at the most at 35°C and the least at 20°C for PCB samples that were used in the study. The bacteria strain was able to completely degrade Aroclor 1260 that was incoperated into the wastewater samples within 96 h. This was shown by a shift in the wavelength from 224 to 270 nm, which indicated that Aroclor 1260 was degraded and therefore forming a chlorobenzoate derivative. From this finding, it can be concluded that the sewage water samples did not possess PCB (Aroclor 1260) after treatment with bacteria and can be safely recycled.",signatures:"Spar Mathews and Patricia Sithebe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60085",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60085",authors:[{id:"139178",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",surname:"Sithebe",slug:"patricia-sithebe",fullName:"Patricia Sithebe"},{id:"226098",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Spar",surname:"Mathews",slug:"spar-mathews",fullName:"Spar Mathews"}],corrections:null},{id:"59920",title:"Distributed Control Systems for a Wastewater Treatment Plant: Architectures and Advanced Control Solutions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74827",slug:"distributed-control-systems-for-a-wastewater-treatment-plant-architectures-and-advanced-control-solu",totalDownloads:1802,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter is focused on the development and implementation of a distributed and hierarchized control system for the wastewater treatment plant (WTP) Calafat, Romania. The primary control loops for both treatment lines (water and activated sludge) are developed and analyzed. Also, the distributed control system (DCS) architecture of the wastewater treatment plant is presented, and the advantages of the proposed control structure are highlighted. In order to increase the performance of the overall control system, some advanced control solutions are investigated. More precisely, multivariable adaptive and robust control algorithms are proposed for the activated sludge bioprocess. Several realistic simulation experiments are performed, and the obtained results are analyzed.",signatures:"Dan Selișteanu, Ion Marian Popescu, Emil Petre, Monica Roman,\nDorin Șendrescu and Bogdan Popa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59920",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59920",authors:[{id:"55665",title:"Prof.",name:"Emil",surname:"Petre",slug:"emil-petre",fullName:"Emil Petre"},{id:"61612",title:"Prof.",name:"Dan",surname:"Selisteanu",slug:"dan-selisteanu",fullName:"Dan Selisteanu"},{id:"124369",title:"Prof.",name:"Monica",surname:"Roman",slug:"monica-roman",fullName:"Monica Roman"},{id:"134674",title:"Prof.",name:"Dorin",surname:"Sendrescu",slug:"dorin-sendrescu",fullName:"Dorin Sendrescu"},{id:"229653",title:"Dr.",name:"Ion Marian",surname:"Popescu",slug:"ion-marian-popescu",fullName:"Ion Marian Popescu"},{id:"229668",title:"MSc.",name:"Bogdan",surname:"Popa",slug:"bogdan-popa",fullName:"Bogdan Popa"}],corrections:null},{id:"60063",title:"State-of-the-Art Design Technique of a Single-Channel Pump for Wastewater Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75171",slug:"state-of-the-art-design-technique-of-a-single-channel-pump-for-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:1102,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A single-channel pump, which is commonly used for wastewater treatment, with a single-channel impeller can effectively prevent performance reduction or damage caused by foreign substances. However, the design methods for this special type of pump are different and more difficult to realize than those for general pumps. In this chapter, a state-of-the-art design technique for a single-channel pump is introduced for realizing high efficiency and low-fluid-induced vibration. In other words, advanced multidisciplinary design optimization techniques combined with unsteady flow analysis are introduced and discussed in detail to simultaneously improve hydraulic efficiency and reduce flow-induced vibration, considering the impeller-volute interaction of a single-channel pump.",signatures:"Jin-Hyuk Kim and Young-Seok Choi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60063",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60063",authors:[{id:"225897",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jin-Hyuk",surname:"Kim",slug:"jin-hyuk-kim",fullName:"Jin-Hyuk Kim"},{id:"239211",title:"Dr.",name:"Young-Seok",surname:"Choi",slug:"young-seok-choi",fullName:"Young-Seok Choi"}],corrections:null},{id:"60588",title:"Sustainable Sorbent Materials Obtained from Orange Peel as an Alternative for Water Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76137",slug:"sustainable-sorbent-materials-obtained-from-orange-peel-as-an-alternative-for-water-treatment",totalDownloads:1450,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The presence of pollutants in water promotes negative impacts on aquatic organisms. Among the methods of wastewater treatment, the use of sorbent materials is one of the most outstanding due to its efficiencies and easy implementation. Orange peels had become value-added products for these purposes. Activated carbon as a sorbent material was prepared using orange peel as a precursor. The resulting material was physicochemically characterized by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared radiation (FTIR); structural changes were identified and related to sorption capacity using a model pollutant. Results of sorption indicated natural dried orange peel which presented a sorption capacity of 149.26 mg/g, while sorbent-activated carbon presented a sorption capacity of 2342.91 mg/g. The recovery of orange peel to obtain potential interest materials provided benefits for wastewater treatment.",signatures:"Irma Robles Gutierrez, Ana K. Tovar and Luis A. Godínez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60588",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60588",authors:[{id:"236517",title:"Dr.",name:"Irma",surname:"Robles",slug:"irma-robles",fullName:"Irma Robles"},{id:"236521",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis A.",surname:"Godinez",slug:"luis-a.-godinez",fullName:"Luis A. 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The average annual age-adjusted incidence rate (AAAIR) of all CNS tumors, as estimated in the US population was 23.79 according to the most recent report of the Central Brain Tumor Registry of the United States (CBTRUS) [1]. Amongst individuals aged 15–39 years, CNS tumors constitute the third most common tumor overall, while amongst individuals aged 40 and above, they are the third most common cause of cancer death.
Brain tumors find an overwhelmingly high representation in the pediatric age group. They constitute the most common solid organ tumors in children and the second most common malignancies of childhood overall, accounting for nearly 20% of all pediatric malignancies [1]. The CBTRUS 2020 report estimated that the AAAIR of CNS tumors amongst children aged 0 to 14 was 5.83 per 100,000 individuals. The annual age-adjusted mortality rate (AAAMR) of CNS tumors in this age group was determined to be 0.71 per 100,000, leading to brain tumors being the biggest cause of cancer death amongst 0 to 14 years of age. Despite the advances of the last few decades in imaging, molecular diagnostics, surgical techniques, and adjuvant therapy, unfortunately, less than required improvement has occurred in rates of survival in the pediatric age group.
Girardi et al., in a systematic review published in 2019, determined that little data from low and low-middle-income countries (LMICs) is available regarding long-term survival from pediatric brain tumors [2]. This sobering data stands amidst the backdrop of studies demonstrating that the nations with lower economic development deliver a significantly poorer quality of care [3].
Adult survivors of pediatric brain tumors face significant challenges. Several factors come together to drastically impact their neurocognitive and psychosocial outcomes. These include but are not limited to, the clinical features of the tumor itself, its treatment especially radiotherapy to a developing brain, access to support systems and quality of rehabilitative services, individual factors, amongst others [4].
The pediatric landscape is significantly different from the adult landscape with regard to brain tumors. Pediatric brain tumors have differing common sites of origin, histology, genetics, which lend themselves to dissimilar diagnostic and therapeutic considerations. As a rule of thumb, two-thirds of tumors in adults arise from sites above the tentorium cerebelli, while two-thirds of tumors in children arise from structures below the tentorium cerebelli. Several genetic syndromes also include pediatric brain tumors as one of their clinical manifestations. These include but are not limited to tuberous sclerosis, Li-Fraumeni syndrome, Turcot syndrome, Type 1 and 2 Neurofibromatosis, Gorlin syndrome, Cowden syndrome, amongst others.
Brain tumors that have the highest disease burden in children include medulloblastomas, astrocytomas, ependymomas, schwannomas, meningiomas, amongst others. Their details, along with their specific epidemiology, will be discussed in greater depth in further sections.
The classification of tumors in the central nervous system (CNS) is the critical factor driving treatment decisions, given the wide variation amongst different tumors in response to each anti-cancer modality. For instance, some like midline pontine gliomas do not respond well to chemotherapy and are only partially amenable to radiotherapy.
Several classification schemas for CNS tumors exist. These range from those solely based on histology alone to those relying primarily on genetic and epigenetic features. While microscopic diagnosis finds utility in its low cost and accessibility, its insufficiently high inter-rater reliability along with the advancements in molecular biology have led to it not being the sole basis for classification [5].
Other simpler classification systems divide tumors based on the major site of origin. Supratentorial tumors are those which are located above the tentorium cerebelli and therefore may involve cerebral hemispheres. In children, these commonly include high-grade gliomas, low-grade gliomas, embryonal tumors, atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumors, meningiomas, choroid plexus tumors, and pineal tumors. In contrast, infratentorial tumors are located below the tentorium and, therefore, originate from the brainstem, the cerebellum, and the 4th ventricle. In children, these commonly include medulloblastomas, cerebellar astrocytomas, ependymomas, brainstem gliomas, atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumors, and rarely choroid plexus tumors. The sellar region is a region at the base of the skull around the sella turcica where the major tumors of note in children include pituitary adenomas, craniopharyngiomas, gliomas, and germ cell tumors.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed and published updated versions of the most widely used classification system for CNS tumors for decades. The WHO 2007 classification schema was the last iteration to primarily be based on histology [6]. Very recently, the WHO 2021 classification (WHO CNS5) has been published, which functions as an integrated histo-molecular classification system [7].
The WHO CNS5 classification, a broad overview of which is given in Figure 1, adheres to the landmark recommendations made by the cIMPACT-NOW group, especially the ones made at the Utrecht Meeting in 2019. The Consortium to Inform Molecular and Practical Approaches to CNS Tumor Taxonomy—Not Official WHO (cIMPACT-NOW) is an influential group of neuro-oncologists and neuropathologists which was established in 2016 to provide recommendations regarding the upcoming WHO classification [8]. Based on the cIMPACT-NOW recommendations, WHO CNS5 makes new categories, merges a few ones, and introduces new entities. These updates include the following:
Greater integration of histology has been done with immunohistochemical, ultrastructural, and molecular features of tumors.
Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, and 4) for tumor grade have replaced Roman numerals (I, II, III, and IV) to have CNS tumor grading consistent with other systems and prevent typographical errors.
Grading of tumors is to be done
Gliomas have been separated into pediatric-type and adult-type, with several subcategories. This change carries several key clinical implications.
The term ‘glioblastoma’ is reserved for IDH wild-type tumors and only refers to grade 4 tumors
IDH-mutant astrocytoma will be graded based on histo-molecular features
Layered reporting of medulloblastoma is recommended:
Integrated Diagnosis (combining histology and biology)
Histological Diagnosis
CNS WHO Grade
Molecular Information
Ependymomas have new sub-categories including Posterior Fossa A Ependymoma, Posterior Fossa B type Ependymoma, etc.
A broad overview of the World Health Organization (WHO) 2021 classification of central nervous system (CNS) tumors. This original figure has been drawn from [
CNS tumor grading has been long-known to be linked closely with clinical-biological features, and this has been augmented with recent works in genomics and methylomics. Tumor grading guides treatment decisions and the four WHO tumor grades have been historically essential in determining prognosis.
Previously, WHO used to assign a grade to one tumor type (e.g. anaplastic astrocytoma to grade 3), and grading was done across tumor types. With WHO CNS5, this has been radically shifted to grading within tumor types, similar to non-CNS tumors where the latter had been the norm for decades. This approach, while enhancing flexibility while grading, also highlights the pathobiological similarities within tumor types, rather than simply trying to crudely approximate clinical behavior across entities [7].
The current grading paradigm is a combination of histological and molecular featusres, rather than solely being based on microscopic features alone. Key examples of this are reflected in the Update 3 and 5 of cIMPACT-NOW [8]. The newly introduced integrated grading system continues to retain some features from prior WHO classification editions. For instance, meningiomas can only go from grade 1–3, and therefore it is not possible to have a ‘
Pediatric brain tumors are usually suspected based on their specific clinical features. Details regarding the clinical presentation of some common tumors are given in their respective sections. However, in general, these tumors find their manifestation in two major ways, one due to raised intracranial pressure, and the other due to the specific location of the tumor involving adjacent neural structures [9].
In children, raised intracranial pressure may be due to the tumor mass itself, or secondary to hydrocephalus, or maybe a consequence of cerebral edema. Acutely, this may manifest as headache, nausea and vomiting, altered sensorium, irritability, papilledema, hypertension, abnormal breathing, seizures, etc. In the long-term, this may manifest as macrocephaly, loss of appetite, delayed psychomotor development, personality changes, etc. [10].
Brain tumors also may manifest through the involvement of adjacent structures. Focal neurological deficits such as arm or leg weakness in case of cerebral tumors, ataxia and torticollis in posterior fossa tumors, endocrinopathies such as precocious puberty, obesity in case of sellar/parasellar tumors, vision impairment due to cranial nerve involvement, etc. [10].
An experienced, multidisciplinary team is essential for the management of pediatric CNS tumors, consisting of pediatrician, neuro-radiologist, neuro-oncologist, neurosurgeon, radiation oncologist, physiatrist, and other ancillary services.
Brain imaging is the mainstay of diagnosis. Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging are both often required. While the former allows a better assessment of bony involvement and tumoral calcifications, the latter helps to closely delineate the tumor and the involved anatomy of the region, along with helping predict the type of tumor. MR imaging with gadolinium contrast is often the single most valuable diagnostic test for CNS tumors.
MR Angiography (MRA) is useful for visualizing blood vessels, which helps determine the surgical approach. MR Spectroscopy allows for non-invasive determination of tissue properties of intracranial structures, helping differentiate between neoplastic and non-neoplastic lesions. MR Perfusion helps visualize blood flow to the involved areas [11].
Advances in imaging in the last few decades have led to increasing utilization of additional imaging methods. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) for evaluating the involvement of white matter tracts, can be combined with functional MRI to help in preoperative surgical planning. Positron emission tomography (PET) helps to visualize small metastases which may be missed, along with helping differentiate between normal postoperative changes and residual tumor.
Preoperative biopsy serves as the confirmatory tool in determining the presence and the type of tumor. Additionally, in some cases, the preoperative biopsy is not performed and diagnosis is made only based on MR imaging, for instance in diffuse pontine glioma. In other cases, the imaging allows narrowing down to few differentials, the surgery is begun and intraoperative frozen section is viewed to arrive at a tentative diagnosis, after which the definitive surgery is completed.
In addition, coupled with the advent of histo-molecular classification, immunohistochemistry, molecular genetics, and molecular profiling arrays, have all become a key tools of management, especially in well-resourced regions globally. Methylome profiling, which refers to the utilization of broad arrays to find out genome-wide methylation patterns in the DNA, has taken on a greater role as well in helping determine an integrated diagnosis and, thereby, provide effective targeted treatment. The WHO CNS5 provides for the specific methylation signatures for the vast majority of CNS tumors.
Finally, electroencephalography (EEG), audiological and ophthalmological testing, pituitary hormone profile, etc. also are useful tools in the clinician’s armamentarium. Lumbar puncture and CSF analysis also serve as an adjunct in some cases, for instance, in the detection of tumor markers in germ cell tumors of the CNS.
3 major anti-cancer approaches, in various combination treatment protocols, are the pillars of treatment in pediatric brain tumors: surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. As discussed prior, these three approaches have extremely varying efficacy in different tumor types and grades.
When undertaken with curative intent, surgery often serves as a major player in reducing the bulk of the tumor. It is extremely valuable in tumors with low grade e.g. a CNS Tumor Grade 1 Meningioma. However, its utility is reduced in tumors that lie close to critical structures such as diffuse pontine glioma.
Surgery may be done through the conventional open approache or a microsurgical approach or an endoscopic endonasal approach. The latter may prove invaluable for selected tumors, as in tumors of the sellar/parasellar region [11]. When resecting a tumor, the surgery may be classified based on the residual tumor into subtotal resection, gross total resection, supra-maximal resection, etc. While the subtotal approach leaves behind residual neoplastic tissue to avoid damage to critical structures, a supramaximal resection aims at reducing the tumor burden as much as possible grossly. Global consensus continues to evolve into the exact definition of these terms and the varying utility of these different resections in different tumors.
Newer methods are pushing the boundaries of safe and effective surgery. Combined with MR Angiography, DTI, and fMRI, along with intraoperative neuromonitoring, surgery can be performed in challenging locations, such as those close to eloquent areas. Furthermore, awake surgery with intra-operative stimulation may be utilized for tumors in eloquent areas in older children [11]. Additionally, 5-Amino Levulinic Acid (5-ALA) based techniques are allowing better intraoperative visualization of residual tumor, thereby assisting in enhanced resection, especially in high-grade gliomas.
A small surgical procedure to insert a ventriculoperitoneal shunt remains a key measure for alleviating hydrocephalus, which is a common complication of brain tumors in the pediatric age group, especially those of the posterior fossa.
It finds less value in the brain than in other organs due to the blood–brain barrier which prevents adequate permeation of drugs administered. However, it is still a useful adjuvant approach for several common pediatric tumors, such as medulloblastoma. Notably, intrathecal chemotherapy based on methotrexate and cytarabine is significantly useful in intracranial lymphomas/leukemias [12]. The Ommaya Reservoir is a useful tool for repeated chemotherapy administration as well as repeated CSF withdrawal for either diagnostic and/or therapeutic purposes [13].
It has been a cornerstone of preventing recurrence after surgery and in treating tumors that are not amenable to resection. It may be given as teletherapy, in the form of conventional beam radiotherapy, or can be given as brachytherapy, via surgical delivery of emitters into the brain. Radiotherapy is especially valuable in tumors with rapidly dividing cells and/or those having high tumor grade. However, radiotherapy carries significant risks in the growing brain, where it can adversely impact neuronal development and hamper long-term cognitive outcomes. Proton therapy, albeit significantly more expensive, is slowly replacing conventional photon beam therapy [11].
In addition, other therapeutic approaches have been coming up but are yet to become the standard of care for most tumors. Immunotherapy has been less than successful in pediatric brain tumors [14]. Meanwhile, targeted biological therapies have found greater utility in specific tumors, such as the role of BRAF-inhibitors in tumors with BRAF V600E mutation [15].
Amidst all of this, the role of supportive care, including physiotherapy and rehabilitation cannot be understated. Brain tumors rob children of the joy of their life and their devastating symptoms cause immense stress to both children and their guardians. Corticosteroids for managing cerebral edema, opioids for pain management, antiemetics, anticonvulsants for prophylaxis and treatment of seizures, baclofen for management of spasticity, adequate nutritional support, psychosocial care, etc. all help enhance the quality of life of brain tumor patients [11].
Having covered the general principles of management, this chapter now proceeds to examine specific brain tumors that have a high burden amongst children.
Medulloblastoma (MB) is an embryonal tumor of the cerebellum having discrete origins from the neuronal stem or progenitor cell populations during early life. The peak age of diagnosis is 6–8 years. MBs are rarely seen in infancy or during adulthood [16].
Medulloblastoma is the most common childhood malignancy of the brain accounting for 20–30% of all pediatric tumors and 64% of all intracranial embryonic tumors [17, 18]. The overall annual incidence rate is approximately 5 cases per million, which does not vary substantially across ethnicities or geographical regions [19, 20]. The male to female ratio is 1.8:1 [21, 22]. A wide range of syndromes like Gorlin syndrome, FAP syndrome, ataxia-telangiectasia, Bloom syndrome, Fanconi’s anemia, Li-Fraumeni syndrome and Xeroderma pigmentosum have been implicated in MB pathogenesis [23].
Four subgroups of MB have been defined based on the age of onset, genetic alterations, and prognosis. These are the WNT subgroup MB (10% of MB), the SHH subgroup MB (10–15% of MB), the Group 3 MB (25% OF MB), and the Group 4 MB (50% of MB) [23]. Activating mutations of CTNNB1 stabilize Beta-catenin leading to the constitutional activation of WNT signaling in 85–90% of the WNT subgroup MB, which has a good prognosis in children [24, 25]. Germline/somatic mutations in genes of the SHH signaling pathway (PTCH1, SUFU, SMO, GLI1/2, and MYC) lead to its constitutional activation in SHH subgroup. MYC activation is characteristic for Group 3 MB. Several mutations are implicated in Group 4 MB with no clear majority, including transcriptional repressors like PRDM6 and histone modifiers like KDM6A and KMT2C [26].
The various manifestations of MB are largely attributed to an increase in ICT and cerebellar dysfunction. These include nocturnal or morning headache, nausea, vomiting, and altered mental status. These symptoms evolve over a period of a few weeks to months. Specific cerebellar symptoms include ataxia, visual disturbances (eg. strabismus), impacted fine motor skills (eg. clumsy handwriting) that reflect in the patient’s school performance [26]. These commmon clinical features may be accompanied by syndrome-specific presentations. If spinal drop metastasis has occurred, presenting features may include back pain, gait disturbances, bladder and bowel abnormalities. The tumor grows rapidly, worsening the symptoms. If accelerated growth occurs before 18 months, macrocephalus can delay diagnosis in a subset of children owing to the non-fusion of skull sutures [9].
The diagnosis of MB is based on clinical features, radiology, and histopathology. CSF cytology for microscopic metastasis and molecular analysis for prognostication are done. MRI shows a midline mass involving the vermis or the fourth ventricle, rarely seen laterally encroaching the cerebellar hemispheres [27, 28]. T1-weighted imaging finds a hypodense to isodense lesion and T2/FLAIR yields a hyperdense tumor. On diffusion-weighted imaging, the lesion shows reduced diffusion due to high cellularity and nucleus-to-cytoplasm ratio [29]. Imaging the spine is more fruitful in detecting drop metastasis than CSF analysis. MB subgroups show characteristic localizations. For instance, the WNT subgroup is usually located in cerebral peduncle/cerebellopontine angle, the SHH subgroup in cerebellar hemispheres, the Group 3 and Group 4 MBs usually located along the midline with extension into the 4th ventricle [30, 31, 32].
Medulloblastoma is a round blue cell tumor, having characteristic microscopic appearance. Histopathology and molecular diagnosis distinguish it from other posterior fossa tumors like ependymoma, pilocytic astrocytoma, and other embryonal tumors. These reveal a combination of patterns including classic, desmoplastic/nodular, MB with excessive nodularity, large cell, and anaplastic [33]. A combination of histologic and genetic variants is integrated for diagnosis.
The treatment approach includes a combination of maximal safe surgical resection, radiotherapy, and systemic chemotherapy [34]. Though gross total resection remains the mainstay of surgery, patients with minimal residual tumor can be expected to have similar outcomes. The morbidity of a complete resection should be adequately assessed by the surgeon against leaving a part of the tumor [35, 36]. Since MB usually pushes the vermis in a posterior direction, there are high chances of damaging it with tumor removal. Telovelar and transvermian approaches are used to preserve vermis and deep cerebellar nuclei as much as possible. Neuronavigation and neuroimaging are useful in identifying the anatomy correctly to avoid entry into the brainstem and preserve the large draining veins to prevent significant bleeding [37]. Complications following resection include cerebellar mutism syndrome or posterior fossa syndrome possibly due to splitting of the inferior vermis [38].
Adjuvant radiation therapy is initiated 3–4 weeks after surgery. It should involve the entire craniospinal axis and is termed craniospinal irradiation [39]. Focal radiation to surgical bed is not inferior to entire posterior fossa radiation, hence it should be preferred due to less exposure. Outcomes that are based on genomic drivers and prognostic indicators warrant an individualized approach [36]. Proton beam and volumetric arc/ intensity-modulated radiation therapy are being evaluated [39].
Histological subtypes have varying sensitivity for chemotherapy in patients <3 years old and ≥ 3 years old groups. Conventional chemotherapy was found sufficient for patients after gross total resection but not with metastasis or incomplete resection [40]. However, adjuvant chemotherapy and radiotherapy have better outcomes in patients who have undergone partial resection [41].
The overall survival rate is approximately 75% [40]. Age, disseminated or metastatic disease, residual disease after resection, MYC amplification, and large cell anaplastic pathology are all associated with poor prognosis. Infants and children less than 3 years of age have a poor prognosis with a 40–50% survival rate [42].
Craniopharyngiomas (CPs) are benign tumors that develop along the hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract, constituting 6–9% of pediatric brain tumors [43]. They arise from remnants of the Rathke’s pouch - the craniopharyngeal duct epithelium and may be sellar or suprasellar [44].
The incidence of CPs worldwide has been estimated to be 1.33–1.56 per million children per year worldwide [45]. In the United States, the incidence is approximately 2.0–2.3 per million children per year [1], while Japan has a much higher incidence of 3.8 per million children per year [20].
There are two histologic subtypes of CPs - papillary CP (PCP) and adamantinomatous (ACP). Both subtypes have highly specific mutations - ACPs are characterized by somatic mutations in CTNNB1 (encoding β-catenin) that increase β-catenin stability, leading to the activation of the WNT pathway, while PCPs are characterized by BRAF V600E mutations. PCPs are mostly restricted to adults, so our discussion here will be restricted to ACPs [44].
Childhood CPs most commonly occur in the age groups of 6–10 years, followed by 11–15 years [46]. The diagnosis of CP is usually delayed, even by a few years, after symptom onset [47]. Symptoms reflect the location of the tumor, and usually progress with time, due to slow growth.
Features by which these tumors of the sellar region clinically present include:
Headache is seen in approximately half of all CP patients [47, 48].
Endocrine deficiencies due to disturbances of the hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract - diminished growth hormone (GH), gonadotropin, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), or adrenocorticotropic hormone secretion (ACTH), in that order of frequency [44]. In children, this most commonly manifests as growth failure. Central diabetes insipidus is also common. At least one endocrine deficit as the first symptom is reported in nearly 87% of all cases [44]
Visual deficits - symptoms are present, or deficits are unearthed on formal ophthalmologic examination, in 70–80%. The classical bitemporal hemianopia is seen in about half the cases [43].
Others - depression, regardless of any hormonal deficiency, may occur [48]. Diencephalic syndrome leading to cachexia is a rare manifestation [44].
A simple rule of thumb is that nearly 90% of pediatric CPs demonstrate calcification, approximately 90% of tumors are predominantly cystic, and about 90% take up the contrast in the cyst walls [47] CT remains the gold standard for the identification of calcifications [44]. The mixed solid and cystic components appear hypodense compared to surrounding cerebral parenchyma. Fluid within the cysts will be of slightly greater density than cerebrospinal fluid due to the higher protein content. CT can also illustrate secondary skull base changes useful for surgical planning [43].
MR Imaging and MR Angiography provide greater clarity regarding the relationship of the tumor with vascular structures. MR spectroscopy (MRS) can identify characteristic elevated peaks of lactate or lipids, to differentiate them from gliomas and pituitary adenomas [43]. Finally, an endocrinological evaluation also reveals deficient hypothalamic function, which is particularly relevant preoperatively [43].
Each case must be decided on its own merit [43] as there is no consensus. Surgery is indicated in almost all cases. Two broad approaches are used - aggressive surgery at diagnosis, or more conservative surgery with radiotherapy [48].
The choice of surgical approach i.e. endoscopic or open or combined depends on the surgeon’s level of comfort, and the location of the tumor. Teams that prefer limited surgical resection only use surgery to alleviate visual or other neurologic deficits, and prevent further progression, with RT used for long-term control. Proton beam therapy for CP has shown great promise [47]. For cysts specifically, repeated aspiration and/ or injection of a sclerosant, or local radiation may be attempted [44, 47, 48]. These may help in postponing RT, particularly in younger children [44].
Postoperative sequelae include panhypopituitarism and hypothalamic obesity, which can be challenging to treat [48]. Others include neurocognitive deficits, sleep disorders, and exacerbated visual deficits [48]. Patients remain at greater risk of ischemic stroke, and secondary malignancy owing to radiation exposure.
Overall, the survival rates are high, around 90%, but due to postoperative sequelae, quality of life is impaired [49]. With recent advances clarifying the pathogenesis of adamantinomatous CPs, there is hope for the development of targeted therapies [50].
Astrocytoma is a tumor arising from the astrocytes, which are a type of glial cells found in the central nervous system (CNS).
According to the WHO CNS5 classification, astrocytomas (IDH mutant) are categorized under the broad heading of adult-type diffuse gliomas. Meanwhile diffuse astrocytomas (MYB or MYLB-1 altered) are classified into pediatric type diffuse low-grade gliomas; circumscribed astrocytic glioma encompasses pilocytic astrocytoma, high-grade astrocytoma with piloid features, pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma, subependymal giant cell astrocytoma, choroid glioma and astroblastoma (MN1-altered) [34]. Astrocytomas do not have any racial or ethnic inclination and are usually sporadic.
Clinical features include headache, seizures, and focal neurological deficit, as discussed in previous tumors [51]. In few cases, these tumors may be associated with Li-Fraumeni syndrome and Lynch syndrome.
Contrast-enhanced MRI is the mainstay of diagnosis. High-grade gliomas are usually associated with hypointensity on T1-weighted imaging and heterogenous contrast-enhancement. They have increased choline and reduced N-acetyl aspartate on magnetic resonance spectroscopy due to their higher vascularity as well as increased metabolism [52]. Histologically, astrocytomas include cells with irregular, hyperchromatic nuclei and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in the cytoplasm, and increased mitotic activity. Molecular testing plays a key role in the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of the patient [52, 53]. IDH mutation testing and, 1p/19q codeletion testing is done.
Treatment in most cases is a combination of surgery followed by radiotherapy. Surgery for astrocytoma has benefitted greatly from recent advances, including 5-ALA based resection, awake surgery, intraoperative stimulation, and neuronavigation, allowing for tumor resection close to eloquent structures and critical vessels.
Ependymomas are a subset of glial tumors arising from radial glial cells in the subventricular zone, located in or adjacent to the ependymal lining. Most commonly, they are associated with the fourth ventricle [54].
Ependymomas account for 10% of all brain tumors making them the third most common intracranial pediatric malignancy, with a sex ratio of 1.77:1 [54]. The annual incidence rate amongst children is 0.46 per million in the United States [1].
WHO classifies ependymomas according to a combination of histopathological and molecular features into supratentorial ependymomas with ZFTA, RELA, YAP1 or MAML2 mutation, posterior fossa ependymomas with H3K27-mutation, EZHIP mutations, and spinal ependymomas with NF2, MYCN mutations. Molecular classification of myxopapillary ependymoma and subependymoma do not add to clinical utility, hence they are studied as separate entities [7].
The age and the site of origin determine presentation. Failure to thrive, lethargy, and irritability like non-specific clinical features are observed in very young children. Posterior fossa tumors present with increased intracranial pressure, nerve palsies, neck pain, and/or ataxia. Supratentorial tumors present with limb weakness, bowel bladder dysfunction, paraesthesia, and pain [55].
Seizures with or without focal neurological deficits are also commonly seen in supratentorial tumors. This may be due to the surrounding edema and mass effect. Spinal cord tumors involve ascending or descending tracts and manifest as specific anatomical lesions. Very rarely, CSF seeding may accompany both infratentorial and supratentorial ependymomas [56].
The imaging modality of choice is an MRI scan of the brain and spine to evaluate for leptomeningeal dissemination [57]. T1 hypointensity and T2 hyperintensity with heterogeneous enhancement on T1 sequences post-gadolinium enhancement is seen in both spinal and intracranial tumors. Cysts and calcification can be observed, usually with supratentorial tumors. Spinal ependymomas can be differentiated from astrocytomas by a sharp margin and central location. Leptomeningeal spread can be suspected by smooth enhancement along the surface of the spinal cord, nerve root thickening, or irregular thecal sac, and confirmed by cytological assessment post lumbar puncture. Testing for the mutations discussed prior can be done if resources are available.
Pediatric ependymomas are treated with surgery and radiotherapy [58]. The surgeon’s decision about the extent of resection is the most important prognostic factor. Posterior fossa tumors may limit the extent of resection due to involvement of lower cranial nerves and brainstem, thus incomplete resection warrants a second look surgery since overall survival for incomplete resection is much lower than gross total resection [59].
Postoperative radiotherapy is recommended for children as young as 18 months but dose modifications to reduce toxicity should be done [60]. Hypofractionated stereotactic boost in addition to conventional radiotherapy, especially for incomplete surgery, is being studied and shows promise [59]. To avoid radiation exposure to children, chemotherapy use has been investigated but its role remains equivocal [61]. Though long-term follow-up studies of radiotherapy toxicity are pending, the higher progression-free survival with radiotherapy has led to the abandonment of radiotherapy deferral strategies for children below 12 months [62].
Patients with intracranial ependymomas usually have a significant risk of recurrence and decreased 5-year overall survival, nearing approximately 50–70% [62].
According to the W.H.O. CNS tumor 2021 classification, germ cell tumors are classified into mature teratoma, immature teratoma, teratoma with somatic-type malignancy, germinoma, embryonal carcinoma, yolk sac tumor, choriocarcinoma, and mixed germ cell tumor [34].
The incidence of all types of CNS germ cell tumors (GCT) is greater in males of 10–14 years of age. These tumors also possess a racial inclination towards Asians and Pacific Islanders [63]. Although GCTs can arise anywhere in the CNS, the pineal gland is most commonly involved, followed by the suprasellar/ neurohypophyseal area and the basal ganglia. A bifocal tumor is one where both the pineal gland and the neurohypophyseal region are involved [64].
Obstructive hydrocephalus can result from the compression of the cerebral aqueduct by the tumor, often manifested as headache [65]. The damage to the optic nerve due to the mass effect of the tumor can cause visual field defects and decreased visual acuity [66]. Neurophypophyseal tumors can often lead to hypopituitarism, diabetes insipidus [66]. GCT of the basal ganglia can present with hemiparesis. Intracranial hemorrhage is also a complication of GCTs [66]. Due to the involvement of the optic nerve, often the ophthalmologists are the first ones to interact with the patients of CNS GCT, and play a crucial role in the diagnosis.
The tumor markers associated with CNS GCTs are the following: beta subunit of human chorionic gonadotropin (β -HCG), alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), and placental alkaline phosphatase, which are raised in different types of GCTs differently. In choriocarcinoma, the β-HCG value is >500 mIU/mL, while in germinoma with syncytiotrophoblastic giant cells, β-HCG is <100 mIU/mL. β-HCG is also increased in mixed germ cell tumors. AFP is raised in yolk sac tumors and mixed germ cell tumors.
The findings on imaging include a typical pineal mass on MRI or CT, usually with calcifications, and signs of obstructive hydrocephalus on CT. Germinomas are generally of uniform intensity with blurred margins. Pineal teratomas appear as heterogeneous well-demarcated masses with occasional calcifications, irregular cysts, or fatty tissue and thus show a peculiar pattern on both CT and MRI [64]. For GCTs occurring in the basal ganglia, enhancement is minimal, and the only detectable abnormality is an occasionally increased signal intensity on FLAIR [64].
According to the Japanese Pediatric Brain Tumor Study Group, patients with CNS non-seminamatous GCT may be divided into three categories (based on their prognosis): good (mature teratoma and pure germinoma), intermediate (e.g. immature teratoma), and poor (e.g. choriocarcinoma, yolk sac tumor). The 5-year overall survival rate varies as per the histologic type from 10 to over 98%. As for non-seminomatous germ cell tumors, the group reported a 5-year survival rate of 67% with platinum-based chemotherapy followed by surgical resection and craniospinal irradiation together with focal boost [67, 68].
Brainstem gliomas constitute 10–20% of all pediatric CNS malignancies and can be broadly divided into focal brainstem gliomas (FBGs) and diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas (DIPGs) [1, 69].
FBGs usually arise in the midbrain or the medulla and are well-circumscribed, low-grade tumors – usually being pilocytic or diffuse astrocytomas. These may be associated with Neurofibromatosis 1 (NF1). Characteristic mutations include chromosome 7q34 duplications, resulting in a KIAA1549-BRAF fusion, in pilocytic astrocytomas, and a BRAF V600E mutation in fibrillary astrocytomas, the majority of pleomorphic xanthoastrocytomas, and nearly half of the gangliocytomas [69, 70, 71].
DIPGs constitute 80% of all pediatric brainstem tumors and are diffuse, high-grade, and infiltrative. 80% of these have H3K27 mutations on two histone H3 genes, identified primarily through autopsy studies [69]. EGFR mutations are also common [72]. Histologically, these are usually high grade, although a significant proportion may appear low grade, which is ultimately irrelevant for prognosis.
These usually present insidiously over many years [69, 70, 71]. Isolated cranial nerve deficits, neck stiffness, and pain, contralateral hemiparesis are common [69, 70, 71]. Medullary tumors may cause dysphagia or apnea, while cervicomedullary tumors may present with ataxia and/ or lower motor neuron signs. Hydrocephalus is uncommon, except in posteriorly extending tumors and tumors of tectal origin [69, 70, 71].
Patients typically present around the age of 7 years, with a short history, sometimes for less than a month [69, 73, 74]. The classical triad of (1) cranial nerve palsies, most commonly VI and VII - facial asymmetry and diplopia (2) long tract signs - upgoing Babinski, and hyperreflexia, and (3) cerebellar signs - ataxia, dementia is seen in over 50% [73]. Symptoms and signs of raised ICT are seen in less than 10% at diagnosis and are more typical in the end stages of the disease [73].
On MRI, these usually have well-defined borders, no edema, iso- or hypointensity on T1, and hyperintensity on T2 weighted images, with homogeneous contrast enhancement [69, 70, 71]. MR Spectrography can support the diagnosis, with the estimation of choline-to-N-acetylaspartate (Choline:NAA) ratios differentiating high grade from low-grade tumors. Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) can also provide estimates of long tract disruption [69].
DIPGs are typically hypointense on T1 and hyperintense on T2 weighted MRI [69, 73]. Contrast enhancement is variable. A diffuse expansion of the pons is typical. This may involve adjacent areas, such as the cerebellum and midbrain; the medulla is usually spared [69, 70, 71]. There is usually an exophytic component, and the tumor may surround the basilar artery. However, a serial assessment may be difficult due to their heterogeneous signal characteristics and interobserver variability. Here too, MR spectrography with Choline:NAA ratio estimation can support the tentative diagnosis and may provide prognostic information [71].
In surgically accessible regions, resection is performed. While complete resection is curative, it should not be performed at the cost of neurologic deficit, as even incomplete resection has excellent long-term outcomes [75].
Chemotherapy is preferred for inoperable tumors, symptom progression, or persistence after surgery. Tumor growth can at least be stabilized, delaying or even eliminating the need for RT in young children [69, 70, 71]. Two popular, effective combinations are that of vincristine and carboplatin, and another of 6-thioguanine, procarbazine, lomustine, and vincristine (TPCV) [69]. TPCV has improved progression-free survival, but carries long-term risks associated with alkylator use [69]. Radiotherapy is an option for surgically inaccessible tumors but should be reserved for older children given the potential for significant morbidity [69, 70, 71]. Long-term overall survival approaches 100% [70], but chronic disability is common, resulting from both tumor expansion and RT [70].
Surgery is usually not recommended [71]. The mainstay of treatment is fractionated radiotherapy alone [73]. There is still uncertainty regarding the mode of RT to be delivered, with future trials comparing fractionated and conventional RT encouraged [76]. Monotherapy or combination chemotherapy have proven ineffective.
With greater clarity regarding the genetic make-up and microenvironment of these tumors, immunotherapy and molecular targets, such as anti-GD2 chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy and histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors are showing promise [71, 73].
The prognosis remains dismal, with less than 3% surviving at 5 years [71]. Long-term survivors usually have neurological deficits and cognitive impairment [76].
Meningiomas arise from arachnoidal cap cells in CNS.
They are rare in children, representing only 2–3% of pediatric CNS tumors [77]. Their incidence is markedly greater in syndromes like Neurofibromatosis 2, Schwannomatosis, Gorlin syndrome, and familial meningioma syndrome [77, 78]. Exposure to irradiation in childhood predisposes to the development of meningiomas [77, 78].
Mostly, they present in the second decade of life [78]. The most common presenting symptoms are headache, seen in almost half, followed by seizures, seen in almost 30%. Focal findings such as visual deficits, cranial nerve signs may also be present.
CT and MRI demonstrate a well-defined, extra-axial, dural-based mass, that displaces the normal brain. It is isointense or hypointense to gray matter on T1 and isointense or hyperintense on T2-weighted images [77]. Contrast enhancement is strong and uniform on both CT and MRI [78]. On histology, most are WHO Grade I. The best-characterized mutation is that of the NF2 gene, with other molecular mechanisms in the pediatric age group poorly characterized. Tumors in this age group are genetically distinct from their adult counterparts [78].
Symptomatic meningiomas require resection. The extent of initial resection is a prognostic factor, so total resection must be done where possible. Adjuvant RT is recommended for WHO Grade III tumors, while inoperable WHO Grade I and Grade II tumors require a case-by-case consideration [78]. The 5-year survival is approximately 90%. Those who undergo gross-total resection, those without NF2, and those with lower-grade tumors have higher survival rates.
Schwannomas or neurilemmomas are tumors originating from schwann cells around the axons of the cranial nerves. They are encapsulated and do not transform into malignancies [79].
Though schwannomas are more commonly seen in adults between the ages of 50-60 years, 89% of nerve sheath tumors are schwannomas even in children [79], the incidence of which is 0.44 cases per 100,000/ year [80, 81]. Most (90%) of the schwannomas are sporadic and others occur as part of syndromes like NF2 and Carney complex. Inactivation of gene NF2 coding for the merlin protein (schwannomin) has been implicated in both sporadic and syndromic schwannomas. Spinal schwannomas may have SMARCB1 mutations [82].
These tumors grow slowly and may present much later with location-specific symptoms. Vestibular schwannomas may present with headache, imbalance, tinnitus, cranial nerve deficits and motor weakness. Spinal schwannomas may present with pain, paresthesia, and/or motor weakness [83].
MRI is preferred over CT for diagnosis since plain radiographs are not specific. They usually show an oval or round mass with an isointense or hypointense signal on T1 and hyperintense, heterogeneous signal on T2 images [82]. Classically, microscopic findings include Antoni A and Antoni B areas, with Verrocay Bodies.
The benign course of these tumors may allow for observation and serial MRI scans for periodic assessment. Biopsy to confirm histology before resection is recommended. Surgical approaches include the retro-sigmoid, middle fossa, or translabyrinthine approach [84]. Stereotactic radiosurgery may be of benefit if complete resection cannot be done. Usually, these tumors have an excellent prognosis, however, postoperative complications which are more common in the pediatric population may worsen it [85].
Choroid plexus tumors arise from neuroepithelial tissue that makes CSF in the ventricles, and therefore their distribution corresponds to the amount of the choroid plexus present in different ventricles [86]. Nearly 50% occur in the lateral ventricles, 40% in the 4th ventricle and merely 5% in the third ventricle. Meanwhile, multifocal occurrence is seen in around 5% of tumors. Overall, they are merely 1% of all pediatric brain tumors, but make up 15% of tumors in children aged <1 year. Headache and/or hydrocephalus are two common clinical presentations [87].
They are of two major varieties:
These are likely hamartomas and therefore appear similar to normal choroid plexus tissue histologically. Classified as WHO grade I in general, they contain uniform cellularity with little/no atypia and KI-67 index <2%. Atypical CPPs have higher mitotic count (≥2 mitoses/high power field) and are classified as grade II [86]. They are calcified and enhance with contrast. On MR imaging they have flow voids due to their vascularity, with enlarged choroidal arteries on MR angiography. Asymptomatic tumors can be monitored conservatively and only resected if producing symptoms or enlarging. Surgery is the modality of choice for symptomatic and/or large CPPs. Adjuvant radiotherapy is usually not required and prognosis is excellent, with 10-year survival exceeding 80% [88, 89].
These are rarer than CPPs and can be a part of manifestation of Li-Fraumeni Syndrome. They are aggressive tumors, with their invasion making gross total resection insufficient. Radiotherapy is useful but prognosis is poor with median survival of <3 years [87].
These are highly aggressive tumors which occur in children <3 years of age, with nearly two third occurring in the cerebellum, and nearly a fourth being supratentorial.
These have specific diagnostic criteria, of which the characteristic ‘Rhabdoid Cells’ are not a part. The criteria are (A) loss of INI1 nuclear staining (corresponding to biallelic inactivation of SMARCB1) and (B) loss of BRG1 staining (corresponding to inactivation of SMARCB4) [90, 91]. On MRI, they are hypo-intense on both T1 and T2, with several cysts and hemorrhages, leading to a heterogeneous appearance. Leptomeningeal enhancement may be visualized. Surgery has little role here. Combination chemotherapy followed by radiotherapy is utilized but is challenging to implement given the very young age of patients at the time of diagnosis. Therapy has to be closely matched to the child’s age, AT/RT’s location, and disease extent [92]. Prognosis is unsatisfactory, with nearly 30% 5-year survival [93].
Neuroepithelial tissues in the CNS give rise to mixtures of glial and/ or neuronal differentiated tumors. These are rare tumors in children.
These account for 0.3–1.4% of all CNS tumors, usually occurring in adolescents [94]. Focal motor seizures are the most common presentation involving the temporal lobe [95]. They are diagnosed by MRI and gross total resection is usually preferred for better survival rates [94].
They are supratentorial cystic tumors usually affecting children less than 2 years [96]. Frontal and parietal lobes are the most common locations which present as head enlargement, seizures, vomiting, and headache are observed. Diagnosed with MRI, they are slow-growing tumors. They have a good prognosis after complete removal, rarely requiring radiotherapy and chemotherapy [97].
These tumors cause early-onset epilepsy in children with an incidence of 0.03 person-year per 100,000 and have slight male predominance [98]. The mesial temporal lobe is the most common location identified on imaging. Favorable outcomes are reached in 70–90% of cases after complete resection [99].
Characterized by papillary architecture and bipartite (astrocytic and neurocytic) cellularity, these tumors mostly occur near the lateral ventricles [100]. Imaging shows them as circumscribed lesions with frequent cystic alterations. Patients are either asymptomatic or complain of mild symptoms. Their benign course rarely warrants complete resection [101].
Usually seen in children above 6 years of age, with a female predominance, their location in the 4th ventricle is one of the defining features [102]. Headache, nausea/vomiting, ataxia, and visual disturbances are common manifestations. MRI reveals solid or cystic or mixed solid and cystic masses rarely with calcifications. Full resection prevents recurrence [102].
These are extremely rare tumors. They present as seizures and other focal deficits. A histopathological feature of myxoid stroma, somatic next-generation sequencing showing PDGFRA gene mutation, and MRI findings help in diagnosis. They have a benign course [103].
These tumors have variable neuronal components including neurocytes and ganglion cells [104]. The median age of presentation is five years with slight female predominance [105]. MRI shows meningeal enhancement in spinal cord and basilar [106]. Symptoms mimic meningitis and hydrocephalus. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy are first-line options [107].
These account for 1–5% of all pediatric CNS tumors [108]. Majority of them occur in the temporal lobe, causing epilepsy, varied neurological signs/symptoms including cranial nerve deficits, focal weakness, and hydrocephalus [109]. Gross total resection yields a good prognosis.
Very few cases have been reported diagnosing this new entity. Non-specific clinical features like chronic headache, paresthesias, and cognitive impairment are reported. MRI is used for diagnosis and studies of treatment modalities are yet unavailable [110].
This is a rare entity in children that mimics low-grade glial tumors or infectious diseases. A slow-growing pattern and late clinical manifestations allow for conservative treatment and outpatient follow-up for asymptomatic children [111].
Depending on their location, these are divided into central, extraventricular, and cerebellar. They often mimic oligodendrogliomas and the confirmation of diagnosis rests on immunohistochemistry, histology and genetic studies. Safe maximal resection is considered the ideal option for a good prognosis. Adjuvant radiotherapy benefits incomplete resection [110].
Infantile CNS hemangiomas are rare benign tumors composed of endothelial cells. They are seen in about 1% of children with cutaneous hemangiomas and have a female predilection [112, 113]. They may be associated with PHACES (posterior fossa malformations, hemangioma, arterial anomalies, coarctation of the aorta/cardiac defects, and eye abnormalities) syndrome, and are more common in the posterior fossa [112]. GLUT1 represents a reliable marker. They have a rapid, early stage of proliferation followed by one of involution that usually extends from 1 year of age to 5 to 7 years of life [112]. Many are asymptomatic or undiscovered, but others can present with seizures, focal deficits, or symptoms of raised ICP [112].
During the proliferative phase, CT and MRI show a well-circumscribed lobular homogeneous soft-tissue mass with intense and persistent enhancement, with Doppler showing features of fast flow. In the involuting phase, they enhance to a lesser degree, have fewer radiographic signs of fast-flow vascularity, and appear heterogeneous. The final involuted phase is represented by fibrofatty tissue [112]. Imaging can establish continuity between the CNS tumor and the extra CNS component. Corticosteroids represent the mainstay of treatment. Interferon-alpha and propranolol may also be used [112]. For biopsy, or mass effect alleviation, excision may be tried.
Pediatric brain tumors have an immense disease burden, given their status as the most common solid organ tumors of children. The WHO 2021 Classification is a landmark change in the approach to diagnosing and treating these tumors. The landscape of their treatment has been rapidly evolving, with effective therapies on the horizon. In current clinical practice, surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy continue to be the mainstay of management.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Servia, Rufino Vieira-Lanero and Fernando Cobo",authors:[{id:"154559",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Hernández",slug:"javier-sanchez-hernandez",fullName:"Javier Sánchez-Hernández"},{id:"156457",title:"Dr.",name:"María J.",middleName:null,surname:"Servia",slug:"maria-j.-servia",fullName:"María J. Servia"},{id:"156459",title:"Dr.",name:"Rufino",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira-Lanero",slug:"rufino-vieira-lanero",fullName:"Rufino Vieira-Lanero"},{id:"156460",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Cobo",slug:"fernando-cobo",fullName:"Fernando Cobo"}]},{id:"41566",doi:"10.5772/54825",title:"Freshwater Fish as Sentinel Organisms: From the Molecular to the Population Level, a Review",slug:"fish-as-sentinel-organisms-from-the-molecular-to-the-population-level-a-review",totalDownloads:2453,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3193",slug:"new-advances-and-contributions-to-fish-biology",title:"New Advances and Contributions to Fish Biology",fullTitle:"New Advances and Contributions to Fish Biology"},signatures:"Jacinto Elías Sedeño-Díaz and Eugenia López-López",authors:[{id:"153660",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Jacinto Elías",middleName:null,surname:"Sedeño-Díaz",slug:"jacinto-elias-sedeno-diaz",fullName:"Jacinto Elías Sedeño-Díaz"},{id:"156158",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugenia",middleName:null,surname:"López López",slug:"eugenia-lopez-lopez",fullName:"Eugenia López López"}]},{id:"40952",doi:"10.5772/54549",title:"The Potential Impacts of Global Climatic Changes and Dams on Amazonian Fish and Their Fisheries",slug:"potential-impacts-of-global-climate-change-and-dams-on-amazonian-freshwater-fish-and-its-fisheries",totalDownloads:2274,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"3193",slug:"new-advances-and-contributions-to-fish-biology",title:"New Advances and Contributions to Fish Biology",fullTitle:"New Advances and Contributions to Fish Biology"},signatures:"Carlos Edwar de Carvalho Freitas, Alexandre A. F. Rivas, Caroline Pereira Campos, Igor Sant’Ana, James Randall Kahn, Maria Angélica de Almeida Correa and Michel Fabiano Catarino",authors:[{id:"154232",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Freitas",slug:"carlos-freitas",fullName:"Carlos Freitas"},{id:"156594",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Rivas",slug:"alexandre-rivas",fullName:"Alexandre Rivas"},{id:"156596",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Caroline",middleName:null,surname:"Campos",slug:"caroline-campos",fullName:"Caroline Campos"},{id:"156597",title:"MSc.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Rechetnicow",slug:"igor-rechetnicow",fullName:"Igor Rechetnicow"},{id:"156598",title:"Prof.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Kahn",slug:"james-kahn",fullName:"James Kahn"},{id:"156600",title:"MSc.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Correa",slug:"maria-correa",fullName:"Maria Correa"},{id:"156601",title:"MSc.",name:"Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Catarino",slug:"michel-catarino",fullName:"Michel Catarino"}]},{id:"41564",doi:"10.5772/53505",title:"Cytokine Regulation of Teleost Inflammatory Responses",slug:"cytokine-regulation-of-teleost-inflammatory-responses",totalDownloads:2402,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"3193",slug:"new-advances-and-contributions-to-fish-biology",title:"New Advances and Contributions to Fish Biology",fullTitle:"New Advances and Contributions to Fish Biology"},signatures:"Leon Grayfer and Miodrag Belosevic",authors:[{id:"154146",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Miodrag",middleName:null,surname:"Belosevic",slug:"miodrag-belosevic",fullName:"Miodrag Belosevic"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59807",title:"Zebrafish or Danio rerio: A New Model in Nanotoxicology Study",slug:"zebrafish-or-danio-rerio-a-new-model-in-nanotoxicology-study",totalDownloads:1318,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Nanotoxicology represents a new research area in toxicology that allows to evaluate the toxicological properties of nanoparticles in order to determine whether and to what extent they represent an environmental threat. Behavior, fate, transport, and toxicity of nanoparticles are influenced to their particular properties and of several environmental factors. The mechanisms underlying the toxicity of nanomaterials have recently been studied specially in aquatic organisms. In particular, in recent years, the use of Danio rerio or zebrafish as an animal model system for nanoparticle toxicity assay increased exponentially. In this review, we compare the recent researches employing zebrafish, adults or embryos, for different nanoparticles’ toxicity assessment.",book:{id:"6474",slug:"recent-advances-in-zebrafish-researches",title:"Recent Advances in Zebrafish Researches",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Zebrafish Researches"},signatures:"Maria Violetta Brundo and Antonio Salvaggio",authors:[{id:"225306",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Violetta",middleName:null,surname:"Brundo",slug:"maria-violetta-brundo",fullName:"Maria Violetta Brundo"},{id:"225508",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Salvaggio",slug:"antonio-salvaggio",fullName:"Antonio Salvaggio"}]},{id:"61014",title:"Zebrafish Aging Models and Possible Interventions",slug:"zebrafish-aging-models-and-possible-interventions",totalDownloads:1279,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Across the world, the aging population is expanding due to an increasing average life expectancy. The percentage of elderly over the age of 65 is expected to be more than 15% of the total world population by 2025. As the lifespan increases, there will be a need for maintaining a healthy state for these individuals. Our current knowledge on types and durations of potential anti-aging therapies is quite limited. Recently the zebrafish has emerged as a promising model for understanding the cognitive and neurobiological changes during aging, as well as its use with potential anti-aging interventions. Like humans this model organism ages gradually, displays similar behavioral properties and social characteristics, and in addition, there is a wealth of molecular and genetic tools to uncover the cellular mechanism that contribute to age-related cognitive declines. Drug effect and toxicity can be easily tested in the zebrafish. Therefore, this animal model can provide information about potential therapies that could be translated directly into human populations or provide a more focused treatment direction for testing in other mammalian animal models. The zebrafish will be a powerful tool for uncovering the mysteries of the aging brain.",book:{id:"6474",slug:"recent-advances-in-zebrafish-researches",title:"Recent Advances in Zebrafish Researches",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Zebrafish Researches"},signatures:"Dilan Celebi-Birand, Begun Erbaba, Ahmet Tugrul Ozdemir, Hulusi\nKafaligonul and Michelle Adams",authors:[{id:"223775",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michelle",middleName:null,surname:"Adams",slug:"michelle-adams",fullName:"Michelle Adams"},{id:"224816",title:"BSc.",name:"Ergul Dilan",middleName:null,surname:"Celebi-Birand",slug:"ergul-dilan-celebi-birand",fullName:"Ergul Dilan Celebi-Birand"},{id:"224817",title:"MSc.",name:"Begun",middleName:null,surname:"Erbaba",slug:"begun-erbaba",fullName:"Begun Erbaba"},{id:"224819",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Ahmet Tugrul",middleName:null,surname:"Ozdemir",slug:"ahmet-tugrul-ozdemir",fullName:"Ahmet Tugrul Ozdemir"},{id:"224823",title:"Dr.",name:"Hulusi",middleName:null,surname:"Kafaligonul",slug:"hulusi-kafaligonul",fullName:"Hulusi Kafaligonul"}]},{id:"59711",title:"The Role of PSR in Zebrafish (Danio rerio) at Early Embryonic Development",slug:"the-role-of-psr-in-zebrafish-danio-rerio-at-early-embryonic-development",totalDownloads:1144,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"During development, the role of the phosphatidylserine receptor (PSR) in the professional removal of apoptotic cells that have died is few understood. Programmed cell death (PCD) began during the shield stage (5.4 hpf), with dead cells being engulfed by a neighboring cell that showed a normal-looking nucleus and the nuclear condensation multi-micronuclei of an apoptotic cell. Recently, in the zebrafish model system, PS receptor played a new role on corpse cellular cleaning for further normal development during early embryonic development, which also correlated with tissues’ or organs’ complete development and organogenesis. In the present, we summary new story that a transcriptional factor, YY1a, in the upstream of PSR is how to regulate PS receptor expression that linked to function of PSR-phagocyte mediated apoptotic cell engulfment during development, especially the development of organs such as the brain and heart. YY1a/PSR-mediated engulfing system may involve in diseases and therapy. This engulfing system may provide new insight into phosphatidylserine receptor how to dynamitic interaction with apoptotic cell during priming programmed cell death.",book:{id:"6474",slug:"recent-advances-in-zebrafish-researches",title:"Recent Advances in Zebrafish Researches",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Zebrafish Researches"},signatures:"Wan-Lun Taung, Jen-Leih Wu and Jiann-Ruey Hong",authors:[{id:"66487",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiann",middleName:"Ruey",surname:"Hong",slug:"jiann-hong",fullName:"Jiann Hong"}]},{id:"60880",title:"Transient-Receptor Potential (TRP) and Acid-Sensing Ion Channels (ASICs) in the Sensory Organs of Adult Zebrafish",slug:"transient-receptor-potential-trp-and-acid-sensing-ion-channels-asics-in-the-sensory-organs-of-adult-",totalDownloads:1204,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Sensory information from the aquatic environment is required for life and survival of zebrafish. Changes in the environment are detected by specialized sensory cells that convert different types of stimuli into electric energy, thus originating an organ-specific transduction. Ion channels are at the basis of each sensory modality and are responsible or are required for detecting thermal, chemical, or mechanical stimuli but also for more complex sensory processes as hearing, olfaction, taste, or vision. The capacity of the sensory cells to preferentially detect a specific stimulus is the result of a characteristic combination of different ion channels. This chapter summarizes the current knowledge about the occurrence and localization of ion channels in sensory organs of zebrafish belonging to the superfamilies of transient-receptor potential and acid-sensing ion channels that are involved in different qualities of sensibility superfamilies in the sensory organs of zebrafish. This animal model is currently used to study some human pathologies in which ion channels are involved. Furthermore, zebrafish is regarded as an ideal model to study in vivo the transient-receptor potential ion channels.",book:{id:"6474",slug:"recent-advances-in-zebrafish-researches",title:"Recent Advances in Zebrafish Researches",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Zebrafish Researches"},signatures:"Antonino Germanà, Juan D. Muriel, Ramón Cobo, Olivia García-\nSuárez, Juan Cobo and José A. Vega",authors:[{id:"59892",title:"Prof.",name:"José A.",middleName:null,surname:"Vega",slug:"jose-a.-vega",fullName:"José A. Vega"},{id:"227081",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonino",middleName:null,surname:"Germanà",slug:"antonino-germana",fullName:"Antonino Germanà"}]},{id:"41563",title:"Fish Cytokines and Immune Response",slug:"fish-cytokines-and-immune-response",totalDownloads:5526,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:null,book:{id:"3193",slug:"new-advances-and-contributions-to-fish-biology",title:"New Advances and Contributions to Fish Biology",fullTitle:"New Advances and Contributions to Fish Biology"},signatures:"Sebastián Reyes-Cerpa, Kevin Maisey, Felipe Reyes-López, Daniela Toro-Ascuy, Ana María Sandino and Mónica Imarai",authors:[{id:"92841",title:"Dr.",name:"Mónica",middleName:null,surname:"Imarai",slug:"monica-imarai",fullName:"Mónica Imarai"},{id:"153780",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Reyes-Cerpa",slug:"sebastian-reyes-cerpa",fullName:"Sebastian Reyes-Cerpa"},{id:"157025",title:"Dr.",name:"Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Maisey",slug:"kevin-maisey",fullName:"Kevin Maisey"},{id:"157026",title:"Dr.",name:"Felipe",middleName:"Esteban",surname:"Reyes-López",slug:"felipe-reyes-lopez",fullName:"Felipe Reyes-López"},{id:"157027",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Toro-Ascuy",slug:"daniela-toro-ascuy",fullName:"Daniela Toro-Ascuy"},{id:"157028",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Sandino",slug:"ana-sandino",fullName:"Ana Sandino"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"298",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. 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Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). 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