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Conservation and Sustainable Use of Cryptolepis sanguinolenta

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Frank Opoku-Agyemang, Jessica Naa Offeibea Dodoo, Theophilus Elorm Hlomador, Kathleen Gilday and Jacqueline Naalamle Amissah

Submitted: 31 August 2022 Reviewed: 22 September 2022 Published: 30 October 2022

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.108249

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Herbs and Spices - New Advances

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Abstract

Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (Cs) is a medicinal plant, indigenous to the West Africa sub-region and has been utilized in Ghana to treat malaria for generations. Besides being used as an antimalarial treatment in Ghana, Cs has been noted as being used in the US to treat Babesia, Lyme disease (Borreliosis burgdorferi), Bartonella, among others. The plant contains several indoloquinoline alkaloids, mainly concentrated in its root system, giving the plant its antimicrobial, antihyperglycemic, and anticancer properties. However, the destructive harvesting of the entire plant, along with its root system, is not sustainable over the long term and has already resulted in a substantial decrease in wild populations, threatening its long-term potential and survivability. This book chapter will discuss its uses, conservation strategies and cultivation protocols developed for Cs to ensure a reliable supply of plant material as well as its sustainable utilization.

Keywords

  • cultivation
  • malaria
  • medicinal plants
  • bioactive compounds

1. Introduction

Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (Lindl.) Schlecter is a scrambling thin twinning stemmed and flowering shrub belonging to the Apocynaceae family [1]. This all-important medicinal herb is classified into kingdom Plantae, phylum Magnoliophyta, class Equisetopsida, subclass Magnoliidae, order Gentianles, sub-family Periplocaceae, genus Cryptolepis and species sanguinolenta [2]. It is indigenous to West African countries like Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Congo-Brazzaville, with reports of its existence in the Central African Republic, DR Congo, Uganda, Tanzania and Angola [3, 4]. It is mainly found in tropical rainforests, thickets, and mountainous ecologies usually near water, from sea level up to 850 m altitude [3, 5]. However, it does not grow well in areas with abundant shade, mushy and salty swamps of coastal regions.

In Ghana, it is commonly known as ‘Nibima’ in Twi, ‘Kadze’ in Ewe, ‘Nurubima’ among the Guans, ‘Gangnamau’ in Hausa, Ghanaian quinine and yellow dye root [4, 6]. C. sanguinolenta is mainly found growing in mountainous areas such as along the slopes of the Akwapim and Aburi mountains [5, 7]. It is also found in Ghana’s Ashanti Region, where it serves as the main vegetative cover for deserted farmlands around Lake Bosomtwe. The plant also thrives well in the woody savannah region and areas with a good supply of sunlight and water [4].

The cut stem contains an orange-colored sap that becomes red upon drying [8]. It has yellow flowers with tightly twisted petals. This open up to display a five star-shaped flower which develops into pods and matures at 9–10 months after planting (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Anthesis to pod formation stages of C. sanguinolenta taken in the Sinna garden, Department of Crop Science, University of Ghana. Tightly twisted petals (a), unwound flower petals (b), completely opened five star-shaped flower (c), newly developed pods (d & e), fully formed pod (f).

In our eight years of working with C. sanguinolenta, insect pollinators have not been observed around its flowers, and this confirms our postulation that it is self-pollinated. Each plant produces an average of 90 boomerang-shaped pods which contains approximately 30 seeds. Its seeds are small (10–12 mm long), reddish-brown in color and oval in shape with a cluster of silky hairs fixed to one end of the seeds [4, 9]. The leaves are opposite, simple and petiolate with an uneven base. Its multi-root system, is found to contain high concentrations of the major alkaloid cryptolepine, and is the part of commercial value used in the preparation of herbal decoctions and tinctures for the treatment of several diseases including malaria.

The World Health Organization (WHO), reported about 241 million malaria cases worldwide with Africa having the highest incidence of about 228 million cases [10]. Sub-Saharan Africa alone, contributed to about 96% of global malaria deaths out of the 600,000 reported death cases [10]. In the quest to eradicate malaria, medicinal plants with potential anti-malaria properties such as C. sanguinolenta, a major medicinal plant with a long record of use in the treatment of malaria especially in Ghana [9, 11], should be given the needed scientific recognition. In developed countries such as the USA, this herb is appreciated for its anti-bacterial, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, anti-fungal and anti-inflammatory properties and is been used to treat Babesia, Lyme disease (Borreliosis burgdorferi), and Bartonella [12]. Recently it was recognized as a potential treatment for tick-borne diseases in the USA and Europe.

The high demand for this all-important medicinal plant has resulted in its overexploitation from the wild in non-sustainable ways [12]. It is therefore important to develop and adopt domestication and conservation strategies to ensure sustainable production and supply of C. sanguinolenta planting material. This chapter discusses active compounds, uses, conservation strategies and the prediction of suitable commercial production areas of C. sanguinolenta in Ghana.

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2. Uses and active compounds in C. sanguinolenta

C. sanguinolenta, is recognized for its antimalarial [13], antimicrobial [14], anti-hyperglycemic [15, 16], and anti-amoebal properties. In the case of its use for the treatment of malaria, the bioactive indole alkaloid cryptolepine which is the major constituent of the root bark. It is reported to possess an anti-plasmodial property among other antiparasitic [3], anti-thrombotic [17], noradrenergic [18], vasodilator [17], hypoglycaemic [19, 20] properties. It also has anti-diabetic, anti-pyretic, anti-inflammatory, hypotensive, anti-thrombotic, and anti-plasmodial properties [2].

An aqueous extract of the roots yields a N-methyl derivative of quindoline and indoloquinoline alkaloids, mainly cryptolepine [21]. The roots also contain high concentration of indologuinoline and cryptolepine which has the most potent anti-plasmodial activity [22, 23, 24].

Cryptolepine was first isolated in 1931 by Delvaux and later from collected C. sanguinolenta accessions in Ghana [23] and Nigeria [25]. Several structurally related alkaloids found in the plant included, cryptoquindoline cryptoheptine, biscryptolepine, 11-hydroxycryptolepine, quindolinone, isocryptolepine (Cryptosanguinolentine), neocryptolepine, quindoline, and cryptospirolepine have also been isolated [21]. In prepared aqueous root extract used for the treatment of various ailments, only cryptolepine is isolated [3]. In the ethanolic root extract, the cryptolepine isomers called neocryptolepine, biscryptolepine and cryptoquindoline which are dimeric alkaloids have been isolated [26]. Research into the synthesis of the plant alkaloid cryptolepine and the development of its analogues as a way of understanding the mechanisms into its pharmacological effects have been carried out [27].

Among indigenous inhabitants where biomedicines are not readily available, herbal plants are usually the only source of remedy to treat various ailments [28]. The medicinal plant industry does not only play a major role in satisfying the health care needs of the populace but serves as a viable source of income to manufacturers and collectors of the raw herbal plant materials.

In African, C. sanguinolenta is widely use in the treatment of various ailments especially countries in the West African sub region. Traditional healers in Guinea Bissau use the root extract and the powdered leaf to treat fever, hepatitis and cicatrizant of wounds respectively. The boiled leaf is used as an infusion for the treatment of malaria [29]. In Uganda the prepared roots are used in the treatments of measles, hernia, snake bites and hypertension [3]. In Nigeria, the root is macerated to treat rheumatism and urogenital infection. In Ghana, the aqueous root extract is used to treat malaria, urinary, and upper respiratory tract infections [30]. It is also used for the treatment of colic, stomach complaints, amoebic dysentery, diabetes and diarrhea in other West African countries such as Senegal and DR Congo [31, 32, 33]. Due to its general use by traditional healers, it has been included in several herbal products sold on the market in Ghana, such as Class Herbaquine, Malaherb, Nibima, Phyto-Laria and Malacure. C. sanguinolenta is used in Central and West Africa for the treatment of infectious diseases such as amoebiasis and Covid-19 [34]. It is presently studied in clinical trials for the treatment of COVID-19 in Ghana [35, 36]. A recent study by Amissah et al. [12] reported that cryptolepine extracts from plants aged between 9 and 12 months had the most antiplasmodial activity and drug selectivity index against Plasmodium falciparum Dd2. These cryptolepine extracts were identified for the effective management of cancer due to its cytotoxicity to Jurkat leukemia cell lines [12].

Besides its medicinal properties, the length of C. sanguinolenta’s branches and twining nature enables its use as a rope to construct houses in Uganda [2]. In addition, the pulverized roots contain yellow pigment, which serves as a yellow dye in the leather, textiles, and fabric industry [3, 37].

2.1 Role of C. sanguinolenta as herbal medicine in the United States

An online survey was conducted in 2018 among 133 medicinal plant practitioners and clinics in collaboration with Woodland Essence LLC Ltd. (https://woodlandessence.com) to assess the use of C. sanguinolenta root extracts along with the quantities required in the United States of America. Medicinal plant practitioners were asked; 1) whether they knew the plant 2) whether they use the plant in their practice, clinic or personal protocol? 3) what conditions they use C. sanguinolenta to treat and 4) how much of the plant is used per month.

Findings from the survey revealed that majority of the respondents (131) representing 98.5%, were familiar with C. sanguinolenta whereas only 2 respondents representing 1.5% were not. It was revealed that 133 respondents (95.5%) used C. sanguinolenta in their practice, clinic or personal protocol whereas 6 respondents (4.5%) answering that they did not.

Regarding its uses, respondents mentioned Babesia (73.7%; 98 respondents), followed by Lyme disease (Borreliosis burgdorferi) (57.9%; 77 respondents), Bartonella (43.6%; 58 respondents), and as a systemic anti-bacterial (33.8%; 45 respondents) as the top four (4) conditions Cs is used to treat. Other conditions treated with C. sanguinolenta included anti-fungi infection (17.3%; 23 respondents), methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) (14.3%; 19 respondents), urinary tract infections (11.3%; 15 respondents), external treatments (6.0%; 8 respondents), cancer (1.5%; 2 respondents), diabetes (1.5%; 2 respondents), and hepatitis (0.8%; 1 respondent) (Figure 2). Twenty-four (24) respondents representing 18.1% mentioned that C. sanguinolenta was used to treat conditions such as mold and deep lung infections, general antimicrobial, systemic anti-viral, prophylaxis with embedded deer tick, strep infections, gut bacterial outgrowth and recurring gastrointestinal (GI) tract infections (Figure 2). According to the survey, medicinal plant practitioners and clinics testified to the efficiency of C. sanguinolenta in treating the medical conditions listed in (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Responses to the health conditions treated with C. sanguinolenta.

“I suffered for over 8 months with recurrent Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections in the outer and middle ears. I tried over 6 different antibiotics (all resistant) and was getting ready to start IV antibiotics. My functional medicine practitioner had me take C. sanguinolenta in tincture form. Within a couple of weeks, I was cured! I have had a couple of flare up and the same protocol does the trick, and quick.” (Respondent No. 12, personal communication).

“It is the only thing that has been effective in treating long-term staph infection.” (Respondent No. 9, personal communication).

“It is literally saving my life from chronic GI tract bacterial infections, where no other medicine helps” (Respondent No. 11, personal communication).

Regarding dosage use, some respondents indicated using 40 drops twice a day for 14 days on and 14 days off (Respondent No. 25), 3/4 of a dropper of the CSA formula (Respondent No. 30) while another respondent (Respondent No. 41), reported its use in combination with other medicinal plants such as Sida acuta and Alchornea cordifolia as per Steven Buhner’s protocols [38]. Respondent No. 51 indicated that patients usually take 1table spoon three times a day for approximately 4 months. In response to the duration of its use, respondent No. 50 reported a cycle of usage of 1–4 months on and 6 months to a year off.

Monthly quantities (ounces/milliliters) of C. sanguinolenta used by the respondents were indicated as follows; 1–4 ounces/ (54.9%; 73 respondents), followed by 4–40 ounces (34.6%, 46 respondents). Five percent (5.0%) and 2.3% of the respondents reported the use of larger quantities of between 40 and 162 and > 162 ounces respectively (Figure 3).

Figure 3.

Quantities of C. sanguinolenta used per month as indicated by respondents.

Findings from the survey point to the multipurpose use of C. sanguinolenta to treat ailments other than malaria including Babesia, Lyme disease (Borreliosis burgdorferi) and Bartonella among others. This confirms the importance of the herb on the US market, cementing the need for its conservation by encouraging its cultivation. C. sanguinolenta has since been tested with other botanical and natural products used by Lyme disease patients and found to be very active in vitro against stationary phase Borrelia burgdorferi [39] and Babesia duncani [40].

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3. Conservation strategies

The local and international demand for C. sanguinolenta raises concerns about its continued availability especially since its root system is the part of economic importance. Conservation of plant species require the adoption of in-situ and ex-situ strategies complementing each other [41]. Ex-situ conservation strategies consist of using biotechnology-based methods such as tissue culture, cryopreservation and molecular diagnostics to maintain biological diversity outside a plant’s natural habitat. On the other hand, in-situ conservation ensures that wild plant species are kept in their natural adaptive environment in order to ensure their maintenance and recovery in their natural habitats. The major concern with ex-situ conservation of medicinal plants is the risk of the plants losing the potency of their bioactive compounds. There is also the possibility of selecting their reproductive materials such as seeds for storage in seed banks for later use [41]. Seeds are referred to as the storehouse of plants genetic nature and a ready source of planting materials [42]. However, seeds of C. sanguinolenta have a low germinability which might be attributed to seed dormancy, storage conditions, inherent properties and or a thick seed coat (REF).

3.1 Seed storage environment and storage period effects on the germination ability of C. sanguinolenta seeds

The long-term conservation and domestication of C. sanguinolenta plant genetic resources require essential steps such as storage of seeds as ex situ germplasm. Storage of seeds under suitable environmental conditions is essential for the preservation of genetic integrity, maintaining seed viability, normal metabolism of seed and free from various environmental stresses [43, 44]. Some factors that may affect seed quality include temperature, insects and biotic stresses [45]. However, the most widely important factor which affects seed quality is the storage period [46]. According to [47], the viability of seeds is hugely influenced by the period of seed storage since the reduction in seed viability and increase storage period are directly proportional. Prolonged storage period can decrease seed germinability as result of the disintegration of the seed’s metabolic system [48].

The present study was undertaken to test the effect of storage periods under different storage conditions on seed germination in C. sanguinolenta. To the best of our knowledge there is the first scientific report on the effect of storage periods and conditions on seed germination in C. sanguinolenta.

Freshly harvested C. sanguinolenta seeds from mature dried pods were used for the study. A 10 × 3 factorial experiments arranged in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with three (3) replications were used. Treatments consisted of two factors; Storage Conditions [Fridge (2–4°C), Room temperature (26° to 29°C), Freezer (−12° to −15°C)] and storage periods [0-week (freshly harvested seed), 2-week, 4-week, 6-week, 8-week, 10-week and 12-week] replicated three times. Germination measurements (germinability, synchronization, uniformity, mean germination rate, mean germination time, and co-efficient of variation) were calculated [49, 50].

The study identified storing freshly harvested C. sanguinolenta seeds (from mature dried pods) for 2 to 6 weeks as a suitable storage period for improving the germinability of seeds (Table 1). It has been observed severally that matured seeds of this plant when sown immediately after harvest yielded very low germination percentages. This observation corroborates the current study.

Seed Storage AgeG (%)MT (Days)MRCV1 (%)
Control25.4320.0338.2
2WBS62.7200.0532.0
4WBS53.0260.0556.3
6WBS50.8250.0430.5
8WBS9.2190.0522.5
10WBS25.8160.0735.6
12WBS39.2130.0719.7
P ≤ 0.05<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001

Table 1.

Mean germination measurements of C. sanguinolenta seeds under different storage periods.

G = germinability, MT = mean germination time, CV1 = coefficient of variation of the germination time, MR = mean germination rate, WBS = Weeks Before Sowing.

Further evaluation indicated that seeds stored under freezer conditions prior to sowing produced higher germination percentage compared to those stored in the fridge and at room temperatures (Table 2).

Seed Storage ConditionsG (%)MT (Days)MRCV1 (%)
Freezer (FZ)41.8210.0532.2
Fridge (F)33.8220.0532.7
Room Temperature (RT)38.5210.0535.8
P ≤ 0.05<0.0010.7660.7320.325

Table 2.

Mean germination measurements of C. sanguinolenta seeds under different storage conditions.

G = germinability, MT = mean germination time, CV1 = coefficient of variation of the germination time, MR = mean germination rate.

Results from this study identified significant interaction between seed storage periods and storage conditions on germinability of C. sanguinolenta seeds where seeds stored for 4-weeks in the freezer prior to sowing recorded the highest germination (Table 3). Hence, freshly harvested C. sanguinolenta seeds are recommended to be stored at either room or freezer temperature conditions for a maximum of six weeks before sowing to achieve a higher germination percentage.

Seed Storage ConditionsG (%)MT (Days)MRCV1 (%)
Control*FZ25.7320.0338.2
2WBS * FZ63.8210.0537.6
4WBS * FZ73.3240.0645.8
6WBS * FZ48.2210.0529.4
8WBS * FZ12.5210.0518.2
10WBS * FZ23.2160.0735.2
12WBS * FZ46.0140.0721.0
Control * F25.7320.0338.2
2WBS * F55.0200.0529.5
4WBS * F36.2290.0449.3
6WBS * F47.2240.0431.0
8WBS * F10.0230.0430.0
10WBS * F28.9140.0734.6
12WBS * F33.3130.0816.1
Control * RT25.0320.0338.2
2WBS * RT69.4200.0528.9
4WBS * RT49.5240.0573.8
6WBS * RT57.1290.0431.0
8WBS * RT5.0150.0719.4
10WBS * RT25.4160.0737.1
12WBS * RT38.2130.0722.0
P ≤ 0.05<0.0010.4800.3440.039

Table 3.

Mean germination measurements of C. sanguinolenta seeds under different storage periods and storage conditions.

G = germinability, MT = mean germination time, CV1 = coefficient of variation of the germination time, MR = mean germination rate. WBS = Weeks Before Sowing, FZ = Freezer, F = Fridge, RT = Room Temperature, WBS = Weeks Before Sowing.

3.2 Priming effects on seed germination and seedling establishment of C. sanguinolenta

Seed priming is the process of hydrating seeds in water or synthetic compounds to kick start metabolic processes of germination and for the physiological conditioning of plants [51, 52]. Seed priming techniques include osmo-priming, bio priming, halo priming, hydro and matric priming [53]. Some factors influence the priming process and time, seedling vigor, plant development, and germination rate which include; plant species, priming duration, temperature, priming media, oxygen supply, aeration, light and storage conditions [54]. Seed priming provides faster and uniform germination [55] (Dawood, 2018), controls seed dormancy [56], increases percentage germination [57], increases water use efficiency in plants [58], reduces seed borne disease incidence [59], and increases crop yield [60].

Seed priming has been shown to offer the above-mentioned advantages in different crops such as wheat [61], sweet corn [62], mung bean [63], barley [64], lentil [65], and cucumber [66]. Hence, priming of C. sanguinolenta seeds could be a promising and effective technique in promoting germination and seedling establishment. A study on the effect of priming on germinability of seeds, growth and development of C. sanguinolenta seedlings was carried out.

A Completely Randomized Design with nine treatments (dH20, 0.5% KNO3, 0.1% KNO3, 1% KNO3, 70% Ethanol +50% Bleach, −0.2PEG 8000, −0.5PEG 8000, 3% Hydrogen Peroxide, Control), replicated three times was used. Germination measurements (germinability, synchronization, uniformity, mean germination rate, mean germination time, and co-efficient of variation) were obtained on approximately 3 months old seeds [49, 50]. Seedling parameters (including; plant height, plant girth, number of leaves, and chlorophyll content) were measured. Data was analyzed using GenStat software 19th edition.

The study identified 0.1% KNO3 as a promising priming agent for improving the germinability of C. sanguinolenta seeds, however this was not significantly different from the unprimed (control) seeds (Table 4). Seeds primed with hydrogen peroxide rather recorded the lowest germination percentage.

TreatmentGMTCV1MR
0.1% KNO334.671940.500.05
−0.2 PEG 800017.332734.840.04
−0.5 PEG 800020.002625.080.04
H2O24.07180.100.06
70% E + 50% B29.332235.680.05
1% KNO333.332331.290.04
0.5 KNO329.332034.070.05
dH2O26.672638.300.04
Control41.332034.360.05
P ≤ 0.050.0090.3330.0080.235

Table 4.

Mean seed germination measurements of Cryptolepis sanguinolenta per priming treatment.

G = germinability, MT = mean germination time, CV1 = coefficient of variation of the germination time, MR = mean germination rate,

Further evaluation of C. sanguinolenta seedlings indicated that the different priming agents used significantly influenced the plant height and number of leaves of the seedlings.

Distilled water treated seeds had the highest seedling parameters except for chlorophyll content in the leaves (Figure 4). Hence, priming seeds with distilled water could be used to improve seedling parameters of C. sanguinolenta, Other priming agents such as KNO3 could be used to improve the germinability of the seeds.

Figure 4.

Mean plant height (a) and mean number of leaves (B) of Cryptolepis sanguinolenta seedlings at 8,10,12 and 14 weeks after sowing. The bars illustrated on the graph are LSD bars. KNO3 (potassium nitrate), PEG (polyethylene glycol 8000), 70% E + 50% B (70% ethanol +50% bleach).

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4. Cultivation of C. sanguinolenta: Developing cultivation protocols (cropping cycle) and predicting suitable areas in Ghana for cultivation

In Ghana, C. sanguinolenta is adaptable in geographical areas with optimum rainfall such as the Akwapim and Aburi mountains [7]. It also thrives well in areas with a good supply of sunlight and water [4]. Wild harvesting for the treatment of malaria for decades has hugely contributed to the rapid decline in C. sanguinolenta populations and supply of this medicinal plant. This prompted the development of cultivation protocols including a cropping cycle for the species [9] as a conservation strategy to ensure sustainable supply.

To predict suitable cultivation areas for C. sanguinolenta in Ghana, GPS coordinates collected over an 8-year period from locations of wild germplasm across the different natural habitats were used. Additional data sources included; daily rainfall data from 33 meteorological stations in Ghana, temperature data from climate-data.org and soil data from the EUROPEAN SOIL DATA CENTRE (ESDAC). Using the ArcGIS (version 10.6) Geo spatial software, the geographic data were analyzed by loading a layer of the map of Ghana open street map (OSM standard) and a digital elevation model (DEM). The GPS coordinates were superimposed on the map of Ghana. Based on 194 GPS records and 3 selected environmental variables (rainfall, temperature and soil classification), the suitable areas for the cultivation of C. sanguinolenta were predicted using spatial analyses in ArcGIS. The analysis identified Haplic Alisols (ALha), Lithic Leptosols (LPli) and Haplic Lixisols (LXha) as suitable soil classes for the cultivation of C. sanguinolenta (Figure 5).

Figure 5.

Soil suitability map for C. sanguinolenta.

These soil classes were found in the Ashanti, Bono, Eastern and Volta regions of the country. The suitable average temperature from collection areas which is optimum for the cultivation of C. sanguinolenta ranges between 27 and 31°C (Figure 6).

Figure 6.

Average maximum annual temperature for Ghana showing optimum temperature ranges suitable for the cultivation of C. sanguinolenta.

The analysis identified the mean annual rainfall 1100-1550 mm as a suitable rainfall amount for the optimum cultivation of C. sanguinolenta (Figure 7).

Figure 7.

Average annual rainfall distribution for Ghana showing optimum rainfall ranges suitable for the cultivation of C. sanguinolenta.

It was reported from the analysis that the predicted production areas suitable for the cultivation of C. sanguinolenta in Ghana had the following combined characteristics; clayey, acidic and shallow soils, temperature ranges of 27-31°C and mean annual rainfall of 1100–1550 mm.

Hence, fields for the domestication and cultivation of C. sanguinolenta can be established at these predicted suitable areas in the Ashanti, Bono, Eastern and Volta regions of Ghana for its production (Figure 8).

Figure 8.

Production areas for the cultivation of C. sanguinolenta in Ghana.

These predictable areas coupled with suitable conservation methods will ensure sustainable production of C. sanguinolenta thus ensuring its availability for long term use.

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5. Conclusions

C. sanguinolenta was found to be used in the treatment of ailments other than malaria, pointing to its importance as a medicinal plant. To ensure sustainable supply of plant materials and prevent the plant from being extinct, conservation and domestication protocols developed are recommended for its sustainable large-scale cultivation. It is therefore imperative that proper management of high value medicinal plants through conservation receive the necessary attention to guarantee their long-term availability.

Small-scale farmers who also double as collectors of C. sanguinolenta from the wild can be encouraged to go into its cultivation as a way to supplement their income and improve their livelihoods. The predicted sites for cultivation of C. sanguinolenta opens the way for multi-location evaluation of the species to identify agro-ecological niches for cultivation. Although efforts have been made to investigate the properties, content and activity of bioactive compounds in medicinal plants, areas such as its conservation methods remain unexplored. In addition, further studies are needed to clarify the physiological and molecular mechanisms underpinning seed germination and dormancy in C. sanguinolenta.

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Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Written By

Frank Opoku-Agyemang, Jessica Naa Offeibea Dodoo, Theophilus Elorm Hlomador, Kathleen Gilday and Jacqueline Naalamle Amissah

Submitted: 31 August 2022 Reviewed: 22 September 2022 Published: 30 October 2022

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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