Advantages and disadvantages of some commonly used polymers in NCMs [10].
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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If we were to reheat the polymer again, we could re-shape it once again. Modern thermosoftening plastics soften at temperatures anywhere between 65 ºC and 200 ºC. In this state, they can be moulded in a number of ways. They differ from thermoset plastics in that they can be returned to this plastic state by reheating. They are then fully recyclable because thermosoftening plastics do not have covalent bonds between neighbouring polymer molecules. Methods of shaping the softened plastic include: injection moulding, rotational moulding, extrusion, vacuum forming, and compression moulding. The scope of this book covers three areas of thermosoftening plastics, thermoplastic materials, and their characterization. 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Achilias",publishedDate:"February 26th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9319.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7023,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:30,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:44,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 8th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 24th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 23rd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 11th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 11th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"180256",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Gülşen",middleName:null,surname:"Akın Evingür",slug:"gulsen-akin-evingur",fullName:"Gülşen Akın Evingür",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180256/images/system/180256.jpeg",biography:"Gülşen Akın Evingür graduated from Physics Department at the Yıldız Technical University (YTU, İstanbul, Turkey) in 1996. She completed her Master of Science degree in 2002 at the same department. The titled of her thesis was 'Electrical Properties of Polystyrene”. She received her PhD from Physics Engineering at İstanbul Technical University in 2011. The title of the thesis was 'Phase Transitions in Composite Gels”. She worked as an Assistant Professor between 2011 and 2018, and she is currently working as an Assosciate Professor at Pîrî Reis University, Istanbul, Turkey. She has been engaged in various academic studies in the fields of composites and their mechanical, optical, electrical, and acoustic properties. She has authored more than 60 SCI articles, 92 proceedings in national and international journals, respectively. 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Habilitation thesis on solid state physics was accepted in 1979. He became Associate Professor at Hacettepe University in 1979. \nHe visited ICTP Trieste, Italy as Visiting Scientist between June and August 1980. Between 1980 and 1981 he was a Visiting Scientist at the Technical University of Gdansk, Poland. \nHe worked as Visiting Professor at the Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Canada between 1981 and 1988. \nHe was appointed as full Professor at the Department of Physics, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey and worked there between 1988 and 2005. \nHe became an Elected Member of the Turkish Academy of Sciences (TÜBA) in January 1995. \nHe became the Dean of School of Arts and Sciences at the Istanbul Technical University in 1997. \nHe received the Science Award from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) in 1998. Prof. Pekcan was elected as Member of the Council of TÜBA in 2001 and Scientific Board of TÜBİTAK in 2003, respectively. \nHe was Head of the Department of Physics, and then became Dean of School of Arts and Sciences at the Işık University between 2005 and 2008.\nHe worked as Dean at the School of Art and Sciences, Kadir Has University (2008—2012). \nNow he is Professor at the Department of Bioinformatics and Genetics, Kadir Has University. Since 2012 he is a member of Science Academy. In the last few years Prof. Pekcan’s work covers mostly the area of biopolymers and nanocomposites.",institutionString:"Kadir Has University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Kadir Has University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"95620",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitris S.",middleName:null,surname:"Achilias",slug:"dimitris-s.-achilias",fullName:"Dimitris S. 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He has participated in several research projects and holds three patents.",institutionString:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1415",title:"Polymer Chemistry",slug:"polymer-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"64975",title:"Processing and Properties of Plastic Lumber",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82819",slug:"processing-and-properties-of-plastic-lumber",totalDownloads:1432,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Plastic residue can be processed into composites using wood flour, mineral fillers, plant or synthetic fibers to obtain plastic lumber, a substitute material for natural wood. The composition and processing conditions are largely responsible for the final characteristics of the plastic lumber. Factors such as density, particle size and moisture content in the material to be processed require extruders with specific technical characteristics, in order to reduce the residence time of the plastic inside the equipment, maintain a constant feed rate and ensure good degassing and homogenization of the components. The composites can be manufactured using single-screw, co- or counter-rotating conical or parallel twin-screw extruders. Plastic lumber exhibits different physical and mechanical properties from natural wood, including lower stiffness (elastic modulus) and superior weathering resistance.",signatures:"Fernanda A. dos Santos, Leonardo B. Canto, Ana Lúcia N. da Silva, Leila Lea Yuan Visconte and Elen B. A. Vasques Pacheco",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64975",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64975",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69518",title:"Multi-Field Synergy Process for Polymer Plasticization: A Novel Design Concept for Screw to Facilitate Phase-to-Phase Thermal and Molecular Mobility",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89616",slug:"multi-field-synergy-process-for-polymer-plasticization-a-novel-design-concept-for-screw-to-facilitat",totalDownloads:605,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A novel concept of screw design has been proposed considering the multi-field synergy principle to facilitate phase-to-phase thermal and molecular mobility; subsequently, a torsion element has been designed. This new screw design allows an innovative and effective way to resolve a growing challenge in polymer process engineering, especially for nanocomposites or biopolymers, that is, an inadequate control of mass transfer and thermal management for multicomponent melt flows through narrow channels during extrusion or injection. The adaption of torsion element in the screw facilitated the plasticization mixing and thermal distribution in polymer melts, and the torsional flow induced by the torsion elements shows a synergistic effect on the melt-phase mass flow and the thermal flow field. The latter effect enhances the mass and heat transfer of heterogeneous polymer systems and realizes effective heat management to achieve properly uniform temperature field.",signatures:"Ranran Jian, Hongbo Chen and Weimin Yang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69518",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69518",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69302",title:"Cellulose-Based Thermoplastics and Elastomers via Controlled Radical Polymerization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89436",slug:"cellulose-based-thermoplastics-and-elastomers-via-controlled-radical-polymerization",totalDownloads:889,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter is concerned with the recent progress in cellulose-based thermoplastic plastics and elastomers via homogeneous controlled radical polymerizations (CRPs), including atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization, and nitroxide-mediated polymerization (NMP). The first section is a brief introduction of cellulose and cellulose graft copolymers. The second section is recent developments in cellulose graft copolymers synthesized by CRPs. The third part is a perspective on design and applications of novel cellulose-based materials. The combination of cellulose and CRPs can provide new opportunities for sustainable materials ranging from thermoplastics to elastomers, and these fascinating materials can find a pyramid of applications in our daily life in the near future.",signatures:"Feng Jiang, Fenfen Wang, Chenqian Pan and Yanxiong Fang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69302",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69302",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68596",title:"Thermoplastic Recycling: Properties, Modifications, and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81614",slug:"thermoplastic-recycling-properties-modifications-and-applications",totalDownloads:1561,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The increasing rate of plastic waste generation coupled with undesirable disposal, especially in the urban areas, has resulted to environmental threat in the globe which has been attributed to legislation, poor biodegradability, economic growth, rural to urban migration, increase in consumption, and standard or cost of living. This chapter will focus on overview, properties of virgin and recycled thermoplastics, recycling techniques, and applications of different types of thermoplastic articles such as HDPE, LDPE, PVC, PET, and polypropylene (PP) with improved properties based on modifications using eco-friendly materials for sustainable applications in order to save human existence from the menace of environmental and economic issues.",signatures:"Taofik Oladimeji Azeez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68596",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68596",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"67840",title:"Thermal Resistance Properties of Polyurethanes and Its Composites",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87039",slug:"thermal-resistance-properties-of-polyurethanes-and-its-composites",totalDownloads:1325,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The nature of starting materials and the condition of polyurethane (PU) preparation are regarded as the main general parameters that determine PU thermal resistance. The effect of structure and presence of additives were identified as the major general factors on this regard. Structural factors include phase microstructure, i.e., chemical structure, proportion, and segregation of soft and hard segments, polyol type (petrochemical or natural oil-based), isocyanate and chain extender type, and thermoplasticity of PU. In respect to the effect of additives, the incorporation of fillers is the most direct strategy to increase PU heat resistance. With respect to fiber additives, in general a positive effect is found on improving thermal resistance, although this generalization could not apply, considering the large number of different PU and environmental conditions of usage.",signatures:"Javier Carlos Quagliano Amado",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67840",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67840",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"64235",title:"Recycled Polypropylene-Coffee Husk and Coir Coconut Biocomposites: Morphological, Mechanical, Thermal and Environmental Studies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81635",slug:"recycled-polypropylene-coffee-husk-and-coir-coconut-biocomposites-morphological-mechanical-thermal-a",totalDownloads:1215,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this work, biocomposites based on recycled polypropylene (r-PP) and two different natural fibers (coffee husk-CHF and coconut coir-CCF fibers) were prepared using extrusion and injection molding processes. Also, the addition of maleated polypropylene (MAPP) as a coupling agent on the biocomposites was explored. Recycled polypropylene and its biocomposites were tested following ASTM standards in order to evaluate tensile and flexural mechanical properties. Also, thermal behavior and the morphology of these materials have been studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and scanning electronic microscopy (SEM). The experimental results showed that the addition of CHF and CCF to the r-PP resulted in an increase in the flexural modulus and thermal properties of the composites but resulted in poor impact properties. Thermal characterization showed that CHF possesses a better thermal stability compared to CCF. However, both fibers act as nucleating agents and generate an increase in the thermal stability of the r-PP phase. Finally, it was observed that addition of 4% of MAPP significantly improved the mechanical strength and impact behavior of the biocomposites. Regarding environmental issues, a cradle to gate life cycle assessment was made in order to define the carbon footprint of the materials.",signatures:"Miguel Ángel Hidalgo-Salazar, Juan Pablo Correa-Aguirre, Juan Manuel Montalvo-Navarrete, Diego Fernando Lopez-Rodriguez and Andrés Felipe Rojas-González",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64235",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64235",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7363",title:"Cellulose",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed333d89928591f1a4b2710130fddee3",slug:"cellulose",bookSignature:"Alejandro Rodríguez Pascual and María E. 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\r\n\tOver these last decades, ionic liquids were found suitable in the world of industry. Due to their specific properties such as very low volatility, high thermal stability, and their ability to dissolve a wide variety of compounds, this family of solvents appears to meet the rigorous criteria of industrial applications. Among others, ionic liquids appear to be efficient for gas capture, biomass pretreatment, separation problems, electrochemistry; they are also used in electrolytes, as lubricants, as catalysts, or as antistatic agents.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book welcomes topics related to biomass pretreatment, separation processes, analytical chemistry, energy applications, and biomedicine applications using ionic liquids. A short chapter will be devoted to the physicochemical properties of ionic liquids as well as to the predictive models for the estimation of thermodynamic properties useful in the industry. This book is recommended for researchers to whom ionic liquids are an area of interest.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-222-3",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-221-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-223-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"b0b5157bf9b4aa15409335e4e08f1506",bookSignature:"Dr. Fabrice Mutelet",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11558.jpg",keywords:"Extraction, Cellulose, Liquid-Liquid Extraction, Desulfurization, Stationary Phases, Chromatography, Energy Storage, Heat Pump, COSMO Approaches, Phase Diagrams, Drug Delivery, Nanocarriers",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 12th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 29th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Associate Professor of Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics, Dr. Mulet received his Ph.D. degree from the University of Lorraine in 2001. He is a reviewer for over 15 leading international journals and has published more than 90 journal publications.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"186677",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabrice",middleName:null,surname:"Mutelet",slug:"fabrice-mutelet",fullName:"Fabrice Mutelet",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186677/images/system/186677.jpg",biography:"Fabrice Mutelet is an associate professor in Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics at Ecole Nationale Superieure des Industries Chimiques – University of Lorraine (ENSIC-LRGP), France. He received his doctorate in 2001 from the University of Lorraine. He is a reviewer for more than twenty leading international journals and has published more than 120 research papers. His research interests include suitable sustainable solvents for chemical processes, the reduction of CO2 emissions, and the measurement and correlation of phase diagrams for complex systems.",institutionString:"University of Lorraine",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Laboratoire Réactions et Génie des Procédés",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"418641",firstName:"Iva",lastName:"Ribic",middleName:null,title:"M.Sc.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418641/images/16830_n.png",email:"iva.r@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"80312",title:"Introductory Chapter: Acoustic Emission",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102625",slug:"introductory-chapter-acoustic-emission",body:'Acoustic emission (AE) is a relatively new non-destructive Testing (NDT) technique. Structural testing and assessment, material characterization, and process monitoring are three important application areas of AE. A comprehensive introduction to the AE technique can be found in [1].
The AE technique is one of the most reliable NDT techniques for detecting and monitoring damages and defects in different structures. AE has been effectively employed for fracture behavior monitoring and fatigue detection in various materials including composites, metals, concrete, fiberglass, ceramics, plastics, and wood. It has also been used for fault and pressure leak detection in pipes, tanks, and vessels.
There are several electronic instruments that can be used to digitize and store large numbers of high-speed digital waveform signals of AE. Common instruments used in AE include preamplifiers, amplifiers, filters, sensors and other data collection, analysis, and storage equipment such as computers, oscilloscopes, and voltmeters. Preamplifiers are used to amplify a weak signal and to reduce the interference from noise, while the piezoelectric sensors are used for the conversion of mechanical AE waves into electrical voltages. The overall objective of the measurement is to determine the various AE parameters such as the frequency range (controlled by filters) that exist in the system by observing and measuring the performance of AE amplifiers and sensors. These are very useful mechanisms for measuring the essential AE parameters such as event, count, energy moment, maximum amplitude, hit, energy, arrival-time difference, RMS (root mean square) voltage, rise time, spectrum, frequency, and duration [2].
Application areas of AE span numerous fields, including aerospace, automotive, biomedical, manufacturing, civil, and materials engineering fields.
Monitoring the condition and predicting the life of the main structures of an aircraft play significant role in guaranteeing the flight safety. AE techniques are successfully employed in damage and crack identification and monitoring in aircraft composite and steel structures [3, 4].
AE is extensively used in the automotive industry in fault diagnosis of internal combustion engines (ICEs). Reference [5] deals with advanced techniques based on vibro-acoustic signals that can diagnose and monitor ICE malfunctions under vehicle operating conditions. Reference [6] develops new AE models and effective wavelet-based AE signal processing techniques for monitoring lubrication conditions.
The primary use of AE technique in biomedical field is bone condition assessment under different loading conditions, in osteoporosis and in fracture healing process monitoring [7]. AE can be used for detecting defects in tissues and materials, predicting failure, and monitoring damage progression in real time [8].
AE has been used as a widely applied technique in manufacturing process monitoring due to its sensitivity to process parameters. The use of AE as a monitoring technique for machining operations comes with more advantages, one of which is its ability to detect machine vibrations from those of AE signals due to high-frequency range and sensitivity of AE signals, thus preventing it from interfering with the cutting operation [9, 10].
Structural health monitoring (SHM) in civil engineering involves AE technique for detecting cracks in structures. This technique relies on the high-frequency ultrasonic waves generating energy that is rapidly emitted from a material throughout from the initiation to growth progression of cracks. The wide applicability of AE technique is evident in several metal piping system evaluations and fiberglass-reinforced plastics (FRP) and concrete bridges [11, 12].
AE originates from stress waves generated as a result of the growth or movement that takes place in solid defects. When a composite material is subject to a mechanical load, it can experience matrix cracking, debonding, and delamination. AE is a powerful technique capable of detecting these damage types in composites [13, 14].
The rapid growth of the world population and industrial activities has caused a significant increase in water consumption. These developments lead to a serious water shortage all around world especially in arid regions. Recently, the main problem affecting humane societies around the globe is the scarcity of water and increasing demand to it [1, 2]. As stated by United Nations’ reports, worldwide, about 1.2 billion people live in the region of physical scarcity. While another half a billion people are approaching this condition, about two billion people are facing economic water shortage. In addition to the treatment and reuse of wastewater, desalination is one of the technologies widely applied in the world. During recent decades, more than 100 countries have been using these processes [3, 4]. It is not possible to survive without clean water, unfortunately, based on international standards and various organizations, less than 1% of total water is clean. Rest of the water quantity is contaminated by various human-source pollutants such as agricultural activities, municipal wastewater, and industrial wastes [5, 6]. The major water pollutants can be specified as toxic heavy metals, pesticides, dyes, organic acids, halogenated compounds, fertilizers, and microorganisms [7, 8, 9, 10]. Because of non-biodegradability and toxicity, among these pollutants, heavy metals are the most hazardous materials for ecosystem and organism, because these toxic and dangerous metals tend to accumulate in ecosystem especially the food chain and the living organism. In addition, the polluted water intake leads to various health problems, such as organ damage, skin irritation, cancer, rupture of nasal septum, diarrhea, appetite loss, abdominal pain, and headache [11, 12, 13, 14]. For the reasons stated above, and especially in order to provide clean water to all living creatures to survive in a healthy life, these pollutants must be removed. Various membrane technologies have recently been used for removing these contaminants from water/wastewater. Among these technologies and applications, those of the greatest interest to researchers are listed below:
Microfiltration (
Ultrafiltration (
Nanofiltration (
Reverse osmosis (
Forward osmosis (
Membrane distillation,
Pressure retarded osmosis (
Membrane bioreactor (
Pervaporation (
Separation using liquid membranes [10].
In the last decade, various water/wastewater purification technologies such as NF, FO, and RO have been developed and effectively used [15]. It is inevitable that membrane-based processes will play an increasingly important role in water/wastewater treatment. These processes are expected to take a key role in solving many problems by developing further in a short period of time due to some advantages such as requiring less energy, ease of use, and making them easily modular [16]. Among the membrane technologies performed in the wastewater treatment, especially application of NF, FO, and NF processes will be increased in the near future [1]. Polymers are widely preferred materials in water/wastewater treatment, despite some disadvantages such as relatively high-energy consumption, permeability, short lifetime, relatively consumption of high energy, and low resistance to fouling. It is vital to develop low-energy, cost-effective, and functional membranes for contaminants removal from water/wastewater. In particular, the inclusion of nano-sized materials in the polymer matrix has made a significant progress in overcoming the challenges of water treatment of polymeric membranes developed and synthesized. Studies conducted in the last few years, especially nano-sized structures such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, zeolites, silica, zinc, iron oxide, and other metal oxides, have been added to the polymer matrix and tested [17]. Supported by various nanostructures, NCMs have been used effectively in many applications including liquid-solid, liquid-liquid, and gas-gas separations. The PCMs have attracted great attention for water/wastewater cleaning because of overcoming trade-off between permeability and solute rejection along with fouling reduction property. Also, for water/wastewater treatment process, they are known as high-performance membrane [18]. As a result, it can be clearly stated that although there are some difficulties in industrial applications, nanomaterials offer outstanding benefits. For example, modification of the NCMs’ surface provides a great advantage in water treatment applications as it significantly changes its efficiency, such as pore size and hydrophilicity [18]. A brief schematic summary of NCM processes to treat water/wastewater is presented in Figure 1.
A schematic illustration of NCMs for heavy metals removal from wastewater.
In order for designing membranes for water/wastewater treatment, various natural and synthetic polymer types, including chitosan, cellulose acetate, polystyrene, polyamide, have been preferred [10, 19, 20]. Barriers including low contaminant removal, low chemical stability under pH change, biological fouling, loss of mechanical strength, and hydrophobicity prevent the widespread application of the polymeric membrane. The advantages and disadvantages of polymers used in NCMs are given in Table 1 [10].
Polymer | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
Chitosan |
|
|
Polyvinyl alcohol |
|
|
Cellulose acetate |
|
|
Polyamide |
|
|
Polystyrene polyethersulfone |
|
|
Advantages and disadvantages of some commonly used polymers in NCMs [10].
For water/wastewater treatment, nanotechnology has brought a great revolution. During the formation of polymeric nanocomposite membranes (PNCMs) process, when nanoscale entities such as nanoparticles and nanofibers add to PNCMs; it gives them unique properties. In the water/wastewater treatment processes, because of some outstanding properties such as permeability, mechanical and chemical stability, superior flexibility, less installation space requirement along with selectivity to chemical species, and high removal capability, PNCMs have become an ideal choice. The significance of PNCs for water/wastewater treatment can be tracked by the continuous rise in publications, also. Using PNCMs for treatment of water/wastewater is an energy-efficient eco-friendly and technology besides low-cost. Moreover, PNCMs technology can be feasibly combined with various processes [10, 21]. For example, the inclusion of metallic and metallic oxide nanoparticles in the polymer matrix has added antifouling properties to the membranes, as well as increased thermal and mechanical stability. Because of their low cost, they are often added in a small quantity of nanofibers into the polymer matrix. When the nanofibers are added to polymer matrix, in addition to the mechanical strength and thermal stability of polymer-based nanocomposites, its flexibility also increases [22, 23, 24, 25]. Nanoparticles composed of metal or metal oxides, which contain Ag, Cu, TiO2, and Fe2O3, are main examples of nanoparticles [26]. This nanoscale entity class of spherical shape demonstrates some superior properties such as increased lipophilicity and good dispersibility in organic solvent along with chemical stability. Another important class of nanoscales are carbon nanotubes (CNTs), nano-diamonds, and graphene oxides (GO). The GO is a 2D carbon-based nanomaterial, and they contain many oxygenated functionalities such as carbonyl or hydroxyl groups in their interconnected carbon layers. The CNTs with 1D carbon-based tubular layers have often been used in wastewater treatment process. Because of some vital properties including hydrophobic surfaces and low surface energy besides spherical nanoscale such as Cu, TiO2, ZnO entities are often used as disinfectants or antimicrobial agents [26]. Very small spherical nanoscale entities such as nanofibers, nanoplatelets, or polymers can be grown at the surface of the substrate to obtain functional nanoscale structures for applications such as catalysis. Various nanostructures obtained in this way are used for water purification as environmentally friendly, cost-effective, and quality products [10, 27]. A schematic illustration of pressure-driven NCMs for water/wastewater treatment is presented in Figure 2.
A schematic pressure-driven membrane nanocomposite illustration for wastewater treatment.
This study provides an overview of the applications of these current technologies in water/wastewater treatment for heavy metal removal, focusing on the latest technological developments in this field, as well as techniques for preparing NCMs. The properties and performance of PNCMs will be discussed considering different polymers and nanoscale entities. It is expected that this study would arouse curiosity and interesting for the development and application of functional NCMs to treatment water/wastewater. Moreover, preparation and application of the NCMs and future prospectives will be discussed.
Two main factors such as the nature of the polymer and the final required membrane structure play a key role in determining the type of membrane preparation method. Several different techniques may be used for fabricating of polymeric membranes. However, in general, some techniques are often preferred among them, and these are summarized below:
Interfacial polymerization technique
Phase inversion technique
Blending technique
Electrospinning technique [28].
Unfortunately, current membrane preparation techniques are not suitable for industrial-scale use. Therefore, efforts to develop and promote preparation techniques to overcome the limitations of existing strategies for membrane preparation should be strongly supported (Figure 3).
A schematic illustration of nanocomposite materials.
The technique called interfacial polymerization (IP) is often preferred for PNCMs production, and it is the most considerable technique for commercially fabricating various essential and important membranes including nanofiltration (NF) and thin-film composite (TFC) besides reverse osmosis (RO). For RO applications, the development and use of interfacial polymerized TFC membranes were an important milestone in the performance of the membranes [29]. Various types of TFC membrane have been fabricated using IP technique because of noticeably superior properties such as microporous substrate layer and independent optimization of the skin layer. In addition to TFC membranes, RO and NF membranes, which have many uses, were also produced using this useful technique. Barrier membrane layer composition and structural morphology are affected with many factors including monomer concentration, solvent type, reaction time, and subsequent treatment [30, 31]. In the highlighted technique, the interaction of two different monomers is as schematized in Figure 4. Before the polymerization process begins, nano-sized structures are incorporated and polymerization occurs at the interface between the two phases. The distinctive layer produced on the substrate in IP has very less thickness and due to these properties, possesses superior membrane flux. Also, for polymerization, suitable monomers selection can produce selective polymer layers, resistant to chemicals, good thermal stability, and better durability [10, 28].
A schematic illustration of interfacial polymerization technique for preparation of PNCMs.
For membrane preparation, the most usable method is phase inversion (PI) technique. For different applications, various kinds of morphologies can be obtained when using IP technique [32]. To design membranes, various polymers can be used effectively because the PI method is cost-effective, time-efficient, facile, flexible in use, and feasible to scale-up; therefore, PI technique is used for the manufacture of lab membranes and commercial [33]. All PI membranes are based on polymer precipitation in homogeneous casting solution. The polymer solution precipitation is governed by PI process kinetics and thermodynamics. Therefore, this process affects the prepared membranes final morphology. The precipitation takes place through a demixing process. In this mixing process, the polymer solution is converted from a liquid to a porous solid due to the exchange between solvent and non-solvent [34]. In other words, the PI process is a uniform polymer and a mixing process in which the solution of nanoscale structures is converted into a solid phase in a controlled manner. The PI technique is based on the change in solution stability of the dissolved polymer and nanoscale entity caused by temperature instability, mass change between coagulant bath/non-solvents, and solvent evaporation. The PI technique is frequently selected for preparation of asymmetric PNCMs with thin and dense layers. For membrane preparation (Figure 5), some parameters including solvent, non-solvent, choice of composition of polymer solutions, coagulation bath composition, and film casting conditions are the key parameters. As result, PI technique provides the advantage of large morphological differences by altering process parameters that are mentioned before [35, 36].
A schematic illustration of phase inversion technique.
Blending technique (BT) is based on the direct mixing of nanoscale entities such as metal oxide or metal nanoparticles and polymer. Also, to form PNCMs, the BT is the easiest technique. Such mixing/mixing can be accomplished in two ways, solution blending technique and melt blending technique.
In this technique, whole components such as polymer and nano-dimensional structures are disseminated in an appropriate common solvent. It is supported in the polymer matrix by adding nano-sized structures to the mentioned solvent. In this step, first the surface-modified nanoscale entities are dispersed in the solvent by means of ultrasonic waves. The mixture is then added to the polymer solution to obtain a homogeneous dispersion. The polymer chains remained intact and formed NCM upon solvent evaporation. Also, to select a convenient solvent for proper nanoscale entities and polymer mixing, it should not be forgotten that it is essential. For water-soluble polymers, the SBT is more useful. However, using organic solvents that are toxic and expensive is a main problem in application of SBT [37]. If NCM is to be obtained from polymers insoluble in low-boiling-point solvents, SBT is not preferred [38].
NCMs are formed from the polymer melt, after the nanoscale structures and polymers are injected into the extruder and melted at high temperature during intensive mixing. For providing polymer chains mobility, thermal energy is used. Generally, the MBTI is preferred because of its environment-friendly nature along with higher effectiveness. At a large scale, some parameters including use of high temperature and setup of processing may lead to limitations to their use [39]. During blending, the extruder configuration and screw affect the nanoscale entities dispersion quality, also [38, 40]. For preparation of NCMs, both SBT and MBT are simple and frequently used techniques. Generally, BTs are feasible to operate and appropriate for all nanoscale entities types.
Electrospinning technique (ET) that is simple and effective method is usable for producing fibrous membranes. Because of a number of uses including filtration and desalination, the ET is relatively new. It is a preferred technique for fabricating particularly porous membranes. The ET is often preferred for membrane preparation due to some superior features including excellent interconnectivity besides relatively homogeneous pores distribution. Also, because of nanofibers’ large surface area, these membranes functionalization are easier. The ET is a durable technique with very good control over the membrane structure. On the other hand, dense membranes are not produced using ET, because these membranes are required for a diffusion processes, for example, NF and RO [41]. In ET, an application of high potential using a voltage source is made between polymer solution droplet and grounded collector. When electrostatic potential is raised to an adequate level, it overcomes the droplet’s surface tension and forms a charged liquid jet. The solution of polymer contains the nanoscale entities and dissolved polymer. The fiber-containing membranes are perfect in that the fiber and morphology of the aspect ratios of the nano/microfibers can be controlled by variable parameters such as the applied electrical potential level, the flow rate of the membrane solution, and the membrane solution viscosity [10, 42, 43].
Finally, because of the forces present between them, jet leaves the tip. During thinning of the polymer jet, solvent phase evaporates and nanofibers are formed. Then, nanofibers are collected on the collector. Owing to rheological properties, jet instabilities arising of polymer melt are important in the shaping of fibrous membrane. By controlling the parameters and operating conditions, the fibrous membranes properties including morphology, porosity, aspect ratio, pore size distribution, and hydrophobicity can be regulated. Electrospun fibrous membranes are a preferable choice in applications filtration, because morphology, fiber shape, and size can be precisely controlled. It has been reported in many studies that nanostructured morphology and fiber diameter can be significantly affected by applied potential strength, solution feed rates, ionic salt addition, and polymer solution viscosity. Depending on the chosen polymer and its molecular weight, the minimum viscosity is decided [28, 42, 44].
In the processing and application of NCMs for the water/wastewater treatment, biofouling is one of the main drawbacks of membrane technology. Biologically sourced membrane contamination leads to clogging of the pores and thus to a serious decrease in performance. Moreover, biofouling increases the maintenance and operational cost of membranes. It decreases the membrane average lifetime, also. Microbial increase and biofilm formation are the main problems that increase the flow in the membranes and consequently require more energy. To overcome these problems, it is vital to prepare NCMS with antimicrobial activity. Preparation of NCMs with antimicrobial activity both increases the efficiency of the membranes and saves time by shortening the application time. Recently, many researchers have focused on using polymers with biocidal materials in designing NCMs with antibacterial properties. Metal oxides such as Ni2O3 [45], TiO2 [46], and ZnO Al2O3 [47] are frequently preferred because of their biocidal properties, that is, they directly target bacteria. For this reason, to reduce biofouling, metal oxides are commonly used to design the antibacterial NCMs. For example, owing to the outstanding biocidal properties of Ag, it is one of the most studied nanomaterials to create antimicrobial activity. Other nanostructures such as titanium, chromium, and copper are also metals that are highly preferred in antimicrobial NCMs production [18]. The optimal concentrations of most metal oxide nanoparticles used to destroy bacterial cells have no toxic effects on human health, which has also fueled interest in the use of these materials. The PNCM antimicrobial effectiveness is based on the electrostatic interaction between the membrane and bacteria. Commonly, the nanoscale structure found in PNCM contains a positive charge that attracts the negatively charged bacterial cell on their surface. This electrostatic interaction breaks the structural integrity of the bacteria and leads to the bacteria death [48].
The NCMs, during water/wastewater treatment, must possess good mechanical features including toughness, to endure the pressure. Because to define processability and stability besides end use of NCMs, enough mechanical strength is essential. The interaction between nanoscale entities and polymer components is vital in NCMs that impart mechanical properties. Nanoscale entity uniformity, size, and volume fraction affect mechanical properties. The good and homogeneous nanoparticle distribution in the polymer matrix restricts the chain movements and thus increases the mechanical strength. As a result, it can be clearly stated that anisotropy is an important property that is also responsible for its mechanical properties [11, 49, 50].
Several technologies are available for removing pollution including organic and inorganic from water/wastewater. The removal techniques such as chemical precipitation, coagulation/flocculation, membrane processes, reverse osmosis, ion-exchange/solvent extraction, biological operations, ultrafiltration, and adsorption have been used. Other techniques including precipitation and ion-exchange other than adsorption are not preferred because of the production of various secondary pollutants and their high operating efficiency. Apart from these techniques, the adsorption technique has come to the fore and has been accepted due to some advantages such as simple, efficient, and cost-effective. Adsorption that is most effective techniques is often preferred to remove heavy metals due to flexibility in design and operation. This technique contains a surface phenomenon where pollutants are deposited over the adsorbent surface. Ekstra energy, excess water, or additional chemicals are not used in adsorption process [26]. For the aforementioned reasons, the adsorption technique has become a unique phenomenon in removing contaminants from water/wastewater. Adsorbate and adsorbent surface interaction called physisorption or chemisorption occurs in adsorption process. The pollutants especially heavy metals may interact with the adsorbent surface with various forces including electrostatic interactions, van der Waals, or hydrogen bonding [26]. Functional groups included in PNCMs take part in pollutants and heavy metal ions removal by adsorption and can be regenerated by desorption process [51]. In recent years, various materials including nanoparticles [51] and beads [52] as adsorbent forms have been developed and used. In the last few years, many composite materials such as graphene oxide have widely used to remove heavy metal contaminants as novel adsorbents for the adsorption.
Detrimental heavy metals such as As and Ni are the biggest and most important pollutants for ecosystem. These toxic and carcinogenic pollutants can be discharged into the water sources in almost all walks of numerous industrial activities. They have damaged the environment and human health in many aspects. Since these metals, which are harmful and destructive, can enter the human body at more than the allowed concentration and accumulate in our tissues, they cause various harmful health problems. Since metals that are toxic effect are used in many fields of industry, without discharge of their release to the environment is also increasing. Toxic materials especially heavy metals, which spread to the environment and do not degrade, reach people especially through the food chain and water [53, 54, 55].
As practical and environmental approach for treating wastewater, separation technologies using membranes have been known as worldwide one of the best technology [56]. Membranes used for this purpose can be divided into two basic classes: inorganic membrane and polymeric membrane (Figure 6). There are four types of membranes, based on pore sizes, which are MF, UF, NF, and RO. It should not be forgotten that, during the water/wastewater treatment, heavy metals ions such as Ni2+, Cd2+, and Hg2+ were tiny, and sometimes they are soluble in which it is necessary to reverse the osmosis membrane’s size [57]. Therefore, recently, materials known as hybrid or specifically adsorptive membranes produced by the combination of adsorption and membrane separation processes have been the focus of many researchers [58, 59].
A schematic illustration of membrane type.
Because of sieving and surface charge effects, both NF and RO can effectively be used for heavy metal ions removal [58]. At the same time, for modification conventional UF and MF membranes to improve the membranes selectivity toward heavy metal ions, various studies have been made. Studies conducted in recent years for heavy metal ions removal from water/wastewater are summarized below.
For selective ion removal from water, Ag-doped multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNT)/polyphenylsulfone (PPSU) was prepared as NCM by Shukla et al. Silver-doped MWCNTs prepared and characterized based on specific surface area and distribution of particle size. For characterization, various properties such as porosity, topography, morphology, surface charge, and contact angles were investigated. To examine mentioned properties, several spectroscopic techniques besides transmission electron microscopy were used. It was stated that Ag-MWCNT/PPSU NCM achieves optimal performance and exhibits unique properties. When PPSU membrane is compared with NCMs, it was mentioned that NCMs exhibit significantly improved selective removal of several ions such as Na+, As5+, and Mg2+ ions from aqueous medium. Also, antibacterial activity of Ag-MWCNTs was evaluated using some bacteria such as
Delavar et al. reported the removal of Cd2+ and Cu2+ ions using mixed matrix membranes (MMMs) alumina nanoparticles fabricated as UF membranes and incorporated with alumina nanoparticles [60]. The characterization of structural morphology and hydrophilicity of synthesized MMMs was made by using field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM), water contact angle, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) techniques. The alumina and hydrous manganese oxide (HMO) loading affected some properties such as pure water flux, mean pore size, porosity, and water contact angle of the membranes. In the light of this information, the performance of UF membranes for removal of Cd2+and Cu2+ ions was also investigated. Based on obtained data from UF experiments, when prepared MMM with a high HMO nanoparticles loaded, it was stated that they have had very fast kinetics and demonstrated the highest Cu2+ ions and Cd2+ ions removal efficiency (97% and 98%, respectively). This study results indicated that HMO nanoparticles can be a good candidate for preparation of MMMs. Also, to remove Cu2+ ions and Cd2+ ions from polluted water resources, it can be conveniently used [60].
In another study, to remove Cr(VI) ions using UF membranes that contain cellulose acetate, this is incorporated with TiO2 nanoparticles [61]. In addition, TiO2 nanoparticles were preferred to increase the affinity of heavy metal ions to the membrane and increase the removal efficiency. Moreover, TiO2 nanoparticles’ presence improved the membranes’ antifouling properties because of easily cleaned and regenerated. At pH 3.5, in the presence of aminated TiO2 nanoparticles, Cr(VI) removal efficiency was achieved as 99.8%. Present in the anions form such as Cr(VI) ions, the protonated amine group on the TiO2 nanoparticles established electrostatic interaction with the Cr(VI) species. Gebru and Das also reported, after four cycles of washing and regeneration processes, efficiency of removal was only slightly reduced to 96.6% [61].
In another study, for the treatment of water contaminants such as organic fouling agents and toxic heavy metal ions, a] thin film composite (TFC) NF membrane that contains poly(piperazineamide) [poly(PIP) was developed by Bera et al. It has been reported that the synthesized NCM has high performance in anti-organic fouling, anti-biofouling, and removal of multivalent cations. Also, they reported the thin film nanocomposite (TFNC) NF membranes preparation with improved rejection of heavy metals efficacy, anti-biofouling property, and anti-organic fouling properties compared with that of poly(PIP) TFC NF membrane. Using IP technique, FNC NF membranes were prepared and PEI-polyethylene glycol conjugate and then immobilization of Ag-NP. The IP was performed on a polyethersulfone/poly(methyl methacrylate)-co-poly(vinyl pyrollidone)/Ag-NP mixture UF membrane support. The synthesized TFNC membranes exhibited a good performance for several heavy metals as >99% for Pb2+, 91–97% for Cd2+, 90–96% for Co2+, and 95–99% for Cu2+ at applied 0.5 MPa pressure. It was mentioned that heavy metal ions rejection effect of the modified NF membranes is attributed to the positive surface charge development [62].
In the study carried out by Deng et al., a novel NCM containing improved physical properties and enhanced metal ions removal efficiency was prepared using ET technique. By reacting MWCNT-COOH with polyethylenimine (PEI), modified MWCNTs were fabricated, which was further embedded within polyacrylonitrile (PAN) nanofibers using ET technique. The MWCNT-PEI and NCM (MWCNT-PEI/PAN) properties such as physical properties, morphology, and structure were characterized using various techniques including TEM, SEM, FTIR besides mechanical test and contact angle measurements. When NCMs compare to plain PAN membrane because of hydrophilicity, higher mechanical strength, high permeation, and filtration efficiency, it is undisputed that the NCMs are clearly superior. Experiments studies revealed that synthesized NCMs such as MWCNT-PEI/PAN exhibited higher adsorption capacity for several heavy metals such as Cu2+ and Pb2+ ions compared with other NCMs. It was reported that Langmuir isotherm and dynamic adsorption results proved that the synthesized and designed NCMs exhibited improved rejection ability for heavy metal ions with a water flux at 145.8 L m−2 h−1 under 0.2 bar pressure. It is stated that these new and functional membranes synthesized have promising potential for contaminated water treatment due to their heavy metal removal properties [63]. In another study carried out, to functionalize graphene oxide (GO) nanoparticles using polyaniline (PANI), a polymerization technique was performed by Ghaemi et al. After NCMs were prepared by embedding PANI@GO nanoparticles into matrix of PES membrane, it was characterized by SEM and AFM for measuring various properties including porosity and permeability besides mean pore size. A response surface methodology compatible with central composite experimental design was carried out for membrane Pb2+ removal performance from water besides to optimize experimental conditions. Although the NPs addition to membrane matrix reduces the porosity, permeability, and hydrophilic properties, it has been reported that Pb2+ removal activity is significantly increased. It has been stated that increasing the pH and increasing the proportion of GO particles up to 25% by weight cause an increase in Pb2+ removal from the water and almost all Pb2+ ions are successfully removed by the NCMs. Ghaemi et al. examined adsorption mechanism, isotherm model, and the kinetic properties along with reusability performance of NCMs. They reported that Langmuir isotherm and pseudo-first order kinetic offered the most appropriate models for Pb2+ removal from water using synthesized NCMs [64].
Gohari et al. developed an UF mixed matrix membranes (MMMs) using polyethersulfone (PES)/hydrous manganese dioxide (HMO) for Pb2+ adsorption and removal by varying the weight ratio of PES:HMO in the membrane. The HMO loading effect on the membrane in terms of porosity, hydrophilicity, and pure water flux and adsorption capacity MMMs for Pb2+ studied, also. Moreover, prepared membranes properties such as structural morphology using and surface roughness were characterized by using SEM, AFM, and FTIR techniques. It was reported that in spite of pore size of membrane tended to decrease with increasing PES:HMO weight ratio, it has been stated that the water flux of the membrane is not affected. It was found that the Pb2+ removal capacity of the MMM prepared with the highest PES:HMO ratio was 204.1 mg g−1 and this adsorption capacity was quite promising, when compared with literature. It was observed that Pb2+ adsorbed on the membrane can be easily desorbed by using HCl solution. Studies conducted by repeating the adsorption-desorption process proved that this MMM can be used repeatedly [65].
In another study, the synthesis of polymeric membranes based PES and modified by the activated carbon addition and the removal potential of this developed membrane in removing Cu2+ ions from the aqueous medium were investigated. It has been reported that after modification of the PES membrane with the activated carbon addition, the retention capacity of Cu2+ ions are significantly increased [66]. Moreover, the synthesis of various membranes and their application to various samples for heavy metal removal are summarized in Table 2.
Used membrane | Removed metal | Reference |
---|---|---|
PAH and PSF/PAH blend membranes | Pb2+, Cd2+ | [67] |
Cellulose NCMs | Ag+, Cu2+, Fe3+, Fe2+ | [68] |
FO membranes | Co2+ | [69] |
CTA-ES membrane | Cs+ | [70] |
NCMs (PDA/GNPs/PEI) | Zn2+, Ba2+, Ni2+, Cd2+ | [71] |
Fe-Ag/f-MWCNT/PES | Cr(VI) | [72] |
Thin-film nanocomposite FO membrane | Pb2+, Cd2+, Cr6+ | [73] |
Ultra-thin NCMs (chitosan/GO NCM) | Mn2+ | [74] |
MWCNT/polysulfone composite membranes | Cr6+, Cd2+ | [75] |
Ag-doped MWCNT NCMs | As5+, Cr6+, Mg2+ | [59] |
NF membranes(quaternized polyelectrolyte complex membranes) | Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Cu+, Mg2+, Zn2+ | [76] |
Thin-film inorganic forward osmosis membrane | Cd2+, Pb2+, Cu2+ and Zn2+ | [77] |
Functionalized MWCNTs/PVA nanocomposite films | Zn2+, Ni2+, Mn2+, Cr2+, Cd2+, Pb2+ | [78] |
Heavy metal removal from water/wastewater by using various NCMs.
Recently, for water/wastewater treatment, PNCMs that have perfect antibacterial, mechanical, and adsorption properties and have become a globally known and usable method. Because of these outstanding performances, they managed to attract the attention of academia and industry. It is a variety of functional nanoscale materials and different architectures that allow PNCMs to have some outstanding properties. It has enabled an impressive improvement in the treatment of water/wastewater using PNCMs technology, which is open to this and similar developments. Over the past decade, to treat water/wastewater especially for removing toxic heavy metals, immense progress has been made in developing PNCMs. Membranes exhibit a unique useful behavior due to some of their physicochemical properties including charge density, porosity, hydrophilicity, mechanical and thermal stability, and nanoscale entities addition. Although two important parameters such as the polymer nature and the final required membrane structure determine the type of the method used in the preparation of the membrane, different methods such as IP and PI are the most frequently used methods for PNCMs preparation. The addition of nanomaterials such as nanofibers is of vital importance in improving the mechanical and, in particular, adsorption capability of membranes.
It can be clearly stated that spherical nanomaterials, for example, metal oxide nanoparticles, protect the membrane against biological contamination and provide antibacterial activity. However, it is clear that the methods for the synthesis, development, and distribution of nanoscale materials in the polymer matrix need more research. These research studies should focus especially on the following subjects:
The aggregates formation is a major problem for nanoscale entities dispersion into the polymer matrix as homogeneous.
The compatibility of polymer and nanoscale materials plays a key role in the formation of a successful membrane.
Focus should be placed on possible solutions for the stability of nanoscale entities in the polymer matrix that affect membrane performance.
Further studies are needed on the functionalization of the surface of nano-sized materials or optimization of the manufacturing process, the ability to increase the dispersion of nanoscale entities into polymer matrices. In the near future, it will be possible to optimize the distribution and hence the interaction between nanoscale entities and the polymer matrix.
While studies have shown that nanomaterials have unique properties that can contribute to the development of high-tech and new NCMs with advanced capabilities to treat water/wastewater, optimizing the durability of nanoscale assets and the loading concentration in NCMs is key to achieving the best performance. On the other hand, recently, for removing or reducing the heavy metals amount in water/wastewater bodies, extensive efforts have been made. Various methods have been applied, each of which has advantages and disadvantages. For removing of toxic metallic ions, membrane technology including UF, NF, RO, and FO membranes exhibits huge potential as it offers different separation mechanisms and a wide range of membrane properties. One of the best examples of this is that the adsorptive UF membrane shows a significant improvement in membrane morphology where the increase in water permeability is achieved. Even at low membrane pressure, mentioned membrane is convenient to treat low metal concentrations by enabling the complete filtration-adsorption metal ions removal. The NF, RO, and FO membranes have proven effective to remove metal ions from water/wastewater. In addition, the NF process has been reported to be efficient and effective even at an industrial level. Because it requires high energy consumption and is therefore costly, the RO method is preferred only to treat water resources that must meet drinking water standards. For these reasons, to reduce costs and expand usage, more research is still needed for RO. If the respective limitations can be overcome, it is highly likely that membrane technology will become a serious alternative method to remove heavy metal ions in the future. In summary, adsorptive membranes have a wide range of applications including wastewater treatment. Advances in the development and manufacture of adsorptive membranes are increasing day by day. Besides adsorptive removal of contaminants from the water/wastewater has also technologically advanced, it has played an important role with the development of adsorptive membrane technologies. Thus, multi-stage pollutant removal processes, which were previously applied, can now be carried out in a single-stage pollutant removal process. As a result, the contribution of properties such as pore size and surface hydrophilicity of the membrane has not yet been fully explained by researchers. Despite current developments in membrane technology, the practical wastewater applications of PNCMs do not yet have the potential to fully meet expectations. Most of the current investigations on applications of PNCMs are at laboratory scale and unfortunately there are limited studies for industrial production and application. For practical and safe applications, further studies are required to produce economic and industrial-scale membranes.
The authors declare no competing interest.
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His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. 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Its major nutritional limitation has been the low protein content and poor protein quality, which necessitates the use of expensive high‐protein supplements or synthetic amino acids such as lysine in diets containing large proportion of maize. Therefore, extensive research has been conducted by maize breeders on the world maize germplasms collection with the aim of improving its nutritive value, particularly protein quality for monogastric animals. This chapter assesses the genetic upgrading of the nutritional quality of maize protein that culminated in the development of a new class of maize known as “Quality Protein Maize (QPM)”. Various studies on the nutritionally improved maize for poultry as well as future challenges confronting maize utilisation in poultry production are highlighted.",book:{id:"5315",slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Herbert K. Dei",authors:[{id:"28844",title:"Prof.",name:"Herbert Kwabla",middleName:"Kwabla",surname:"Dei",slug:"herbert-kwabla-dei",fullName:"Herbert Kwabla Dei"}]},{id:"61570",title:"Adenoviruses and Their Diversity in Poultry",slug:"adenoviruses-and-their-diversity-in-poultry",totalDownloads:1717,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"An investigation into the aetiology of fowl adenovirus strains and their distribution worldwide in populations of poultry flocks industry has been conducted. Pathogenic role of the viruses is not always clear. They can cause latent infection or several diseases and are the reason of economic losses in poultry flock industry. Ubiquity of adenovirus strains was commonly described, and stand-alone pathogenicity for a long time has been disputed. A globally emerging trend of adenoviruses and adenovirus-associated diseases has been increasing from year to year in all over the world. Mainly, type FAdV-4 is responsible for hydropericardium hepatitis syndrome (HP), type FAdV-1 for gizzard erosion and ulceration (GEU), and types FAdV-2, 8a, 8b, and 11 seem to be responsible for inclusion body hepatitis (IBH). Defining the spreading of the avian adenovirus strains in different types of fowl profile production, recognising their property and determining their types and molecular characterisation are very important from the epidemiological point of view and are considered as excellent basis for vaccine development and gene therapy implementation. This chapter provides a comprehensive review of FAdVs, including their epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnostic, detection, and molecular characterisation. This comprehensive review is needed to better understand the latest progress in study of the viruses and prospects regarding disease control and implementation of gene therapy.",book:{id:"6623",slug:"application-of-genetics-and-genomics-in-poultry-science",title:"Application of Genetics and Genomics in Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Application of Genetics and Genomics in Poultry Science"},signatures:"Jowita Samanta Niczyporuk",authors:[{id:"212649",title:"Dr.",name:"Jowita Samanta",middleName:null,surname:"Niczyporuk",slug:"jowita-samanta-niczyporuk",fullName:"Jowita Samanta Niczyporuk"}]},{id:"65864",title:"Poultry Housing and Management",slug:"poultry-housing-and-management",totalDownloads:3121,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Majority of the people in the poorest regions of the tropics rely on poultry production as their major source of protein supply. However, poultry production is hindered by the harsh environmental conditions in this regions therefore, reducing the daily supply of protein. It is believed that understanding heat stress in birds by paying detail attention to the sources of heat generation in a poultry house can help manage the heat stress situation in this region. This text reviews the internal climatic conditions of the poultry houses, how the birds respond to them, and their implications for heat management in poultry production. Thus, it provides pertinent information for guidance on parameters for open poultry houses architectural design that ensures optimum climatic conditions that will alleviate heat stress problem in poultry production in hot and humid climate.",book:{id:"8470",slug:"poultry-an-advanced-learning",title:"Poultry",fullTitle:"Poultry - An Advanced Learning"},signatures:"Ayodeji Oloyo and Adedamola Ojerinde",authors:[{id:"273409",title:"Mr.",name:"Ayodeji",middleName:null,surname:"Oloyo",slug:"ayodeji-oloyo",fullName:"Ayodeji Oloyo"},{id:"274920",title:"MSc.",name:"Adedamola",middleName:null,surname:"Ojerinde",slug:"adedamola-ojerinde",fullName:"Adedamola Ojerinde"}]},{id:"61583",title:"Domestication and Welfare in Farmed Fish",slug:"domestication-and-welfare-in-farmed-fish",totalDownloads:1657,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"The domestication of fish species is still in its early stages when compared to terrestrial animals. The effects of domestication on welfare of farmed fishes are complex to study because fish differ from livestock in genetics, physiology and behaviour, and experience different sensory worlds. Consequently, empathy with fish and understanding of their needs becomes more problematic than with land animals. Additionally, the acknowledgement and study of mental dimensions of fish existence is very recent. We discuss that higher levels of domestication in fish do not necessarily correspond to better welfare because (1) artificial selection by the aquaculture industry is mostly focused on production-related traits such as growth, and this selection process may have unknown negative effects on welfare-related traits; (2) the number of fish species presently farmed (circa 300) is 10-fold higher than land animals, rendering the establishment of standard welfare guidelines extremely complicated; (3) the current paradigm of the Five Freedoms guiding welfare is out-dated and was designed for livestock; and (4) there are still severe knowledge gaps in the biology of farmed fishes, especially in welfare-related traits. The implementation of humane farming systems should integrate industry, science and ethics in an open dialogue in order to produce relevant results.",book:{id:"6053",slug:"animal-domestication",title:"Animal Domestication",fullTitle:"Animal Domestication"},signatures:"João L. Saraiva, Maria F. Castanheira, Pablo Arechavala-López, Jenny Volstorf and Billo Heinzpeter Studer",authors:null},{id:"53276",title:"Mycotoxins in Poultry",slug:"mycotoxins-in-poultry",totalDownloads:3686,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Mycotoxins, the toxic secondary metabolites of fungi, particularly produced by many species of Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium, have affected animal and human health for over thousand years, whereas little has been discovered so far about these complex substances in poultry, which are generally very sensitive. Even though it varies by species and sex, some common effects are reduced feed intake, weight gain, feed efficiency, growth performance, immunity and hatchability along with increased mortality, organ damages (mainly kidney and liver), carcinogenicity, teratogenicity and decreased egg production. Besides their adverse health effects and the decrease in production rate, concerns over their importance in public health is still under debate. Decontamination approaches to reduce mycotoxins in feed are technologically diverse and based on chemical, biological and physical strategies. Chemical remediation strategies involve the conversion of mycotoxins via chemical reactions. Biological strategies involve various substances such as plant ingredients, enzymes and microorganisms. Physical processes include sorting, milling, dehulling, cleaning, heating, irradiation or combinational approaches. New strategies for the prevention and treatment of mycotoxicosis, including beneficial microorganisms/products, along with alternative treatments, including plant extracts/essential oils, are current hot topics in the poultry industry.",book:{id:"5315",slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Ayhan Filazi, Begum Yurdakok-Dikmen, Ozgur Kuzukiran and Ufuk\nTansel Sireli",authors:[{id:"152542",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayhan",middleName:null,surname:"Filazi",slug:"ayhan-filazi",fullName:"Ayhan Filazi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"31",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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