\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7293",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Fractal Analysis",title:"Fractal Analysis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The aim of this book is to show some applications of fractal analysis in the fields of sciences. The first chapter introduces the readers to the book, while the second chapter shows the methods and challenges of fractal analysis of time-series data sets. The third chapter demonstrates fractal geometry as an attractive choice for miniaturized planar microwave filter design. The fourth chapter presents fractal antennas for wearable applications. The objective of the fifth chapter is to show some Parrondian games in discrete dynamic systems, while the last chapter reveals fractal structures of carbon nanotube system arrays.",isbn:"978-1-78985-434-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-433-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-112-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74876",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"fractal-analysis",numberOfPages:112,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"136b50bd77fedb29057889faaca37947",bookSignature:"Sid-Ali Ouadfeul",publishedDate:"April 3rd 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7293.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8282,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:18,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 30th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 20th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 19th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 7th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 6th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"103826",title:"Dr.",name:"Sid-Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Ouadfeul",slug:"sid-ali-ouadfeul",fullName:"Sid-Ali Ouadfeul",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/103826/images/system/103826.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sid-Ali Ouadfeul is currently an associate professor at the Department of Geophysics, Geology and Reservoir Engineering, Algerian Petroleum Institute-IAP Corporate University, Algeria. He received his Engineer diploma from University of Boumerdes, Algeria, a Magister and Phd in geophysics from the Faculty of Earth Sciences, USTHB, Algeria. During his Master and doctorate research he has developed many techniques based on the fractal analysis to understand the earth underlying system. His scientific research is focused on many topics such as advanced oil and gas\r\nreservoirs characterization techniques using well logs data, reservoirs characterization using seismic data based on genetic systems. Dr. Ouadfeul is the organizer of many sessions in international conferences over the world about the understanding of chaotic systems in Geophysics.",institutionString:"Algerian Petroleum Institute",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"966",title:"Dynamical Systems Theory",slug:"dynamical-systems-theory"}],chapters:[{id:"65857",title:"Introductory Chapter: Fractal in Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84368",slug:"introductory-chapter-fractal-in-sciences",totalDownloads:1080,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Sid-Ali Ouadfeul",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65857",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65857",authors:[{id:"103826",title:"Dr.",name:"Sid-Ali",surname:"Ouadfeul",slug:"sid-ali-ouadfeul",fullName:"Sid-Ali Ouadfeul"}],corrections:null},{id:"64463",title:"Fractal Analysis of Time-Series Data Sets: Methods and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81958",slug:"fractal-analysis-of-time-series-data-sets-methods-and-challenges",totalDownloads:2944,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Many methods exist for quantifying the fractal characteristics of a structure via a fractal dimension. As a traditional example, a fractal dimension of a spatial fractal structure may be quantified via a box-counting fractal analysis that probes a manner in which the structure fills space. However, such spatial analyses generally are not well-suited for the analysis of so-called “time-series” fractals, which may exhibit exact or statistical self-affinity but which inherently lack well-defined spatial characteristics. In this chapter, we introduce and investigate a variety of fractal analysis techniques directed to time-series structures. We investigate the fidelity of such techniques by applying each technique to sets of computer-generated time-series data sets with well-defined fractal characteristics. Additionally, we investigate the inherent challenges in quantifying fractal characteristics (and indeed of verifying the presence of such fractal characteristics) in time-series traces modeled to resemble physical data sets.",signatures:"Ian Pilgrim and Richard P. Taylor",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64463",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64463",authors:[{id:"262574",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ian",surname:"Pilgrim",slug:"ian-pilgrim",fullName:"Ian Pilgrim"},{id:"262816",title:"Prof.",name:"Richard",surname:"Taylor",slug:"richard-taylor",fullName:"Richard Taylor"}],corrections:null},{id:"64430",title:"Fractal Geometry: An Attractive Choice for Miniaturized Planar Microwave Filter Design",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81353",slug:"fractal-geometry-an-attractive-choice-for-miniaturized-planar-microwave-filter-design",totalDownloads:1151,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Various fractal geometries are characterized by the self-similarity and space-filling properties. The space-filling feature has been successfully applied to design multiband antenna structures for a wide variety of multifunction wireless systems. On another hand, the second feature has proved its validity to produce miniaturized antennas and passive microwave circuits including the band-pass filters (BPF). This chapter demonstrates the design of miniaturized microstrip BPFs that are derived from fractal-based DGS resonators. Many microstrip BPFs based on the Minkowski fractal DGS resonators will be presented together with those based on Moore and Peano fractal geometries. Simulation results, of all of the presented BPFs, show that an extra-size reduction can be obtained as the iteration level becomes higher. Measured and simulated results agree well with each other. A comparison has been conducted with other filters based on Peano and Hilbert fractal geometries. The results reveal that the proposed BPF offers acceptable performance and a significant decrease of higher harmonics.",signatures:"Hadi T. Ziboon and Jawad K. Ali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64430",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64430",authors:[{id:"261659",title:"Prof.",name:"Jawad",surname:"Ali",slug:"jawad-ali",fullName:"Jawad Ali"},{id:"262048",title:"Dr.",name:"Hadi",surname:"Ziboon",slug:"hadi-ziboon",fullName:"Hadi Ziboon"}],corrections:[{id:"66069",title:"Erratum - Fractal Geometry: An Attractive Choice for Miniaturized Planar Microwave Filter Design",doi:null,slug:"erratum-fractal-geometry-an-attractive-choice-for-miniaturized-planar-microwave-filter-design",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,correctionPdfUrl:null}]},{id:"64807",title:"Fractal Antennas for Wearable Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81503",slug:"fractal-antennas-for-wearable-applications",totalDownloads:1408,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the design and fabrication of different types of flexible and inflexible wearable fractal for modern wireless applications with body-area-networks (BANs). A wearable antenna is intended to be a part of clothing used for modern wireless communication purposes. Fractal technology allowed us to design compact antennas and integrate multiple communication services into one device. The proposed antennas were simulated and measured by CST simulator version 2017 and Agilent N9918A VNA respectively. Furthermore, these antennas were fabricated using folded copper. The measured results agree well with the simulated results.",signatures:"Mohamed I. Ahmed and Mai F. Ahmed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64807",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64807",authors:[{id:"261304",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed Ismail",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"mohamed-ismail-ahmed",fullName:"Mohamed Ismail Ahmed"},{id:"272048",title:"Dr.",name:"M. F.",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"m.-f.-ahmed",fullName:"M. F. Ahmed"}],corrections:null},{id:"63907",title:"Parrondian Games in Discrete Dynamic Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81499",slug:"parrondian-games-in-discrete-dynamic-systems",totalDownloads:928,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"An interesting problem in nonlinear dynamics is the stabilization of chaotic trajectories, assuming that such chaotic behavior is undesirable. The method described in this chapter is based on the Parrondo’s paradox, where two losing games can be alternated, yielding a winning game. The idea of alternating parameter values has been used in chemical systems, but for these systems, the undesirable behavior is not chaotic. In contrast, ecological relevant map in one and two dimensions, most of the time, can sustain chaotic trajectories, which we consider as undesirable behaviors. Therefore, we analyze several of such ecological relevant maps by constructing bifurcation diagrams and finding intervals in parameter space that satisfy the conditions to yield a desirable behavior by alternating two undesirable behaviors. The relevance of the work relies on the apparent generality of method that establishes a dynamic pattern of behavior that allows us to state a simple conjecture for two-dimensional maps. Our results are applicable to models of seasonality for 2-D ecological maps, and it can also be used as a stabilization method to control chaotic dynamics.",signatures:"Steve A. Mendoza and Enrique Peacock-López",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63907",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63907",authors:[{id:"261062",title:"Prof.",name:"Enrique",surname:"Peacock-Lopez",slug:"enrique-peacock-lopez",fullName:"Enrique Peacock-Lopez"},{id:"271266",title:"Mr.",name:"Steven",surname:"Mendoza",slug:"steven-mendoza",fullName:"Steven Mendoza"}],corrections:null},{id:"64966",title:"Fractal Structures of the Carbon Nanotube System Arrays",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82306",slug:"fractal-structures-of-the-carbon-nanotube-system-arrays",totalDownloads:771,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this work, we investigate fractals in arrays of carbon nanotubes modeled by an evolution equation derived by using a rigorous application of the reductive perturbation formalism for the Maxwell equations and for the corresponding Boltzmann kinetic equation of the distribution function of electrons in such nanomaterials. We study the integrability properties of our dynamical system by using the Weiss-Tabor-Carnevale analysis. Actually, following the leading order analysis, we write the solution in the form of series of Laurent. We also use the Kruskal’s simplification to find the solutions. Using the truncated Painlevé expansion, we construct the auto-Backlund transformation of the system. We take advantage of the above properties to construct a wide panel of structures with fractals properties. As a result, we unearth some typical features, namely the fractal dromion, the fractal lump, the stochastic and nonlocal fractal excitations. We also address some physical implications of the results obtained.",signatures:"Raïssa S. Noule and Victor K. Kuetche",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64966",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64966",authors:[{id:"264029",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",surname:"Kuetche Kamgang",slug:"victor-kuetche-kamgang",fullName:"Victor Kuetche Kamgang"},{id:"264030",title:"Dr.",name:"Raissa",surname:"Noule Simo",slug:"raissa-noule-simo",fullName:"Raissa Noule Simo"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2978",title:"Fractal Analysis and Chaos in Geosciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9d589bde3af8ef94cb902fffc3c949e6",slug:"fractal-analysis-and-chaos-in-geosciences",bookSignature:"Sid-Ali Ouadfeul",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2978.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103826",title:"Dr.",name:"Sid-Ali",surname:"Ouadfeul",slug:"sid-ali-ouadfeul",fullName:"Sid-Ali 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The challenges to the educational paradigm, introduced with the change from a teacher to a student centred paradigm, has several implications in the organization of all the educational system. The adoption of e-learning in all of the educational levels, was a huge step forward in terms of access to resources without constrains of space and time. But e-learning didn’t reach the
Student centred learning is an educational paradigm that gives students greater autonomy and control over choice of subject matter, learning methods and pace of study Gibbs, 1992. This approach is very similar to the Bologna Process goals in terms of student centred model based on learning outcomes and competences. Some of the characteristics of effective learners in the student centred learning paradigm are de la Harpe et al., 1999:
\n\t\t\tHave clear learning goals;
•Have a wide repertoire of learning strategies and know when to use them;
Use available resources effectively;
Know about their strengths and weaknesses;
Understand the learning process;
Deal appropriately with their feelings;
Take responsibility for their own learning;
Plan, monitor, evaluate and adapt their learning process.
The majority of virtual learning environments (VLE) are used as mere repositories of content, based on the classroom paradigm and don’t support the individualization of the learning process. According to Dias Dias, 2004, building spaces for online learning is a challenge that goes beyond the simple transfer of content to the Web. This approach tends to transform the environments in online repositories of information rather than in the desired spaces of interaction and experimentation.
\n\t\t\tTo allow a greater adaptation of the learning environment based on the student\'s profile, is proposed the adoption of theories of artificial intelligence in education, based on the learning experience, adapting contents and contexts to the student needs.
\n\t\t\tIn the last three decades, artificial intelligence has been adopted in various forms of education. The initial experiences of the adoption of artificial intelligence in education dates back to 1984. Several other approaches appeared and in 1988 one of the first architectures of intelligent tutoring systems was developed by Burn and Caps Burns & Caps, 1988.
\n\t\t\tOne of the most important issues in the adaptation of an intelligent tutoring system is the modulation of student behaviour in order to adapt the pedagogical model to the student model.
\n\t\t\tFor this adaptation to be more effective is necessary to identify the student profile, based on several parameters. One of the most important parameters is the student learning style. Each student has his own style of learning, which influences the collaboration during the learning process.
\n\t\t\tIn this context, the development of adaptive learning environments, based on the student profile is one of the most important challenges in the adoption of artificial intelligent systems in education, in order to improve the educational process. This approach is based on new pedagogical methodologies to provide learning environments adaptable to the needs of each student.
\n\t\t\tThis chapter discusses the development of adaptive virtual learning environments, to improve the educational process, considering the student learning style and the collaboration in the learning activities.
\n\t\tThe basic theory of learning styles is that different people learn in a different way. One way to see the learning styles is to connect them with the learning cycle advocated by Kolb Kolb 1984, where learning is seen as a continuous process based on practical experience that incorporates a set of observations and reflections.
\n\t\t\tLater, this model was developed by Honey and Mumford Honey & Mumford, 1986 creating a questionnaire of learning styles based on the model proposed by Kolb. It was identified by the authors four learning styles, related to the different four stages of the learning cycle proposed by Kolb Kolb, 1984: activist, reflector, theorist and pragmatist Figure 1.
\n\t\t\tEach learning style has the follow characteristics Honey & Mumford, 1986:
\n\t\t\tActivist - Students with an active style involve themselves fully and unreservedly in new experiences. Have an open mind, are optimistic, which makes them enthusiastic about something that is new. Tend to act first and consider the consequences later. They engage in many activities and when they lose the enthusiasm they change to another activity. The main philosophy is to try everything they can. They have great enthusiasm with the challenges of new experiences, but discourage with the implementation and consolidation of ideas. Tend to get involved in tasks with other people, but usually try all activities centred on them.
Reflector - The reflector like to be more in the rear to observe and reflect on experiences from different perspectives. Collect data and prefer to think about that before making any conclusions. Its main philosophy is to be cautious. They are very balanced, preferring to consider all possible angles and implications before taking any action. They prefer to watch other people in action. The reflector people are by nature discreet.
Theorist - People with a predominantly theoretical style incorporate comments into complex theories, but they are logical. They consider the problems on a vertical way, step by step and in a logical way. Assimilate facts based on consistent theories. The main philosophy is "if it is logical then it is good." They have an independent spirit and like to formulate principles, theories, models, assumptions and thoughts. The approach of the problems is mainly logic.
Pragmatist - The pragmatists tend to experiment the ideas, theories and techniques for checking whether they work in practice. Having new ideas they seek for an opportunity to try it in practice. They are impatient in discussions with subjective or vague ideas. They are essentially practical and like realistic decisions to solve problems. The main philosophy is: "there is always a better way to do things" or "if it works then it\'s good."
Learning Styles
The learning styles have become increasingly important in education, given the change in the educational paradigm introduced by the transition to the knowledge society. The lifelong learning paradigm leads to new learning contexts, which are increasingly more heterogeneous, where is important to take into account the learning styles of each student to provide an education more effective and focused on the student.
\n\t\t\tFigueiredo and Afonso Figueiredo & Afonso, 2005 consider the context and content as the key elements of the learning model. The learning model defines the learning activities as the situation in which individuals learn. The content is the information that is structured and consists of text, materials, multimedia resources and lectures. The context is a set of circumstances that are relevant to the student to build knowledge through its connection to the content.
\n\t\t\tIn this model, the teacher has a bipartite role in the presentation of content and creating the learning context. The context can be a classroom or a virtual learning environment, in which the role of teacher is more focused on content in the case of a classroom, and the context in the case of a virtual learning environment.
\n\t\t\tContents assume the role of transmission of knowledge, where information is transformed into knowledge through a given learning activity.
\n\t\t\tThe integration of intelligent systems in the learning process support, allows an adaptation of content and contexts to the learning style of each student, providing adaptive tools to support collaboration Lesgold et al, 1992, Goodman et al, 2003.
\n\t\tThe adoption of intelligent agents in education started in the end of the 1980s, based on the work on autonomous agents, intelligent tutoring systems, and educational theory.
\n\t\t\tThe artificial intelligence in education has the potential to improve the learning process, adapting the materials and the learning environment to the student profile. The student profile is based on his learning style, learning needs, goals and choices.
\n\t\t\tThe first systems that adopted artificial intelligent techniques were the Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS). Kearsley defined an intelligent tutoring system as an application of artificial intelligence techniques to teach students Kearsley, 1987. Sleeman and Brown Sleeman & Brown, 1982 defined an intelligent tutoring system as a program that uses artificial intelligence techniques for representing knowledge and carrying on an interaction with a student. According to Sleeman and Brown, an intelligent tutoring system must have its own problem-solving expertise, its own diagnostic or student modeling capabilities, and its own explanatory capabilities.
\n\t\t\tOne of the first architectures of an ITS system was presented by Burn and Caps in 1988Burn and Caps in 1988. This architecture was based on four main components: curriculum module, student module, tutor (pedagogical module) and the interface module between the student and the system. This basic architecture was improved by several researchers, including Ong and Ramachandran in 2003, Thomas in 2003, Bass in 1998, Choquet et al. in 1998, Titter and Blessing in 1998 and Nkambou and Gauthier in 1996.
\n\t\t\t2. Components of an intelligent tutoring system
Modern intelligent tutoring system architectures Figure 2 are very similar to the Burn and Caps proposed architecture. The four modules are represented frequently as the domain module, student module, pedagogical module and the interface module.
\n\t\t\tThe student has the main role in the intelligent tutoring system. All the features of the system have the mission to adapt the interface and the pedagogical material to the student profile and his preferences.
\n\t\t\tThe domain module is the knowledge management system, of which all the concepts that the system pretends to transmit to the student are stored.
\n\t\t\tConnected to the domain module are the student module and the pedagogical module. The student module represents the learner’s behavior, his profile, learning style, motivation level and his interests. This module is based on artificial intelligence skills that simulate the human behavior. All the student behavior is recorded in the system and used for “reasoning” and adapt the domain module to the learner’s needs.
\n\t\t\tThe pedagogical module acts has a virtual instructor, presenting the contents in an appropriate sequence, based on the student skills and his learning style. This is an interactive process and this module has the mission to explain the concepts to the student given several points of view and supporting all the learning process.
\n\t\t\tWith the capacity to communicate and interact with the student, the interface module has an extremely important mission. If one ITS have powerful pedagogical, domain and student modules, but the interface module is very poor, the ITS will not be effective because the interface is the front of all the system and has the ability to cap all the attention of the learner. To develop a good interface module is necessary to consider the usability issues of a user computer interface, because this module interacts with the user and the other components of the system. If the interface fails all the other modules fail too.
\n\t\t\tThe type of intervention of the pedagogical module within the system is very important for the student’s creativity and motivation. Wenger proposed that it is more efficient to let the student search for the solution for one problem before making any sort of intervention. Wenger, 1987.
\n\t\t\tITS are based on computer based training (CBT) technologies and are learner centric. The main disadvantage appointed to these systems is the limitation of the student creativity, because the student needs some autonomy in the construction process of knowledge. In the other side if the system is very passive the motivation of the student can decrease quickly.
\n\t\t\tThe evolution of the ITS to a multi-agent based learning environment was pushed by the new distributed learning environments. Tutoring agents and pedagogical agents are new approaches to integrate in Web based learning environments artificial intelligence methodologies.
\n\t\t\tThe tutoring agents have a new role in the learning environments using the artificial intelligence methodologies to adapt the contents and the contexts to the student profile. Nwana classified agents according to three ideal and primary attributes that agents should exhibit: autonomy, cooperation, and learning Nwana, 1996. Autonomy refers to the capacity of one agent to act without human intervention. Cooperation is the capacity of one agent to cooperate with humans and other agents. Learning is the capacity of one agent to improve his performance acquiring knowledge.
\n\t\t\tPedagogical agents are autonomous agents that occupy computer-learning environments and facilitate learning by interacting with students or other agents. Pedagogical agents have been designed to produce a range of behaviors that include the ability to reason about multiple agents in simulated environments; act as a peer, colearner, or competitor; generate multiple pedagogically appropriate strategies; and assist instructors and students in virtual worlds Shaw et al, 1999\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\tWith the expansion of E-learning, to overcome the limitation of “one size fits all” of current e-learning systems, Brusilovsky propose the adoption of Adaptive Web-based Educational Systems Brusilovsky, 2002 supported in the theory of Adaptive Hypermedia Systems. These systems explore the features of collaboration of the Web with the adaptation features of intelligent tutoring systems.
\n\t\t\tBrusilovsky argues that the most important challenge of Adaptive Web-based Educational Systems is the combination of the features of learning management systems with adaptive content authoring tools.
\n\t\t\tDe Bra et al De Bra et al, 2006 develop and opensource Adaptive Hypermedia Architecture - AHA!, which simplifies the process of integration Adaptive Hypermedia Systems in e-learning, using a service oriented approach, to provide adaptation and customization of the learning contents. The AHA! Project is on version 3.0 released in 2007.
\n\t\t\tAdaptive Hypermedia Systems are typically rule based systems without the ability to adapt to new learning situations. To address this, is proposed the integration of case-based reasoning agents to adapt the contents to the students need, improving the sharing of knowledge in learning management systems.
\n\t\tCase-based reasoning (CBR) is one of the major reasoning paradigms in artificial intelligence, having applications in several research areas. Kolodner Kolodner, 1992 defined CBR as adapting old solutions to meet new demands, using old cases to explain new situations, using old cases to critique new solutions, or reasoning from precedents to interpret a new situation (much as lawyers do) or create an equitable solution to a new problem (much as labor mediators do).
\n\t\t\tCBR has the advantage of the low initial training of the system, compared with other expert systems like rule-based reasoning Yang et al, 2001 and model-based reasoning; which needs a set of rules that is related to the problems and their solutions. In CBR the relation of the problems with their solutions is obtained from experience and the system can start operate with few stored cases and the reasoning capacity increases with the number of new cases stored.
\n\t\t\tThe problem-solving life cycle in a CBR systems described by Aamodt and Plaza Aamodt & Plaza, 1994, consists essentially in the following four parts Figure 3:
\n\t\t\tRetrieving similar cases experienced in the past;
Reusing the cases copying or integrating the solutions from the cases retrieved;
Revising or adapting the solution(s) retrieved to solve the new problem;
Retaining the new validated solution.
CBR cycle
CBR has been widely adopted in several domains, such as medicine, diagnoses, knowledge acquisition, help-desk, design, planning, scheduling, robot navigation, image processing, electronic commerce, and maintenance.
\n\t\t\tThe use of CBR in education has several advantages, like supporting the lecturers in the design of more effective learning activities and the students in order to improve their learning experience and their knowledge.
\n\t\tThe heterogeneity of students in higher education will increased as a result of the demands of knowledge based economy, which demands a lifelong learning paradigm. The lifelong learning has been defined as one of the priorities of the Bologna Process. Thus, it will be increasing the number of students in different contexts of learning. To meet these new challenges is necessary an improved customization of the learning methodologies, to support each student learning style.
\n\t\t\tThe identification of the student\'s learning style is an important requirement for an adaptive system in order to adapt the learning environment to the needs of each student.
\n\t\t\tTo implement this approach it was develop the iDomus system, supported by case-based reasoning (CBR) theory and Adaptive Web-based Educational Systems to response to the challenges of Bologna Process, based on the student learning style, goals and learning interests.
\n\t\t\tiDomus architecture is based on intelligent tutoring systems architecture, composed by the student, pedagogical, domain and interface modules. The student module has the mission to identify the student profile and is based on Honey-Alonso learning styles questionnaire (CHAEA), adapted and validated for the Portuguese language by Miranda Miranda 2005.
\n\t\t\tTo identify the learning style of each student it was integrated in iDomus system the CHAEA questionnaire. The student when accesses the system is invited to complete the questionnaire.
\n\t\t\tThe questionnaire consists of eighty questions enabling the identification of preferences for each style: activist, reflector, theorist and pragmatist.
\n\t\t\tThe pedagogical module is based on Learning Design standards to define learning activities and the CBR theory to adapt learning activities to the student model.
\n\t\t\tThe CBR retrieving method is based on Fuzzy logic, extracting the most similar cases based on the learning style and student profile, taking into consideration the interest and the complexity of each learning activity Alves, 2008.
\n\t\t\tWith Fuzzy approach it’s possible to find similar cases of the current learning activity, extracting notes, forum posts and Web resources related to the activity. To enhance the learning interactivity, the system highlights parts of the content, based on the possibility of difficulties that match the present case.
\n\t\t\tThe student uses the Learning Design Player integrated in the VLE to perform the learning activities Figure 4 - 1. When the student starts the activity the agent, using the information about the profile of the student, uses the CBR approach to find similar cases. The similarity is based on the profile of the student and previous experiences in that activity. Based on the similarity of cases the agent suggests the time to accomplish the learning activity Figure 4 - 2.
\n\t\t\tThe agent has an active and passive mode. The active mode can be activated when the time to finish the activity is reached, then the agent gives support to the student presenting notes, forum messages and Web resources related to that activity Figure 4 - 4). The passive mode is activated when the student clicks on any note inserted on the page.
\n\t\t\tTo improve the collaboration features of the environment, the student has the option to mark doubts inside contents by selecting the text and click on the appropriate button Figure 4-\n\t\t\t\t3. The agent uses CBR to select the notes, discussion themes and Web resources related to that doubt. In the same toolbar has the option to insert notes on the page by selecting the text to insert the note.
\n\t\t\tThe interface is very interactive and the student has the feeling that everything is dynamic. To provide this feature the system was developed using Ajax (Asynchronous Javascript And XML) and Web Services to provide the agent support without having to reload the entire page.
\n\t\t\tiDomus system.
This architecture based on CBR and adaptive hypermedia systems has the main goal to support the student on learning activities. The main advantage of this approach is the reuse of learning contents and contexts, increasing the knowledge of the system as the time passes.
\n\t\t\tTo evaluate the iDomus system it was made a case study in two different groups. One of Introduction to Computer Science, composed by 20 students, and other of Web Development, composed by 15 students. The number of styles identified is less than the number of users of the platform, because the answer to the questionnaire was voluntary and doesn’t restrict the use of the iDomus system.
\n\t\t\tTo identify the students’ learning styles it was only considered the experimental group, which used the iDomus platform. The control group used a different platform without CBR and adaptive features.
\n\t\t\tThe experimental group of Web Development had a smaller membership in response to the questionnaire than the group of Introduction to Computer Science.
\n\t\t\tThe analysis of the results indentifies a moderate preference for each style: active, reflective, theoretical and pragmatic. Only 7% of students had a very high preference for reflective style and 13% by the theoretical. There isn’t any student with a very high preference to the pragmatic style. The moderate level is the predominant.
\n\t\t\tIn the adaptation of learning context made by iDomus to each student learning style, shows that most of the students had a moderate preference, which implies a very narrow adaptation.
\n\t\t\tLearning styles of research group.
The iDomus system modulate the user behaviour based on the student learning style, but with a main moderated preference for each style most of the students had a standard view of the system. Only for students with a very high preference for the active style, iDomus had made an adaptation of the learning activities to explore the potential and students creativity. For students with a very high preference for the reflector and theorist styles, the system did an adaptation on forums, to improve reflection, and on the Chat to promote a direct discussion for activists.
\n\t\t\tIn the survey the students recognize the importance of the contents organized in learning activities and the adaptation of the activities and contents to their learning needs. iDomus uses the CBR, adapting past cases to solve new problems, with characteristics of an advisor that alerts the student for all the events, coaching the student and coordinating the collaborative activities.
\n\t\tThe use of intelligent systems in education has several advantages in the support and personalization of e-learning. The adoption of artificial intelligence in education starts with Intelligent tutoring systems, which are typically used in computer-based training (CBT) and don’t support the collaboration and cooperation. In this chapter it was proposed the adoption of Case-based reasoning and Adaptive Web-based Educational Systems to model student-centred Virtual Learning Environments.
\n\t\t\tLearning styles had become increasingly important in education with the lifelong learning paradigm that leads to new learning contexts, which are increasingly more heterogeneous. It’s important to take into account the learning styles of each student to provide a more effective educational process.
\n\t\t\tThe iDomus platform is a virtual learning environment that uses intelligent artificial methodologies like CBR and fuzzy logic to adapt learning activities to the student learning needs, based on difficulties and different learning styles.
\n\t\t\tThe validation of iDomus was done through the data collection and two case studies, one in Introduction to Computer Science and other in Web Development.
\n\t\t\tBased on the results it can be concluded that the integration of collaborative and adaptive capabilities of Intelligent Tutoring Systems in Adaptive Hypermedia Systems, with possibility to add notes to contents to share knowledge, is an important feature to improve the learning experience.
\n\t\t\tThe organization of contents using learning activities was highlighted as very important by the students in the survey and the adoption of learning styles to model the user profile was considered important.
\n\t\t\tThe iDomus supports the student in their learning activities, collaborative work, agenda management and shows several points of view of some subjects, suggesting Web resources to complement the student knowledge.
\n\t\t\tThese capabilities can be adopted in several virtual learning environments to provide a more effective support in the learning process, going in the direction of the needs of knowledge based societies.
\n\t\t\tIn terms of future work is proposed the improvement of the CBR adaptation features based on conversational case-based reasoning, where the user opinion in the adaptation process is considered as an important part to improve the accuracy of the results in future adaptations.
\n\t\t\tOn the contrary, open source virtual learning environments like Sakai and Moodle are adopted in the majority of universities, making it very difficult to integrate new systems like iDomus. The development of adaptive features to Sakai is a project that is been running at the University of Applied Sciences of Bragança in partnership with other institutions, to support Learning Design and CBR tutoring agents in Sakai 3.
\n\t\tRegenerative agriculture is a farming and land management concept based on several principles and techniques that strengthen and restore ecosystem functions and health. Long-term usage of regenerative agriculture has shown many benefits in terms of quality and profitability for farmers, as well as improving the environment and contributing to the maintenance of a healthy agricultural landscape. Given that it is not always very clear how each action contributes to better agricultural management and drought mitigation, this chapter aims to recall the key elements that farmers must consider in regenerative agriculture in order to have the best results. It should be noted that there is more than one approach that may differ depending on local circumstances, however, the elements described in this chapter serve as a starting point for practitioners and academics who wish to learn more or deepen one of the related domains.
The existence of life is largely dependent on the richness and health of soils, which is why soil structure, together with water availability are the most valuable resources for humanity. The annual degradation of the agricultural lands puts even more pressure on farmers, forcing them to use more chemical inputs and these practices may eventually lead to extreme phenomena such as drought, floods, and eventually soil abandonment [1]. However, both farmers and policymakers continue to be neglecting the need for soil health preservation and they do not take firm restoration measures even when the situation becomes concerning.
Water, minerals, and organic matter combine to make the soil in a natural process. Soil minerals are produced in the process of natural erosion, while the organic matter is formed by the decomposition of plants and other organisms that have died. Many scientists consider soiling a finite resource that cannot be renewed during a human lifespan. We propose, in the present chapter, several techniques used and validated for faster restoration of soil properties, which may help recovery in very shorter time periods, depending on the degree of soil impairment.
Degraded soil is described as a change in the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics that results in a reduced capacity to support plant growth. The most common phenomena that usually occur are related to the fact that soil loses the capacity to deliver nutrients and water, while toxic compounds restrict plant growth, topsoil lacks of organic matter content, subsoil resources are insufficient to support plant roots, the compaction rate is substantially increased, drainage occurs with difficulty, and many of the needed microorganisms are absent.
In most common cases, the quality of the soil decreases as a result of the anthropogenic intervention, while some natural causes are aggravating the circumstances, often leading to erosion. Human activity is the most frequent cause of agricultural soil degradation and for accelerating natural soil erosion. Agriculture has deteriorated the Earth\'s soils during the last 100 years, with disastrous consequences, David R. Montgomery [2] estimates that humanity is losing 0.3% of our global food production each year due to soil erosion and degradation. Soil degradation and loss has been a problem since the beginning of agriculture and played a major role in the demise of past civilization including Mesopotamia, Antic Greece, and the Rome Empire. The element that contributes probably the most to the negative damage to the soil, more important even than deforestation is the plowing activity. Stanford University in a study from 2015 estimated the degradation rate of topsoil worldwide at a rate of 70%, with margins between 54% in Africa and 74% in North America [3]. At this time, there is no allotted restoration period, since we are eroding soil 20 times faster than we are regenerating it.
Degraded soils have a poor health state, reducing the ecosystem\'s ability to provide water and nutrients to plants, and affecting the soil nutrient web. Degraded soils have a weak structure attributable to a lack of soil biodiversity, which causes flooding, erosion, and low production. Water cannot penetrate inferior soil structures, so the rains follow the flow of gravity, transporting major amounts of minerals and salts to the groundwater, rivers, or lakes. During a drought period, there will be no moisture, and groundwater will not be replenished easily. Plants will be stressed, and yields will decrease very fast. In the tropics especially on fertile land, soil deterioration is prevalent. Natural erosion caused by wind, sun, severe rainfall, and poor human management are the most common causes.
It is critical to understand that poor agricultural management before and during a drought has a synergetic effect on soil properties. Land degradation in arid, semiarid, and sub-humid areas may be generated by various external factors including climate change, and draught may lead to desertification. Desertification may be irreversible if not intervened in time, especially when the environment becomes too dry and the soil becomes further degraded through erosion and compaction.
One of the most important hazardous environmental events in recent history was the American Dust Bowl during the years 1930–1936, when large dust storms swept topsoil from significant land areas, making 75% of the original topsoil quality to be lost [4]. Commenting on the American Dust Bowl, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt said “The nation that destroys its soil, destroys itself”, a remark that is still relevant to modern crop management practices.
Storms, torrential rains, floods, and droughts are becoming more frequent and intense as a result of climate change. Every year, soil deterioration worsens, plants get stressed, and yields decrease. Soil management is, therefore, an essential element of sustainable agriculture.
Proper regenerative soil management will slow down or stop soil degradation and start to rebuild soil fertility. Management should be focused on obtaining healthy and superior plants that do not need intense chemical treatments since it is proven that a high immunity system protects crops from diseases and insect attacks. Increasing plant immunity will be pointed out in high yields, quality products, plants will get increased resistance to diseases and pest attacks. At the same time soil will become healthier, full of nutrients with an active and rich soil food web. Healthy soils with a balanced nutrients ratio, promote biological high activity and replenish groundwater, and will help the plants to withstand better the drought. To stop soil degradation, special attention must be paid to the phenomena that produce natural erosion, and rejuvenate the soil, while human activities have to change rapidly. Soil regeneration practices sequester an important part of the required amount of carbon in the soil, allowing mankind to maintain control over climate change. Soil carbon allows the land structure to function as a sponge, each gram of carbon-absorbing 8 grams of water. In addition to the positive effect on the mineralization process, carbon helps to build the soil structure, which aids in the supply of air, water, and nutrients to plants. Plants, in response, emit liquid carbon from their roots, increasing, even more, the synergies and water absorption. This phenomenon occurs more frequently when aggressive tilling works are avoided, and the synthetic fertilizer and synthetic biocides application are not used. The techniques, if they are applied indiscriminately have the opposite result, eliminating the carbon. Figure 1 depicts the most common approach to regenerative agriculture at three levels of management: acknowledge the objectives and benefits, comprehend the fundamental concepts, and put the best practices into action.
A simplified approach to regenerative agriculture implementation.
Regenerative agriculture requires a complete redesign of the farming system, as well as a shift in the procedures and metrics used in traditional agriculture, and a longer-term commitment of farmers.
FAO [5] defines soil degradation as a change in the soil health status, resulting in a diminished capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and services for its beneficiaries. Degraded soils have a state of health that prevents them from generating the standard products and services in a given ecosystem. Soil degradation is caused by unfavorable interaction between physical, biological, and chemical soil characteristics, accelerating erosion, and leading to poor drainage, salinization, nutrient imbalance, decrease in soil organic matter, and suppressing biology. Physical soil deterioration includes changes in soil structure (crusting, compaction, etc.), imbalance in water content and air ratio, leading to extreme surface temperatures. Chemical soil deterioration includes nutrient leaching, fertility depletion, or even toxicity. Biological deterioration includes a decrease in the microorganism population and a drop in their activity, as well as, a severe reduction of organic matter content. Degraded soil is being studied at specialist institutions in nearly every country, and warnings are coming from all across the scientific world [6, 7, 8].
Major causes of soil degradation are divided into natural, as climate variations (soil degradation caused by wind, sun, drought, or heavy rains favoring the fertile soil to be washed away) and anthropogenic activities (overgrazing, deforestation, excessive use of chemicals fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, bare soils, excess of tillage, overdraft of groundwater, etc.) [9].
Conventional agriculture is considered to be one of the biggest contributors to soil degradation [10]. After Second World War, the Chemical Industry provide agriculture with new and advanced chemical formulas used as fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides. The first results showed great success for everyone; however, the long-term effects were not anticipated since they have affected over time the soil structure and soil food web. Over few decades, the soil became degraded, plants are now mostly unhealthy, animals and humans experience unexplained medical conditions, and yields are going down every year. Chemicals use and tillage technology are producing the most detrimental influence on soil deterioration; as a result, their usage must be closely monitored and, if possible, avoided.
Farmers, working in conventional agriculture, that usually apply intensive chemical technologies, come across many harmful practices like those described below. The practices described in this section aim to draw attention to the most common activities that farmers do voluntarily or unknowingly, which may lead to soil degradation and floods.
In Romania only a few farmers perform soil analysis annually, the majority of them use a standardized technology learned from books or advice from chemical companies. Soil parameters analyzed in a laboratory report do not contain enough information, the evaluation gives most often information regarding land chemistry, but ignores several important physical and biological properties. Sustainable agriculture changes the view of soil performance and soil quality [11]. Farmers need to invest more in complete soil assessment and perform some measurements by themselves, like soil acidity (pH) or soil conductivity (EC). The Haney report is another good analysis report that offers information about soil health, microbial respiration, water-extractable organic carbon, water-extractable nitrogen, etc. Haney soil test report offers farmers additional values to improve plant-available nutrients and estimate the soil health as related to carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) cycling [12].
Topsoil is being washed and lose its properties, microorganisms die, while its structure degrades. Uncovered soil favors natural soil erosion generated by rains, sun, or wind [13]. Soil loss of moisture and high soil temperature suppress bacteria and fungi living in the soil. In this environment, weeds germinate easily, and farmers cannot control them without using highly aggressive herbicides [14].
Tillage works as plowing and disking suppress the fungi network, appear losses the soil moisture, and may destroy soil structure [15]. Plowing is creating the hardpan at 15–30 cm deep. Hardpan is a compact layer of soil below the soil surface that inhibits roots movements through the soil [16]. Water is moving gravitationally on the hardpan, forming ponds, and soil gets salted [17].
Synthetic fertilizers suppress biology [18], contributing to soil compacting, loss of fertility, and humus total rate decrease. Plants are using only 15–30% of total inorganic fertilizers, while the rest is leaching in lakes, rivers, groundwater, etc. Accumulation of nitrogen in groundwater has different sources, being caught in irrigation lakes [19, 20]. As groundwater is the main source of drinking water, contamination poses several human health problems. At present in the United States of America, there are used 20 times more chemicals than in the American Dust Bowl period, and soil degradation continues dramatically.
Using in excess a specific nutrient especially N in a cation form, inhibits absorbing others nutrients cations as calcium (Ca), potassium (K), sodium (Na). The nutrient balance is one of the most important factors in plant nutrition [21, 22, 23], when plants receive too much N, during a 24 h photosynthesis process, N under forms of nitrate (NO3) or ammonium (NH4), is not transformed into proteins and became attractive for insects [24]. Excesses of N develop elongation, delay maturity, change biochemistry, cause plant stress and make plants vulnerable to drought [25].
Monoculture is not resilient to climate change, soil is losing carbon, while carbon dioxide (CO2) is increasing in the atmosphere. Monoculture is a source of scarcity because the diversity principle is strongly affected [26]. Monoculture combined with bare soil practices decreases the fertility of agricultural lands dramatically [27].
Groundwater overdraft is related to a dry aquifer, loss of water in streams and lakes, soil compacting, and polluted groundwater [27, 28].
If the biology of the soil is ignored in drought years, is a major problem, since the soil loses nutrients and water, putting plants under a high level of stress. The plant\'s nature enables to fill in the gap of water and nutrients. In recent decades, scientists from many laboratories have studied the interactions between microorganisms and plants, and they have concluded that the soil food web plays the most important role in plant nutrition [29].
In the last decades\' scientific reports demonstrated that micronutrients are as important as major elements, the only difference is the needed quantity. Micronutrient deficiency is widespread in the world due to low organic matter, bicarbonate content in irrigation water, long time of drought, and imbalanced application of fertilizers. Micronutrients application contribute to plant health, soil health, and increase yield by up to 15–50% [30, 31, 32].
There is no special interest nowadays in the quality of the products obtained in conventional agriculture [33]. Healthy plants that are resistant to illnesses, insect attacks, and drought are used to produce high-quality products, while also improving yields. Highly nutritional plants have a substantial positive impact on soil health [34], animal, and human health.
Regenerative Agriculture is organic agriculture, using only natural available resources. In organic agriculture, farmers are certified if they produce non-GMO plants without using synthetic chemicals, approaching soil conservation and preservation for biodiversity. Farmers are allowed to use only inputs from certified organic agriculture. In 2018, at Rodale Institute was introduced for the first time a new higher standard for the farmers working in a regenerative system called Regenerative Organic Certified (ROC) [35]. Regenerative Agriculture is the way to sustainable farming practice, regenerate soil fertility, grow healthy plants that create healthy soils, less sensible to draught. Using methods from Regenerative Agriculture technology, carbon is sequestered in the soil, soil structure and soil fertility improve, water retention, and crop yield increase, while drought and flood ameliorate [36]. Regenerative agriculture can be defined by a holistic system approach that starts with the soil characteristics and also includes the health of the plants, animals, farmers, and community. The main aims envisage to regenerate topsoil, restoring degraded soil biodiversity, enhancing ecosystem services, improving water cycling and improving the resilience of soil to extreme weather. Regenerative Agriculture focuses on improving soil health by following four main mandatory principles and one optional. All specialists in Regenerative Agriculture accept the four principles that include soil cover, living roots, biodiversity, and minimalizing soil disturbance. The last principle which is the integration of animals is partially accepted and can be even more important in a few specific situations.
Everything plants need is cycled by soil microorganisms before becoming available to plants\' roots. Earth life is based on photosynthesis, a process that transforms photonic energy into chemical energy. It varies, depending on the availability of light, water, carbon dioxide, chlorophyll concentration, and plant nutrition. Photosynthesis is the most efficient cycle and sustainable process in nature [37, 38], and it is the engine we can rely in Regenerative Agriculture. Farmers know that water, nitrogen, and high-temperature influence the photosynthesis process. During drought, plants switch from photosynthesis to photo-respiration process, when are consuming their reserve of proteins [39]. To avoid this happening, proper management has to be used that optimize nutrition. When monitoring fields frequently, one should notice nature needs [40].
Only a limited mechanical, chemical, and physical disturbance of soil is permitted. Tillage destroys soil structure, resulting in bare or compacted soil that is destructive to soil microorganisms and creates a hostile environment for them. Soil stability is a quantitative indicator of soil health that is based on a mix of biotic and abiotic soil parameters. The impact of physic and chemical qualities on soil resistance and resilience is mediated by the microbial community [41]. Living organisms in soil improve the structure, create pore spaces that allow water and air to infiltrate the soil. Intensive tillage destroys macro and microorganism habitat, disrupt the fungi hyphae and soil aggregate.
Synthetic fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, and fungicides suppress life in the soil, having a negative impact on soil fertility. Inputs application disrupts the symbiotic relationships between fungi, bacteria, and plants roots. Overgrazing is a form of biological disturbance that reduces roots mass, increases soil temperature and runoff. All forms of soil disturbances affect microorganisms and diminish the soil food web.
The principle is oriented toward keeping soil covered at all times, especially by setting up cover crops or intercropping. This is a critical step toward rebuilding soil health because bare soil is not a normal state, nature always works to cover the soil surface. When providing a natural vegetal shield, the soil is protected from wind and water erosion, while providing foods and a habitat for macro- and microorganisms [42]. It will also prevent moisture evaporation, reduces temperature, intercepts raindrops, and reduces germination of weed seeds. Soil cover offers a habitat for soil food web members that spend some of their time above ground. Keeping the soil cover on allows microorganisms to break down leftovers while recycling nutrients back into the soil.
Nature aims for the diversity of both plant and animal species. Farmers should do the same, since monocultures are present only where humans have established them. The preservation, conservation, and restoring biodiversity should be a priority nowadays. Biodiversity is a major determinant in ecosystem stability, productivity, and nutrients dynamics. High diversity can be twice as productive as monoculture [43]. Different plant species use carbohydrates to feed certain microorganisms in return for water and nutrients via their roots. Biodiversity of plants is required to support the biodiversity of microbes. Each microorganism plays a specific role in maintaining soil health, and diversity enhances ecosystem functioning [44]. The key to improving soil health consists in a soil food web that is populated with several types of plants and animals. A fully functioning soil food web provides nutrients, water, energy, and allows the soil to express its full potential. The diversity has to be increased using crop rotation and cover crops.
Living roots have to be maintained in soil as long as possible because they are feeding soil biology by providing basic food source carbohydrates [45]. This biology feeds plants with water and nutrients, having the capacity to store nutrients and water that will be provided during drought. Farmers within conventional agriculture used to think there are 120 days to rest soil until the growing season. It is now considered wrong since living plants continue growing into early winter and break biological dormancy earlier in the spring. Their roots are feeding soil organisms and keep the biological population at a high rate. Healthy soil is dependent upon how well the food web is fed. Providing food to soil microbes helps them cycle nutrients that plants needed to grow.
Nature does not function well without animal organisms. Integrated livestock into an operation provides many benefits. The major benefit is that grazing stimulates the plants to pump more carbon into the soil. This drives nutrient cycling by feeding biology, also has a major positive impact on climate change by cycling more carbon out of the atmosphere and putting it into the ground. Pasture cropping is another way of practicing regenerative agriculture for growing food and restoring degraded soil. Farmers should provide a home and habitat not only for farm animals but also for pollinators, predator insects, earthworms, and all the microbiology that drive ecosystem function.
Monitoring the field every day is also a key factor in keeping plants healthy. Checking the soil compaction, earthworm activity, soil structure, erosion risks, poor crop growth, etc., and keeping a recording of everyday activity helps the agricultural management system. Minimum information recorded are data, weather, fertility and irrigation program, yield, insects attack, diseases, etc.
There are different technologies according to these principles that are already used by some farmers. The most commonly used are the NO-TILL or STRIP-TILL, but they are rather used for profit maximized than for reducing drought effect and regenerating soil health. NO-TILL is studied in many countries, over a long period of years, concluded that is a big step forward [46]. However, these technologies are included in regenerative agriculture methods of growing plants during drought. A special part that is additional to these methods in regenerative agriculture, concerns breaking the hardpan and biological inoculation.
Drought stress is reduced when plants are healthy and thrive in healthy soil. For plants to overcome the draught on degraded soils, a new management strategy is required. Water, balanced nutrients, and biology are the three most important requirements for plants. Plants that are well-managed produce soil that is rich in humus. Growing healthy plants to overcome the drought and the elements that impact the process are provided in the appropriate sequence.
The field control has to begin in the autumn before the new agricultural year begins. Weeds like quack grass and foxtail can be found in dry clay soil, indicating calcium deficits and compact soil. Mow the grasses and compost the cuttings into the soil to help with calcium deficits. Broadleaf weeds, like ragweed, indicate copper deficiencies problem, and a phosphate/potassium imbalance. The rate between phosphate and potassium should be 2/1 for row crops and 4/1 for grass crops. Succulent weeds increase soil water capacity, replenish carbonate ions while covering the ground to protect against soil erosion. Weeds role is to deposit nutrients and metabolites in the soil or rearrange the nutrients existing in the soil. There is plenty of information in the literature about weeds role and weeds usage as a soil indicator [47, 48, 49]. This information is important to design a fertilization plan, in order to balance the nutrients. Herbicides must be avoided as much as possible since weeds get resistant to synthetic inputs, plants get unhealthy while the microbial population will decrease. Brix index in plants leaf must be measured before foliar application and 2 h after. After a few foliar applications, the crop will thrive and weeds will be attacked by insects and diseases, and not the established culture. As the nutrients are balanced, pH changes and weeds are under control.
Hardpan management is the compact layer of soil just below the ground surface. Excess plowing leads to soil moisture loss by evaporation [50]. Avoiding working with moldboard plows, farmers must use instead a strip subsoil breaker in the first year to break the hardpan and apply a NO-TILL technology in the next years. Hardpan reduces the soil depth for plants roots and enhances soil waterlog. Plant roots grow in the surface layer reducing access to water and nutrients.
Well, aggregate soils are rarely found, usually, soils are crusted, compacted in layers or plow pans [51]. The agricultural year start in autumn and farmers first issue should be checking the hardpan with a penetrometer. After that, has to be measured the distance from soil surface to hardpan and hardpan thickness. If hardpan thickness is more than 5cm, then must be used a subsoil strip breaker. Soil improvement usually includes subsoil adding biological fertilization to break the hardpan and inoculate with microorganisms (bacteria, fungi) at the same time. Breaking the hardpan will allow water and nutrients to infiltrate deep in the ground, while microorganisms will keep the moisture and nutrients for a long period. Underground water and nutrients are stored naturally and through capillarity, the plants have access to water and nutrients during the drought period. In order to maintain the microbiology alive, they should be multiplied by feeding them and keeping constant moisture and temperature in the soil. In time, they will improve the soil structure, porosity, and the humus percentage will increase. In the photosynthesis process plants secret carbohydrates (sugar) and protein through the roots, which are food for bacteria and fungi. Bacteria and fungi are eaten by bigger microorganisms like nematodes and protozoa. Plants are thriving in such an environment even in drought conditions. With a restored soil food web, plants can control the water and nutrients cycling in the rhizosphere neighborhood. A restored food web reduces irrigation and tillage requirements, provides protection against pests and diseases and inhibits weeds. Pesticides and herbicides are not required, since applying these methods yields and farms profitability will be increasing.
Living life provides soil structure that resists wind and rain erosion. The first step will be in accordance with principles to use no plowing or disking, by implementing a no-till system. Figure 2 compares three types of agricultural soil processing: in the first plan the work was performed with soil loosening equipment, in the second plan it is proposed the minimal processing technology by breaking the hardpan, and in the third plan a plowed land is highlighted.
Comparison between three types of agricultural soil processing: soil loosening equipment (first plan); minimal processing technology-hardpan breaking (second plan); plowing (third plan).
The proposed technology within INMA institute is performed with an equipment that can be carried by an agricultural tractor, that cut the soil linearly without overturning the furrow, break the hardpan, and inoculate the ground with beneficial microorganisms. An active microorganism life restores the soil food web, which keep the pore open. This could be the first phase in rebuilding a healthy soil and ecosystem.
Amendment and treatments have a significant effect on soil\'s physical and chemical properties and increase microbial activity. Amendments improve soil water retention and soil structure as permeability, drainage, air holding capacity, etc. Soil acidity is potentially serious land degradation, acid soil is crusted and compacted, requires calcium, phosphorus, and minerals. The recommendation is to apply on soil a minimum 200 kg of lime and 200 kg of soft rock phosphates per hectare every autumn and spring during the first 2–3 years. These small quantities are recommended only in soils with degraded food web, or if microorganisms are being incorporated into the soil. Microorganisms are highly important because they break down the amendments and make them available to plants. High quantities of minerals suppress microorganisms. The amendments are spread best in autumn, before planting the cover crops and in spring before planting the main crop. Any other nutrient must be added as a result of the soil analysis. Organic amendments like compost or vermicompost have a benefic effect, increasing macro and micronutrient, organic matter, physical, and chemical soil properties like pH and EC. Humic acid found inside vermicompost, improves phytoremediation of soils contaminated with heavy metals [52]. Vermicompost soil amendments combined with foliar fertilizer, based on vermicompost, reduces the period to regenerate the soil fertility. Vermicompost can be produced in every farm, is cheap and have a tremendous effect on plants that grow during draught.
Plants need minimum 17 mineral nutrients divided into macro- and micronutrients to grow and complete plants\' life cycle. Each of the nutrients perform specific functions within the plant and the amount of each needed by the plant depends on what role the plant has each element [53, 54]. Microelements are needed in a small amount, but they are as important as macro-elements. Micronutrient deficiencies induce stress in plants, cause yield losses, resulting in poor health for animals and humans [29]. Supplying plants with micronutrients, through soil application or foliar spray, increases yields, produces higher quality, but also increases macronutrient use efficiencies. Micronutrients application is cheaper and needs less labor and transport because there are small quantities to manipulate. There are nine macronutrients nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), carbon (C), oxygen (O), and hydrogen (H) from which conventional agriculture is using six, but focus only on three N, P, K. Farmers in conventional agriculture, concentrating on NPK, can deliver excellent yields in irrigated conditions or rainy years, but less quality is usually obtained. Finite products, full of nutrients, for healthy animals and humans, are obtained when plants absorb balanced nutrients. To design a fertilizer plan, one need proper knowledge of the interaction between nutrients [55]. The key to controlling the mineral nutrients is restoring the soil food web. First-year must fertilize with biofertilizers and 70% of the recommended macronutrients N and P to obtain better yields and better-quality crops, low nitrate and nitrite levels in crops [56]. In two-three years, with a soil food web restored, microorganisms will takecare of plant nutrition, bacteria will fix the nitrogen in the soil, while other specific bacteria will solubilize the needed minerals. Biofertilizer is keeping beneficial microorganisms in the soil healthy and allow plants to overcome the drought [57].
Organic fertilizer is added to the soil to improve soil structure, feed both the plants and microorganisms. Microorganisms break down the organic materials and release nutrients slowly to the plants. Organic fertilizers increase soil\'s ability to hold water and nutrients. Solid organic fertilizer made from bat guano, fish meal, or manure can be spread on the soil before planting the main crop. Liquid fertilizer can be sprayed on soil or leaves. Chelated liquid fertilizer should be used for a slow-release technique. A cheap method is to spread the fertilizers in furrows, in this way, it will produce the same effect, but the quantity needed is much less (approximately 20–30% of the total quantity needed).
Seed inoculation is a cheap and beneficial tool to grow healthy plants, considering that each plant has a group of bacteria or fungi that work in association with the plant roots. The colonization of plants roots by associated bacteria and fungi result in better performance than plants colonized by the wild population of microorganisms [58]. Inoculations have to be performed for both the main crop and cover crop. Inside the cover crop, there have to be various legume seeds that can be inoculated with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. No need to fertilize the soil with nitrogen if seeds are inoculated with these types of bacteria [59, 60]. Biological control agents protect seedlings from disease as fusarium, pythium, etc. [61]. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi play an important role in plant growth. Corn inoculated with arbuscular mycorrhizal have a higher phosphorus absorption, increases vegetative biomass and grain yield, especially in low or medium available phosphorus [62].
Soil food web is a new model of soil fertility based on biology. This new model works better, presenting a lower cost, preventing diseases, do not pollute and use minimal chemical inputs [63]. Microorganisms are the link between water, nutrients and plants. Plants are in control of a viable soil food web, and exudates, in the form of carbohydrates and proteins, attracting specific bacteria and fungi. Bacteria and fungi consuming root exudates are at the bottom of the soil food web. Bigger microbes, nematodes, and protozoa are consuming bacteria and fungi, and are excreted as nutrients right in the rhizosphere. Protozoa and nematodes are eaten by arthropods. Arthropods may eat other arthropods or they might be eaten by snakes, birds, moles, etc. Worms, insect larvae, and moles are moving through the soil, in search of food, creating pathways and letting water and air enter. Members of the soil food web bind soil particles together, create tunnels for air and water to help create soil structure. Soil food web has a natural design and presents seven major benefits such as diseases suppression, nutrients retention, increase mineral nutrient availability to plants, improve soil structure, decomposition of toxic chemicals, production plant growth, and improve crop quality. Microorganisms and other soil food web members release root growing hormones. These growth hormones help the plant to cross the draught or a flood and increase yield.
The presence of plant cover crops in the agricultural system aids in the production of large amounts of biomass. This boosts the soil\'s organic content, improving fertilization. The physical, chemical and biological qualities of the soil are improved by maintaining permanent cover crops, and in time, contributing to the restoration of its health. It is recommended to use biodiversity, which include at least one species of leguminous plants. Inoculation has to be achieved with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, especially for leguminous plants. Then the amendments can be spread and may plant various cover crop seeds. Incorporation of amendments can be done with a disk harrow, while the cover crops may consist of oats, rye, buckwheat, radish, mustard, vetch, clover, etc. Plants\' biodiversity will attract various bacteria and fungi, each plant species attracting its own specific microorganisms. In this way, the soil food web will be restored sooner and better. Cover crops have to be chopped or mowed in spring before full bloom, and a minimum of two weeks before planting the main crop. The cover crop will maintain the soil moisture, while soil temperature will not vary too much during drought or between day and night. After mowing, cover crops are used as mulch. Raindrop energy will be dissipated by living crops and mulch, and in this way, erosion will be under control. Cover crops are being decomposed by fungi and bacteria. Another advantage is that in winter cover crops are one of the best options to defend against topsoil loss due to erosion. If it is managed correctly, the decomposition of cover crops by bacteria and fungi provides nutrients to the main crop (cash crop), while biodiversity of cover crop suppresses weeds, prevents NO3 leaching and produces above-ground biomass N [64, 65]. Plant diversity helps to reduce pathogens, pests, and weed invasion, reducing the need for insecticides and pesticides.
A diversified crop rotation enhances soil structure by varying the length of planting zones, allowing for better water penetration. Different crops with varying nutrient requirements, as well as waste products, will help to create a more balanced and resilient soil ecosystem. The duration of these rotations is usually between 4 and 6 years.
When sowing, it is recommended to inoculate the main crop seeds with different solutions based on microorganisms and nutrients. The seeding should start in spring, two weeks after mowing the cover crops and apply foliar fertilizer during the critical point of influence. Each crop has different important phases that may be influenced by inoculation with microorganisms: when planting (to enhance germination), strengthening plant structure, growing the fruit and finishing fructification. Foliar fertilizer must contain at least calcium, manganese, boron, zinc, amino acids. Balance calcium with potassium starting filing fruit point of influence and replace calcium with potassium at the finishing fruit. Get the maximum feedback from the plant when adding biology in the fertilizer solution. A healthy plant will cross the drought. Harvest the corn seeds, but let the corn stalk on the soil to be decomposed by fungi and bacteria.
Foliar application is the most efficient and cheap way to grow healthy plants. Growing healthy plants increase the immune plants\' system, get resistance to diseases and insects attack, plants can cross the drought. In order to grow healthy plants, increase the photosynthesis process from 2- to 3 times by using the right foliar fertilizer solution. Aerated compost tea is a foliar biofertilizer with a benefic impact on plant growth [66]. Inside the aerated compost tea add other nutrients needed by plants.
A complete foliar fertilizer contains clean water, mineral nutrients, microorganisms, plant bio-stimulants, bacteria bio-stimulants, fungi bio-stimulants, and inoculants. It has a synergetic effect on plant growth. Plant reaction is tremendous, especially in degraded soils.
Water is the most important ingredient in foliar fertilizer solution. Using poor-quality water can determine a loss of 50% from the effect of the foliar solution. Do not use water from ponds, lakes, or others sources without water analysis tests. Good water for foliar application has less than 70 ppm, pH between 5.2 and 6.5, electrical conductivity EC between 1.6 and 2.8 ds/mm and temperature between 58 and 78 degrees Fahrenheit. For best results use rainwater or reverse osmosis water. Municipality water is usually unsuitable for foliar recipes because of the chlorine or chloramine, with high pH and potentially hardness.
Foliar solution when humidity is high has to be applied in larger particles (not fine spray), so the liquids remain on the leaf surface a long time without drying out. Sprayers with large droplets make a huge difference. The farmer should measure the effect of the foliar solution before application and 2 h after. If Brix reading is 2 points higher, the foliar solution is good and could apply on the entire field. A diagram of the Brix index reading should be done for every crop. Around 8 o’clock in the morning, after collecting healthy old mature leaf samples from 10 to 20 plants, they are squeezed on a refractometer.
In the Brix diagram example, the values are starting from 5, increasing to 9 at the first foliar application, but dropping after a few days to 6. After repeating the foliar application, the Brix index increases to 11, but drop in a few more days to 7. Every time when a good foliar application is applied, the Brix readings are higher and has been found that when Brix values are over 12, the plants present a health status that helps them overcome more easily the drought.
A refractometer gives general information about plant health, but for more information including nutrients balance, a sap analysis is necessary. Plant sap analysis provides 21 nutrients parameters values that enable farmers to optimize the crops\' fertilization plan. The information is valuable because the uptake of plant nutrients are revealed in a few hours, the increasing performance can be tracked graphically, similar to the example shown in Figure 3. To a better understanding, one can compare a sap plant analysis with human blood analysis. A plant sap analyze tells the current uptake of nutrients, excesses or deficiencies of nutrients long term before can be seen on a plant leaf, plant reserves of nutrients, nutrient imbalance in soil, what nutrient plant can use at that moment for its own growth, or even fruit quality [67]. Sap analysis laboratory in less than one week will provide the analysis sheet with a fertilizer plan recommended. A balanced mineral uptake increases plants\' health that gets resistant to diseases and insects attack and crosses the drought.
Example of the variation of the Brix index for tomato juice, for a period of 30 days.
Water is the most important nutrient for plants. A source of water is critical for drought years, but as long as the regenerative methods presented are met, plants can cross the draught without an irrigation water source. Knowledge of irrigation water quality is critical in understanding long-term soil management. The most influential water parameter is the salinity measured by electrical conductivity EC [68]. High sodium related to calcium and magnesium contends, in irrigation water, causes surface crusting, pore plugging, swelling, and dispersion of soil clay. The acidity or basicity of irrigation water is expressed as pH. Normal irrigation pH is between 6.5 and 8.5. Specific ions like boron, sulfate, chloride, and nitrate, may affect plants grown. An irrigation water analysis is required.
Keep a crop rotation, with cover crop intermediate, for minimum 3 years after starting your regeneration soil program. After concluding that the soil food web is active and the soil is healthy crop rotation is not as important anymore, since biology will take care of plant nutrition and will suppress diseases, insects attack will decrease.
Aerated compost tea, produced by a compost tea brewer, allow microorganisms to be extracted from compost and multiplied. The result consists in beneficial aerobic microorganism production that provides plants with nutrients and helps build the soil food web [69]. The tea is used for spraying both the leaf and soil. Vermicompost is also used to avoid pathogens. Red worm castings are free of pathogens. There are farmers, involved in regenerative agriculture, buying different products that contained few families of fungi and bacteria, but inside aerated compost tea there are thousands of families. A compost tea brewer can be purchased or can easily be built. All a farmer needs is a tank, an air pump, a hose, and an air splitter distributor. To brew the compost needs clean water, vermicompost, mineral nutrients and bio-stimulants for plants, bacteria and fungi. Brew all these ingredients for 24–36 h, then measure the pH and EC. If pH is higher than 6.5 must add 100–300 ml of vinegar and measure again. When measuring EC a few hours before stopping the air pump, If the values are too low must add more vermicompost. The tea has to be used within 4 h after the air pump stops, to improve the synergetic effect on plants and soil [70].
Good and efficient management of animal grazing can rebuild soil health. This is a way for a healthy ecosystem, farm profitability, human health, food system resilience. Studies that use a complementary approach to animal husbandry with organic farming use found that adopting some grazing strategies could regenerate the soil and make them more profitable. Holistic management of livestock management includes grazing, land, and financial planning and ecological monitoring.
Agroforestry can provide suitable tools for landscape restauration because it can enhance physical, chemical, and biological soil characteristics. Agroforestry is restoring and increasing land productivity because the presence of the trees can fix nitrogen, stabilize the soil, reduce soil erosion, increase fertility, and regulate water available in degraded lands.
Trees increase fertility by retrieving nutrients from deeper soils and adding them to the soil surface through the leaf litter. Because of their deep root system, trees prevent nutrients from leaching, combat soil salinization, and acidification. The use of trees with fixing-nitrogen bacteria is increasing crop productivity. Experiments in Zambia, for example, showed that maize yields increased by 88–190% when grown in an agroforestry system under a canopy of
Trees can reduce and prevent soil erosion planted in windbreaks trees protect soil from erosion and increase yield.
Agroforestry buffer strips increase water runoff, and soil evaporation and increase water infiltration and water retention capacity, helping plants to cross the drought.
Minimum instrumentation required to grow healthy plants and cross the draught more easily is the penetrometer, refractometer, pH-meter, EC-meter. A penetrometer is the first instrument to be used in an agricultural season to measure soil compaction. The penetrometer is a device used to measure the resistance of soil to a vertical force. The penetrometer can determine the depth of the hardpan and help producers to determine if a subsoil is in need.
Refractometer measure Brix index values for liquids. Brix values indicate the total soluble solids. The refractometer is widely used in measuring the quality of the grapefruits and the time to harvest. The refractometer can be used to evaluate the overall assessment of plant health. Healthy plants with a minimum 12 Brix readings are resistant to diseases and insect attacks.
Soil pH-meter is used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of soil. The values give information about the balance of the nutrients found in the soil. However, can be also used as a pH meter for liquids, and determine pH when adding 5 parts distilled water on 1 part of the soil.
EC (electrical conductivity) meter is used especially to estimate salinity levels. A high level of salinity reduces the plant\'s ability to take up water. For assessment is being used 5 parts distilled water and 1 part soil to determine the values of salinity in mSiemens/cm. In clay soils, values are between 0.2 and 1.0 mS/cm, but different plants tolerate different values.
During drought, when air temperature became too warm, plants switch from photosynthesis to photo-respiration and begin consuming their inside proteins. Healthy plants with a waxy sheen, on the leaf surface, have a cooler leaf temperature than plants with a lack nutritional integrity. Foliar applications with teas made from compost, with the addition of 3 L of molasses per hectare, during and after the drought, is a very good practice.
Regenerative agriculture is focused on farming techniques with the primary goal of regenerating the land, particularly increasing the organic composition in order to improve fertility. This strategy conserves and restores soil organic matter, thus, influencing the development and prosperity of micro- and macro-organisms with beneficial results against soil erosion and drought.
Farmers may be forced to adopt unsustainable practices due to economic pressures, as they rarely have enough ability to deal with the conditions imposed by larger corporations, that control prices and credit. As a result, agricultural policies must be implemented at the national level to assist farmers and ensure they are not compelled to deplete the resource that provides them with a means of subsistence.
Regenerative agriculture is based on a holistic approach that places the land at the core of the process to produce efficiently and sustainably a synergy between the soil, the animal world, and the plant world. This enables the development of food chains between all three ecosystems, while the restoration of soil health is ensured by the balance and diversity of species found within the environment.
Climate change is no longer a myth, but a fact and the consequences are becoming increasingly severe every day, influencing the drought phenomena. Every year, topsoil is leaching, soil gets compacted, crusted, loses the ability to supply nutrients and water to plants. Degraded soils, in drought conditions, are not able to support plants with the required water and nutrients, while yields decrease dramatically. In order to reduce the drought effect, farmers have to integrate their use of regenerative agriculture principles and methods, focusing on growing healthy plants and getting rewarded with good yields and increased farm profitability.
Water retention in agricultural lands is associated with soil organic carbon and is influenced by soil health. Soil organic carbon increases the percentage of water retention because carbon acts like a sponge that absorbs moisture. Regenerative management practices such as minimum tillage, cover crops, inoculation with microorganisms, mulching practices, nutrients cycling, maintenance of an optimal balance of organic fertilizers, foliar application, and other methods help to increase soil organic carbon. This strategy restores degraded soils, enhances biomass production, purifies groundwater, reduces the rate of CO2 emissions into the atmosphere and increases the percentage of water being retained in the soil.
An active soil food web is the link between water, nutrients, and plants. Healthy soils have an active soil food web that presents many benefits such as diseases suppression, nutrient retention, improve soil structure, making mineral nutrients available to plants, decomposition of toxic materials, improve crop quality. Soil food web works in synergy with plants and helps crops to overcome more easily drought or floods.
The primary goal of this technology is to grow healthy plants on a worldwide scale. Healthy plants achieve synergies with the soil and improve its health, recover carbon in the soil, increase water retention, and improve soil structure and nutritional status. Drought years will be more profitable for farmers using regenerative agriculture technology, since organically grown cereal prices will be higher, resulting in greater average yields. In a short period of time, farmers using regenerative agriculture technology will spend less money, yields will grow, profitability will increase, soils will regenerate, and drought years will become less risky.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. 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