\r\n\tRadiation monitoring deals with the sampling and measurement of different products found in different radiation pathways from the environment ending with consumption in humans. Gamma-spectroscopy is the main tool for measurement of these radiations.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe aim of this book is to investigate the radionuclide concentrations in the most consumable food products, air, water and soil. Particularly, it is essential to investigate the radiations level in the surroundings of a nuclear facility.
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1. Introduction
The eye is an excellent structure, both an optical and a neuronal device. There are many diseases related to the eye. Each anatomical part of this organ may show a defect and cause an eye defect. Diabetic retinopathy is one of the most common complications of type I and type II diabetes. One of the main causes of blindness worldwide is diabetic retinopathy. Although glucose controls are helpful for other diabetic complications, they cannot prevent the development of retinopathy. While many studies have been done on the physiology of the retina, there are many unknown dark spots. Studies suggest that radicals derived from reactive oxygen play an important role in the development of diabetic retinopathy. Due to high oxygen consumption, the brain and retina are very sensitive to oxidative stress. Oxidative stress has been found to cause brain and retinal damage in both diabetic humans and experimentally diabetic rats. Although various hypoglycemic drugs have been developed for the treatment of diabetes mellitus (DM), complications associated with diabetes remain major medical problems. Therefore, the development of new treatments is of great interest. The mechanisms in the development and progression of diabetic retinopathy are not yet fully understood as they are multifactorial and complex. Stem cell therapies for retinal diseases have been around for a long time. Few clinical trials are currently showing improvement [1].
The eye is the site of many acute or chronic physiopathological disorders, reversible or not, that can lead to partial or total vision loss or major changes in the quality of patients’ life. The search for innovative therapeutic strategies to correct these disorders is an important current issue. Gene and cell therapies are powerful therapeutic tools, but controlling the properties and spread of the injected material is a parameter that limits its application in humans. Anatomical isolation of the eye and ease of access, on the other hand, enable the use of such treatments, which have been previously developed in tissues and whose clinical application is complex [2].
Hillard Lazarus used mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) for the first time in 1995. Today, there are more than 400 applications in a wide variety of clinical fields such as inflammatory pathologies or immunological, fibrotic, or neurological disorders [3].
The use of MSC, which has a great potential, is promising for the treatment of many degenerative disorders, including the eye. In retinal degenerative diseases, MSC ameliorated retinal neurons and retinal pigmented epithelial cells in both in vitro and in vivo studies [1]. Diabetes is among the largest medical emergencies in the world. Hyperglycemia is responsible for a wide number of complications, with the vascular ones representing the leading cause of mortality. Stem cells have the unique ability to originate any organ or tissue and are capable of self-renewal. Among stem cells, great clinical interest is reserved for MSC [4].
2. Diabetes and diabetic retinopathy
The development of modern life has brought with it an inactive life [5]. The human population is constantly increasing, and diseases are also increasing. In addition, the expectation of prolonging life, lifestyle, and dietary habits that support obesity creates possible conditions for the development of diabetes. Diabetes is shown as the third cause of death in industrialized countries after cardiovascular diseases and cancer. It is stated that about 110 million people on a global scale suffer from diabetes mellitus. This type of diabetes is also called diabetes mellitus. The main symptom of this disease is the presence of sugar in the urine. A diabetic patient occurs every 8 minutes according to the research of a health institution. DM is the inability of sugar to enter the cell and perform its function as a result of the insufficiency of pancreatic insulin secretion or the ineffectiveness of insulin or the inability of insulin to function due to structural defects in the insulin molecule. Insulin produced in the pancreas is responsible for the transition of blood glucose into cells. When insulin is deficient, the level of glucose in the blood increases and it increases the permeability of the vessel by causing defects in the inner surface and outer wall of the vessel in the vascular tissue. Diabetes damages the retina the most in the eye tissue. It is predicted that diabetes mellitus will rise sharply in the next decade. Patients with diabetes suffer from life-limiting and threatening complications and suffer from diseases such as stroke, peripheral arterial diseases, and retinopathy. [6]. Diabetic retinopathy is the most common microvascular complication of DM, resulting in blindness worldwide. Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a global problem, affecting approximately 100 million people worldwide. Blindness is 25 times more common in diabetic patients than in non-diabetic patients. DR is the most common cause of blindness in patients aged 20–64 years in developed countries. The prevalence of the disease is related to the age of the cases and the duration of the disease. Biochemical changes detected in diabetic retinopathy increased oxidative stress, nonenzymatic glycosylation, protein kinase-C activation, polyol pathway, and increased nitric oxide [7].
Retinal neurons provide normal visual function. Vision loss in diabetes should be explained as a disorder in the function of neurons. To date, most research has generally focused on retinal vascular changes rather than the effect of diabetes on the neural retina. As a result of many studies, it has been determined that changes in neuronal function and vitality are effective in the pathological mechanism of diabetic retinopathy that starts in the early stage of diabetes. Neurophysiological changes have been observed immediately after the onset of diabetes in both humans and experimental animals [8].
The most common cause of retinopathy is diabetes. Retinopathy is responsible for about a third of vision loss and blindness in children. Microaneurysms, non-perfusion capillaries, hemorrhages and/or lipoprotein exudates, which are the onset of DR, indicate that DR is primarily a microvascular disease [9]. There is ample evidence of early retinal neurodegenerations in diabetes. Neuronal degenerations and early retinal disorders were observed in some animal models and studies in humans before the onset of diabetic vasculopathy [10]. Neurodegeneration, which causes thinning of the retina layer in animal studies, is not only limited to cell death and tissue loss but also causes functional disorders in neurotransmitters [11]. The most prominent feature of neurodegenerative diseases is increased neuronal loss with apoptosis. Increasing neuron frequency is accepted as an important component of pathology in diabetic retinopathy. Early studies characterized vascular lesions in postmortem specimens of human retinas [12, 13, 14].
Indeed, neurophysiological changes have been observed immediately after the onset of diabetes in both humans and experimental animals. It has been reported that vascular changes such as permeability changes during diabetes occur 8 days after the onset of diabetes in rats. Capillary dilation and increased blood flow are the earliest signs of diabetes in both humans and animals. Capillaries begin to close within a few years in dogs whereas in about 1 year of diabetes in rats. Typical retinopathy begins to develop in humans at 5–10 years, with microaneurysm, hemorrhage, macular edema, and neovascularization. The neural retina is transparent and invisible, so it is not visible on clinical examination. Vascular changes provide information about the course of the disease and the possibility of blindness. Apart from insulin therapy, the only proven treatment is laser photocoagulation, which destroys retinal regions with overt vascular disorders. This manipulation reduces macular edema and can improve visual acuity, but it cannot restore normal vision and prevent neuronal loss. If neurodegeneration begins shortly after the onset of diabetes, irreversible neuron damage occurs during laser therapy. Early neurophysiological and neurodegenerative changes should be considered as targets for current DR treatments. Psychophysical measurements also showed changes in vision in the early stage of diabetes onset. Contrast sensitivity decreases especially at mid and low spatial frequencies [1, 15].
Obesity is a major health problem in the world that is responsible for type II diabetes mellitus (DM) and its serious complications, such as retinopathy, cardiovascular disease, and nephropathy. In diabetic eyes, neovascularization results in blindness through a vitreous hemorrhage, retinal detachment, or glaucoma. Retinal hypoxia is the crucial factor for these complications [16]. Diabetic retinopathy is one of the most common complications of type I and type II diabetes. One of the main causes of blindness worldwide is diabetic retinopathy. Although glucose controls are helpful for other diabetic complications, they cannot prevent the development of retinopathy. The pathology of retinopathy is due to the deterioration of the vessels of the eye, which occurs due to various metabolic disorders in diabetic patients. These metabolic disturbances range from the level of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) to the accumulation of end products of its glycosylation. The primarily tissue-damaging effects of chronic hyperglycemia cause a complex interplay of multiple mechanisms, which cause abnormal permeability within the retinal vessels, and occlusion with ischemia and subsequent neovascularization. Current treatments include laser photocoagulation and vitreotomy, but these treatments are not curative and do not target the pathological mechanism of the disease. Various studies have been conducted in diabetic rats and human models. Immunohistochemical studies were able to show that intravitreally injected stem cells were localized to the inner retina and it has been stated that this increases visual function. Human clinical trials are ongoing to evaluate the safety, success, and utility of hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) injection in treating retinal vascular diseases. Two patients with diabetic retinopathy injected with HCC showed improvement in visual acuity and ophthalmic measurements even 12 weeks after treatment. The mechanism of the behavior of HSC is unclear, but is thought to be dependent on paracrine signaling. In animal models, intravitreal HSC has been shown to improve retinal damage caused by light, ischemia, and diabetes. Apart from HSC, other stem cells such as mesenchymal stem cell (MSC), endothelial progenitor cell (EPC), and adipose stromal cell are also being investigated for their use in the treatment of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes mellitus causes both functional and structural deficiencies by affecting both the peripheral and central nervous systems. Peripheral disorders develop within a few weeks after the onset of diabetes, while central disorders take months to develop [17]. Diabetic retinopathy is a major complication of diabetes. However, the effect of a prediabetic condition on the retina has not been clarified. Prediabetes refers to a metabolic disorder defined by glycemic variables lower than diabetes but higher than normoglycemia and considered a high-risk condition for the development of diabetes. It has been stated that the majority of prediabetic patients will eventually develop diabetes [18, 19]. Current treatments for DR as laser photocoagulation, intravitreal anti-VEGF agents, intravitreal corticosteroids, and vitreoretinal surgery are applicable only at advanced stages of the DR and are associated with significant adverse effects [20]. Therefore, new treatments for the early stages of the DR are needed. Retinal diseases are the leading cause of vision loss in the world. Because of the ability of stem cells to self-renewal and differentiation to various types of cells, stem cells are becoming an attractive source of cell therapy in repairing damaged cells as retina pigment epithelium or photoreceptors. Consequently, retinal stem cell therapy is one of the promising therapeutic alternatives to recover vision [21].
3. Stem cells
The organism begins to form from a cell and then develops into a complete organism with more than 200 cell types. This phylogenetic trend, the tendency to switch from pluripotent cells to mature cells is an integral part of human development. This process, in which cells differentiate and turn into cells without plasticity, is necessary to form all special tissues of the human and to minimize the risk of tumor proliferation. Basically, for a cell to be accepted as a stem cell, this cell should first be able to renew itself without losing its plasticity, and then lose its plasticity and differentiate into different sub-cell types [22]. A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell with the capacity to self-renewal and differentiate. These cells have also the capacity to differentiate into special cells that make up tissues and organs. Self-renewal is the capacity for a cell to reproduce indefinitely by maintaining its undifferentiated state. Differentiation potential is the capacity for a cell to differentiate into one or more types of mature cells.
In addition, stem cells are also characterized by maintaining a certain calm-stagnant state, apart from their capacity for self-renewal and differentiation. This quiescent phase is the G0 phase of the cell cycle, in which cells enter in the absence of mitotic factors. With this calm phase, stem cells can protect themselves against possible “attacks” and maintain their vitality. However, none of these features are sufficient to define the ‘root’ character of the cell. In fact, it should have the potential to rebuild the tissue’s excellent function in the long run. This means a large number of cellular divisions and differentiation in vivo. These properties also play a vital role in organogenesis and adult tissue regeneration. There are many stem cells used and studied in research. Particularly, some researchers can find new stem cell sources today [23, 24, 25].
The two largest types of stem cells in mammals are embryonic stem cells isolated from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst and adult stem cells found in most adult tissues.
3.1 Embryonic stem cells (ESC)
They are the first discovered and studied stem cells. They are cells that can renew themselves and have the capacity to differentiate into all cell types that can form a whole organism.
3.2 Adult stem cells
With the development of the embryo, embryonic pluripotent stem cells are replaced by stem cells with a more limited capacity, which will provide organ and tissue formation. Cells of different tissues are now specialized. Organs need a mechanism to regenerate cells by replacing cells lost by apoptosis or lesion, thus maintaining their homeostasis. An adult loses about 20 billion cells in a day. This requires a permanent restructuring system [26]. Some organs such as the brain, heart, and kidney are less regenerated [27]. On the other hand, tissues such as bone marrow, skin, and intestines are constantly renewed. To ensure the regeneration prosess, organs have a cell reservoir; adult stem cells which serve throughout life. Their stocks are provided by the balance between self-renewal and differentiation capacities. Adult stem cells are also known as somatic stem cells. It is assumed that all organs of the body have mature stem cells, and in most organs, they are active throughout life. They constantly form new cells to ensure tissue regeneration (skin, cornea, bone marrow, intestine) [28, 29, 30]. In some organs, these cells become active after birth and then go into dormancy. We see them in organs with slow or almost no cellular regeneration; it is seen only in organs such as the brain and liver, where stem cells divide only during serious injuries or rarely [31, 32]. Hematopoietic stem cells, stromal stem cells, and stem cells in organs are adult stem cells.
Bone marrow contains two types of cells: hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) and stromal mesenchymal stem cells (MSC). HSC can form all mature hematopoietic cells such as myeloid and lymphoid. MSC plays a supportive role in hematopoiesis. Bone marrow also contains other types of cells. Progenitor endothelial cells (PEC) are found in the marrow as well as adult multipotent progenitor cells [33]. When necessary, PEH enters the circulation and plays a role in angiogenesis. In addition, some studies refer to bone marrow stem cells (F-MSCs), which represent a heterogeneous stem cell population. These cells can differentiate into many different types of cells, such as hepatocytes, endothelial cells, epithelial cells, cardiac or skeletal muscle cells, neuronal cells, or astrocytes. This indicates that bone marrow cells have the potential to differentiate into cells of another tissue [34]. Stem cells are ubiquitous. Some niches are yet to be discovered. Although bone marrow-derived stem cells have been cited as a potential resource for regenerative therapy, their potential and usefulness are still open to debate [35, 36].
Deterioration in tissues or organ functions for any reason constitutes a very important problem in terms of seriously affecting an individual’s quality of life. For this reason, regenerative medicine is concerned with repairing the damage and restoring normal body functions through stem cell therapies. Advances in stem cell research have shown cell-based therapy as a useful option to treat medically incurable diseases [36]. Stem cells can migrate to damaged tissue. The effect and cellular mechanisms of stem cells vary according to their environment. They have excellent plasticity that allows these cells to adapt to their environment and act appropriately [33].
“Plasticity” is the ability of a stem cell to acquire different differentiation programs under certain microenvironmental conditions. Endogenous MSC or exogenously administered MSC can migrate to the injured tissue and participate in its healing. The therapeutic effects of MSC can be attributed to its ability to secrete a wide variety of paracrine factors. These mechanisms are likely independent, but they can also act together. In many cases, a combination of these protective mechanisms can work together to heal the damage [37]. However, the mechanism of the therapeutic effect of stem cell is still open to debate. There are two basic explanations; these are cell differentiation and the paracrine effect of stem cells. The combination of these two mechanisms seems to be a third theory [38].
4. Mesenchymal stem cells and retinal degenerations
Retinal degenerations are pathologies that affect the light-sensitive cells of the retina, photoreceptors, cones, and rods. Cell therapy is accepted as an interesting alternative for retinal degenerations. A mouse model of retinal degeneration has been shown to improve visual function after transplantation of photoreceptors [39]. Other cells, including MSC, also show great potential by altering photoreceptors or protecting against degenerations due to their paracrine effects [40]. Some researchers also emphasize that MSC can differentiate into retinal cells, especially photoreceptor-like cells. This plasticity feature of MSC has been observed in vitro [41]. It has also been observed in vivo by subretinal injection in a rat model with retinal degeneration [42]. These results reveal the possibility of regenerative therapy in pathologies involving photoreceptor losses.
In general, cellular therapy works in two ways: to replace dead cells in the tissue to restore tissue function or to prevent/attenuate/slow tissue degeneration by reducing inflammatory infiltration or reduce apoptosis and cell death phenomena.
5. Stem cell and eye
The eye is a small organ, and the number of stem cells required therapeutically is theoretically less than in larger organs. Compared to other internal organs, the retinal environment is easily accessible with small-gauge vitrectomy needles, greatly increasing the potential for stem cell-based therapy for the treatment of retinal degenerative diseases. The retina is layered and thin. It depends on the preservation of cells, nerve anatomy, and synaptic networks to maintain vision. Retinal neuron connectivity is an important therapeutic goal to alleviate blindness in millions of people worldwide for the preservation or restoration of the original neural structure of the retina and photoreceptor [43]. The emergence of studies shows the possibility of cell regeneration in the adult central nervous system, which makes it possible to envision the implantation of stem cells or progenitor cells as an approach to cell therapy. The restorative approach offers strong hope, given that key questions about the biology of development need to be explored. The transplantation of differentiated or undifferentiated retinal tissue (embryonic, newborn) in the subretinal position of the graft poses the problem of its structural and functional organization.
It is seen that different types of stem cells are used considering transplantation studies. When we look at transplantation studies, in studies using different types of stem cells (retina progenitor cell, neural stem cell, bone marrow-derived stem cell, and embryonic stem cell), although they settle in the retina, they are not able to express retinal-specific markers and cannot establish synaptic connections are encountered [44].
The discovery of stem cells has caused great excitement in the hopes of using such treatments to restore vision. Already, stem cells in the anterior segment of the eye have a remarkable clinical effect. Stem cell therapy provides re-epithelialization of the cornea and improves vision. The trabecular meshwork, located on the inner side of the junction of the sclera and the cornea, can also be regenerated with stem cells [38]. However, the most interesting studies have been done in the posterior segment of the eye. Most retinal degenerations begin with the loss of a neuron or damage to a neuron. Therefore, these cells should be replaced with a cell layer that is differentiated and functional in the appropriate medium. Sometimes pathology develops and destroys many cells. In this case, a graft consisting of several layers is required. To perform a transplant treatment for blindness, progenitor neuronal cells are isolated and transferred to different cells of the retina.
Studies on neuronal cell cultures that can differentiate are done. Today, very few of these differentiation mechanisms have been fully elucidated. Therefore, the use of cell transplantation in the retina seems distant [45].
Considering that stem cell therapy is promising in retinal diseases, studies were started with embryonic stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem cells were obtained. Many retinal cells such as retinal pigment epithelium, photoreceptors, and ganglion cells were obtained from induced pluripotent stem cells [46].
It is stated that the neuroretina, which is attached to the pigment epithelium (RPE), has a complex structure. Therefore, it has been stated that there are three different cells that can be considered in cell therapy: neuroretina (photoreceptors, bipolar cells, ganglion cells, and glial cells), RPEs, and vascular endothelial cells. Depending on retinal diseases, strategies to place different cells need to be developed [47].
6. Conclusion
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the largest causes of vision loss worldwide. The use of autologous stem cells for organ reconstruction offers a potential solution for the replacement of tissue or whole organs mechanisms in the development and progression of DR are not fully understood yet. Although many studies have been done about retinal physiology, many unknown dark spots are available about it. Stem cell therapy appears to be a possible option both to prevent neurovascular damage and to repair the damaged retina. Mesenchymal stem cell attracts great attention in retinal degenerations due to their ability to differentiate into neurons. However, the way and amount of stem cell administration will create different effects, it is important to know the effect of cell therapy on body after administration in relation to its use in the clinical practice.
To date, no treatment has been developed for the regeneration of retinal vasculature damage resulting from prolonged hyperglycemia. Cell therapy seems to be a possible option both to prevent neurovascular damage and to repair damaged retina [48]. Although clinical evaluations and retinal autopsies of diabetic patients provide information about the progression and features of diabetic retinopathy, its pathophysiological mechanism is not yet understood. Studies on animal models continue in order to better understand the development of diabetic retinopathy at the molecular and cellular level [49]. Retina, in the nervous system, provides a suitable environment to study the functions and distribution of stem cells. It is stated that intravenously administered mesenchymal stem cell transplantation can inhibit retinal apoptotic cells, reduce inflammatory responses, and limit the spread of damage [50].
In a study in which intravitreal mesenchymal stem cell application was performed, some physiological parameters were examined and it was seen that although there were decreases in body weight in diabetics, there was no change in body weight in the group administered intravitreal stem cells. These findings were interesting for us. While it was reported that body weight increased significantly in the mouse model in which the human adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cell was transplanted via the tail. It has been stated that intravitreal stem cell application also reduces intraocular pressure and provides a better cognitive function in the diabetic model [51].
As a result, more clinical trials should evaluate the application methods, the timing of the practice, using cell count and repetition dose of stem cell and their results. In the near future, the regenerative stem cell therapy may be a standard treatment in many degenerative eye disorders.
\n',keywords:"diabetic retinopathy, mesenchymal stem cells, cell therapy, regenerative stem cell therapy, neurodegenerative diseases",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79169.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79169.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79169",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79169",totalDownloads:54,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:44,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"September 1st 2021",dateReviewed:"September 28th 2021",datePrePublished:"October 28th 2021",datePublished:"April 6th 2022",dateFinished:"October 28th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This overview was evaluated by the development of diabetic retinopathy (DR) and the stem cell therapy approach. DR is a microvascular complication of diabetes mellitus, characterized by damage to the retinal blood vessels leading to progressive loss of vision. However, the pathophysiological mechanisms are complicated and not completely understood yet. The current treatment strategies have included medical, laser, intravitreal, and surgical approaches. It is known that the use of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC), which has a great potential, is promising for the treatment of many degenerative disorders, including the eye. In retinal degenerative diseases, MSCs were ameliorated retinal neurons and retinal pigmented epithelial cells in both in vitro and in vivo studies. Stem cell therapies show promise in neurodegenerative diseases. However, it is very important to know which type of stem cell will be used in which situations, the amount of stem cells to be applied, the method of application, and its physiological/neurophysiological effects. Therefore, it is of great importance to evaluate this subject physiologically. After stem cell application, its safety and efficacy should be followed for a long time. In the near future, widespread application of regenerative stem cell therapy may be a standard treatment in DR.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79169",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79169",book:{id:"11039",slug:"diabetic-eye-disease-from-therapeutic-pipeline-to-the-real-world"},signatures:"Sevil Kestane",authors:[{id:"416701",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sevil",middleName:"-",surname:"Kestane",fullName:"Sevil Kestane",slug:"sevil-kestane",email:"kestanesevil@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Diabetes and diabetic retinopathy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Stem cells",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Embryonic stem cells (ESC)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Adult stem cells",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Mesenchymal stem cells and retinal degenerations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. 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International Journal of Advances in Science, Engineering and Technology (IJASEAT). 2009, 2019;7(3):5-11 DOIONLINE NO - IJASEAT-IRAJ-DOIONLINE-16111'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Sevil Kestane",address:"kestanesevil@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Medical Faculty, Department of Physiology, Basic Medical Science, Kirşehir Ahi Evran University, Turkey
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1. Introduction
Bridges are engineering structures which are subjected to dynamic actions, variable in time—repeated millions of times, and inconsistently. The endurance of steel bridges in service is determined mainly by fatigue, which usually causes catastrophic failures, and corrosion, which ordinarily results in degradation failures [1, 2, 3]. Many early welded bridges in Europe were fractured over the period 1925–1936 and later [4]. Many failures and catastrophic events happened due to fatigue and fracture despite the pioneering works of August Wöhler and other scientists [5, 6]. As a result, the limit state analysis of structures with a probabilistic approach became necessary.
Fractures led to a prohibition on using welding for early high-strength steels [7, 8]. As a result, welding was allowed only on mild steels. It was not until the late 1950s that some fatigue requirements were introduced into the design of steel railway bridges. It took another decade for these to be considered for road bridges; this started the modern approach to fatigue.
Each welded structure possesses discontinuity, or cracks and other imperfections resulting from manufacture or welding. These do not show any growth or instability while the loading rate is relatively low, below threshold fatigue strength. This means that such a stress range does not cause crack propagation. The endurance of steel structures or fatigue details with imperfections may be determined by testing small specimens or numerical analysis.
There are still many welded steel bridges in service which were manufactured in periods of poor quality of both materials and welded joints as well as few requirements for fatigue. After many years in service, each steel structure also undergoes what is known as functional aging, and its structural steel is subjected to structural aging. The mechanism of the aging process may be described by the classical separation theory or the newer dislocation blocking theory.
The quantitative results of welded butt splice quality obtained over 37 years of the testing of welded railway bridges in Poland are given. The radiographic examinations were conducted by the Steel Construction Chair at the West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin [3]. The radiographic tests on the welded joints were supplemented by laboratory fatigue tests and more recently by Finite Element Method (FEM) analysis.
2. Fatigue-induced structural changes in steels
It is assumed that the basic factor describing the properties of a material is the changes in internal material structure resulting from the structural degradation processes described among other things in [3, 9, 10, 11]. This is mainly concerned with the decreasing value of the impact strength, sometimes even by several times. The comparison level for such a phenomenon is the difference in material properties of actual steel versus normalized, as the other has material properties from the time of the structure’s construction. The simulation of these properties is carried out by thermal annealing. For this purpose, specimens are annealed at a temperature of 930°C (steels of C ≤ 0.26%) for an hour and then cooled in air. This way the minimal possible grain size in the steel is achieved.
This process increases yield strength and at the same time lowers the ductile-brittle transition temperature, i.e. significantly increases mechanical properties (Figure 1). Sometimes, astonishing results are obtained. For example, from the railway bridge over the Warta River in Gorzów Wielkopolski (western Poland), two types of steel specimens were tested for Charpy impact energy.
Figure 1.
Impact energy KV(T) for naturally aged (S) and normalized (N) specimens from a plate girder railway bridge constructed in 1938.
The bridge was constructed for the German Railways in 1938, using German normalized mild steel St37-12 (Figure 1). The tests refer to specimens which were
naturally aged S without any measures;
normalized N, i.e. annealed at 930°C for an hour and then cooled in air.
A significant aging effect was found in the structural steel after 77 years in service. At −20°C, the impact energy was 19.2 times higher.
The results of impact energy tests at temperature −20°C for nine steel grades from eight bridges constructed in the years 1887–1938 are shown in Figure 2. Two types of specimens were tested: naturally aged and normalized. The steel in post-service conditions showed a very small KV impact energy value.
Figure 2.
Notch toughness of tested bridge steels at temperature −20°C for naturally aged (S) and normalized (N) specimens.
The actual ascertained KV values are only from 4 to 12 J. This dependence concerns all the steels tested independently of carbon content from 0.016% to 0.258%.
Such a condition shows brittleness in the material; this is a particular danger when it is located in areas of stress concentrations, for example around welding imperfections (WIs) in a weld – Figure 3. Welding imperfections (WIs) are crack initiators when the loads reach a prescribed critical value. The largest concentration of normal stresses σx is caused by ellipsoidal welding imperfections and longitudinal ones with elliptical cross sections. For these two groups of welding imperfections, the maximum stress gradient increases as the curvature radius value of the sharpest shape of welding imperfections lowers.
Figure 3.
Stress distribution σx near welding imperfections: longitudinal – I, ellipsoidal – II, and globular – III [3, 12].
For example, for welding imperfections with shape characteristic t/ρ = 100, the shape coefficient values u = y/t = 1 are 13.63 and 21.00 Figure 3. In the case of globular welding imperfections of a small stress concentration—class III with a sharp shape—it is independent from the imperfection size and is σx = 2.04·σ [3, 12], where σ is the design stress.
Tensile stresses near a notch may be the effect of external loading, residual stresses, or both simultaneously [13]. It is not possible to exclude brittle fracture even if there is no external loading.
According to the literature [14], the fatigue strength at 105 cycles to strength at 2·106 cycles ratio is in the range 1.44–2.45, with the average value 1.85. Similar values of 1.75 and 1.73 were obtained for Polish mild steel (St3SX: C = 0.160%, Mn = 0.498%) [15] – Figure 4. Tested were as follows:
naturally aged specimens S, for 35 years (fy = 260 MPa, fu = 405 MPa),
artificially overaged specimens NN (fy = 495 MPa, fu = 515 MPa).
Figure 4.
Regression straights obtained from fatigue tests on: naturally aged specimens (S) and additionally aged specimens (NN) [15].
Specimens NN were cold-deformed up to 10% relative elongation and then heated up to temperature 250°C, kept at this temperature for an hour, and then cooled in air.
The value of the infinitive fatigue strength Zrj = 145.3 MPa of naturally aged steel for 35 years is 55.9% of its yield strength fy = 260 MPa and for the overaged steel this value is Zrj = 157.3 MPa which constitutes only 31.8% of its yield strength. As a result of additional aging (specimens NN), there was an unexpected very large increase in steel yield strength fy of 90.4%, and ultimate strength fu increased by 27.1%.
The specific character of bridge loadings and the structural changes in steels due to aging are the main reasons why a general hypothesis for their fatigue estimation has yet to be proposed [16]. Phenomenological models are still used despite the significant number of studies undertaken, especially for riveted structures, and more excellent research tools for testing have appeared as well as the possibility of numerical analysis. A problem has arisen as to how to adapt the information from laboratory fatigue tests to the design for the durability of structures in service. Knowledge of both the loading spectrum which a structure will be carrying and problems with butt splices have become necessary.
Welded structures under high stresses are damaged mainly by fatigue crack growth or brittleness. Hence, fracture mechanics has recognized the most important issues:
discovering and locating flat welding imperfections in a welded joint,
determining flat welding imperfection dimensions precisely, especially in the joint depth.
Over the years 1970–1980, the International Welding Institute introduced the “fitness for purpose” criterion, which relies on the formulation of fracture mechanics calculations for determining the permissible size of welding imperfections, thereby confirming the required quality and durability of structures according to standards and technical requirements. The determination of specific quality levels and example calculations as well as the determination of safety coefficients are given in [17, 18].
3. Quality of welds in railway bridges according to Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
The aging of metallic materials favors the formation of brittle cracks as the ductile-brittle transition temperature clearly approaches higher values. Strains associated with aging depend on the location in the structure. They are particularly dangerous in stress concentration areas, e.g. around welding imperfections (WIs) and in heat-affected zones (HAZs). According to Neuber [3, 12], the largest concentration of stresses is associated with ellipsoidal and longitudinal welding imperfections with an elliptical cross section (Figure 3).These types of imperfections include cracks and lack of fusion, as well as band slag intrusion and incomplete side fusion. This issue is becoming particularly significant for bridges constructed after 1936, considering the poor quality of connecting welds. This has been confirmed by radiographic tests performed on bridges in service on Polish railway lines [3].
The Steel Structure Chair at the Technical University in Szczecin (now WPUT) carried out radiological tests on butt splices in the steel girders of around 200 railway bridges on the Polish railway network. For 154 bridges, including 124 plate girder bridges and 30 truss bridges, the exact time of construction was also established.
The range and results of in situ nondestructive radiological tests on the railway bridges are given in two histograms (Figures 5 and 6). The tests consist of the sum of 5-year intervals which take into account the bridge construction period from 1936 to 1975. Figure 5, in the upper part of the histogram, shows the number of bridges tested and the number of X-rays taken over a particular 5-year interval. At the same time, the number of internal structural cracks in connecting welds is given. These cracks were discovered on 437 X-rays. They constitute 2.8% of the total number of welds tested, equaling 15,875 units. This number includes 10,507 X-rays on butt joints in tensile components and the remaining 5368 X-rays on compress components. Simultaneously, the lower part of the histogram gives the number of welded joints tested over given 5-year intervals.
Figure 5.
Numerical specification of the bridges and welded joints tested.
Figure 6.
Specification for bridges and joints with hot cracks.
Figure 6 shows the proportional and numerical specification of hot cracks detected in bridge structures for given 5-year intervals of construction. Apart from one crack from 1974, the remaining cracks were ascertained in bridges constructed before 1960. According to Eurocode 1993-1-9 for the design of steel structures, such cracks do not exclude structures from service. The upper parts of the histogram (Figure 6) show the proportional and numerical specification of bridges with internal cracks in welded butt splices. Of note is that the majority of cracks were found in the oldest historical bridges from the years 1936–1940. For the seven bridges from that period tested, cracks were discovered in six structures, which constitute 85.7%. They were discovered on 124 welded butt splices from the general lot of 696 pieces tested.
Similar unfavorable test results were obtained during examination of the bridges constructed over the years 1946–1950. Cracks were found in 18 structures (37.5%) on 270 X-rays (5.5%).
4. Fatigue tests on butt welds
All the cracks in the butt splices of the bridge structures are internal hot cracks. They arise in the weld metal and HAZ of a joint during the crystallization process in the liquidus–solidus temperature range (Figure 3).
Service fatigue cracks appear in stress concentration zones caused by structural details and increase their value by a concentration factor caused by nonmetallic inclusions. Therefore, the development of a fatigue crack depends on many factors: the shape and dimensions of a structural component as well as the way and magnitude of loading. The larger the structure, the smaller the critical crack length necessary to cause the final brittle fracture [3, 18]. Development of fatigue cracking appears in stages under fluctuating loads, and their increase is caused by the weakening of a structure’s strength. This is why, in the literature, the stress is put down to the influence of the imperfection’s geometry and its location in the weld.
The literature gives different models for the initiation and proliferation of fatigue cracks in a nondeterministic approach. Despite many attempts to describe the fatigue mechanism, given in 64 hypotheses [19], no general hypothesis has yet to be formulated [18, 20, 21]. We are still stuck in the phenological description, despite having more and better research tools and numerical calculations. It appears that when assessing the endurance of bridges with cracks in their welded joints, it is highly useful to analyze their service behavior and the results of laboratory tests.
In Poland, the pioneer of the in situ field testing of welded butt splices on railway bridges was Professor Andrzej Fabiszewski from the Technical University of Szczecin. The procedure understood the principle that a weld is the weakest point in welded structures. The results of these tests were a great surprise to the organizers. In 34 bridges, internal technological cracks and hot cracks were ascertained in 437 welded butt splices (Figure 6).
To answer the question, “What do we do with theses bridges?”, laboratory fatigue strength tests were carried out on three typical structural solutions which reflected the details in the early welded bridges. Specimens U, C, and P and the test results are given in Figure 7. The tests were carried out on 60 specimens, each time loaded at 5 loading levels. The tests are presented more precisely in [3]. They allowed, using the least-square method, fatigue class values according to EN ISO 5817: 2014 to be estimated [22, 23]. The following fatigue classes (ΔσC) were obtained for individual specimens from different constructions:
specimens U with butt welds of an acceptable quality level, fatigue class ΔσC = 125 MPa.
specimens C with an internal crack in the butt welds, fatigue class ΔσC = 90 MPa.
specimens P with butt welds covered by one-sided rhombic cover plates, fatigue class ΔσC = 79 MPa.
Figure 7.
Fatigue strength test results for U – Sound welds (uncracked), C – Welds with internal cracks, and P – Welds covered by one-sided rhomboid cover plates.
The tests were carried out using a pulsator of frequency 5 Hz and stress ratio R = 0.1. Of note is the low fatigue class ΔσC = 79 MPa for specimens “strengthened” with rhombic cover plates. The rhombic cover plates had been intended to secure welded butt splices in early welded bridges, but the fatigue effects appeared to be quite the opposite. The results of the tests (Figure 7) clearly show that for the number of load cycles Ni larger than 1.1·106, the fatigue strength of the specimens with cover plates is lower than the fatigue strength of the specimens with cracked butt welds (type C).
The results of fatigue tests on 16 specimens with rhomboid cover plates give cause for reflection (Figure 8). Specimens with dimensions 180×12×720 mm were manufactured from Polish mild steel St3M for bridges (C = 0.19%, Mn = 0.66%) of fy = 312 MPa and fu = 452 MPa. The tests were carried out according to the Polish standard on fatigue tests on metals using five stress levels: 75, 80, 100, 120, and 140 MPa. The tests were performed on a pulsator with 5-Hz frequency. The first cracks appeared near the welded end of the cover plate and spread toward the specimen edges. In three specimens with stress levels 80, 100, and 140 MPa, the cracks appeared at 99·103, 168.9·103, and 20·103 cycles before total fracture. However, two specimens at stress level 80 MPa were not damaged, despite being loaded by 1819.8·103 and 836.8·103 cycles after the first cracks appeared (Figure 9). The test results for 13 damaged specimens allow us to work out the logarithmic regression equation.
Figure 8.
Fatigue test results on 16 specimens and regression analysis.
Figure 9.
Undamaged specimens after 3637·103 and 2827·103 load cycles (cracks after 1817.2·103 and 1990.2·103 load cycles).
The tests show stress concentrations by rhomboid cover plates mainly at their ends [14]. The fatigue strength value resulting from using cover plates depends on their shapes, as well as their length (Table 1). The lowest value is reached when the additional element is shortened up to 300 mm.
Table 1.
Effect of cover plates on the fatigue strength.
5. Stresses in welds with cracks
The fatigue behavior of metals is determined precisely in [20, 24, 25, 26]. Fatigue hypotheses, dislocation structures, fatigue cracking, and their fractures are given there. The issue of no crack growth in existing structures in service is also discussed there. Such cracks appear when the initiation crack stress is lower than the value of stress necessary for crack propagation. The undamaged service of these structures and the lack of propagation cracks is because no situation has arisen during service which would lead to their appearance. Many hypotheses resulting from laboratory tests have been put forward, including the oldest tests on wagon axle models (Ø 50 mm), carried out by T.V. Buchwalter as early as 1938 [27, 28]. Generally, there is no one solution for the three-dimensional problem of fatigue fractures. However, a material experiment review laid out the directions for further research to find a more precise solution to the problem. There is the optimistic fact that as early as 1965, Kudriawcew [29] stated “structural sections in which non-propagating cracks develop may be stronger than sections constructed with notches.”
The prediction of eventual fatigue cracking in welded butt splices in the railway bridges tested was assessed on the basis of strength analysis for three selected bridges. These are plate girder bridges constructed in 1938, 1938, and 1947 on different railway lines. Their technical characteristics are given in Table 2. This is a compilation of requirements collated in two papers [7, 16] relating to the structures.
Bridge No. (year built)
Number
Span length l, m
Stress σ, MPa
Girder (tested)
X-rays (cracks)
Dead load
Live actions
Dead + measured
LM 71
Service
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
I (1938)
6 (2)
128 (8)
22.40
a = 10/14
81/108
47/63
b = 12/14
94/111
54/64
c = 13/15
99/114
57/65
II (1939)
6 (1)
144 (39)
20.20
a = 14/17
116/137
68/80
b = 15/17
122/138
74/84
c = 15/17
124/137
72/80
III (1947)
12 (3)
360 (5)
21.20
a = 9/10
80/93
47/55
50/59
b = 10/11
89/101
52/59
52/61
Table 2.
Bridges, their technical data, and normal stresses in butt welds with cracks as well as behind cover plates.
The analysis was undertaken on the three bridges. They were constructed either side of WWII. In total, there were six examinations of the welded butt splices, and three additional tests limited to the testing of splices with cracks. The additional examinations were executed in 5–8-year time intervals. Overall, 632 X-rays were taken and 49 technological hot cracks were discovered. The calculated stress values at the butt splice locations in the lower chords of the plate girders are given in columns 5–7 in Table 2. Column 8 shows the results of service stresses measured on the welded joints of bridge III located on the Katowice–Tczew coal railway line. The permanent load and the electric locomotive ST-21 (live load) are taken into account. The great similarity of stresses calculated theoretically (column 7) and stresses measured “in situ” on bridge III (column 8) are of note.
Locations of welded butt splices:
The calculations assume the creation of a national set of standards, i.e. Polish bridge standards: PN-85/S-10030 and PN-82/S-10052 for actions and steel bridges, respectively. The characteristic values of the live action effects with dynamic factor Φ are taken into account. The standard load model in the form of the contemporary Eurocode railway traffic model LM 71 for loading class k = +2 is under consideration. The stresses were determined on the butt weld and cover plate axis as well as in the flange plates just behind the ends of the rhombic plates (values in denominators). It is easy to see that the service values of stresses in column 7 are from 60 to 70% of the stress values for the standard loading (LM 71) in column 6. This means that they are also lower than the values of Zrj = ΔσC = 79 MPa determined according to Figure 7, i.e. the service stresses are lower than the limit value for such joints determined in [3].
Considering the load spectra recommended by the JRC (Joint Research Centre) for railway bridges [1], the above value of loading will be smaller. The authors conducted such analyses and described them in [2, 30].
The load spectrum given in Figure 10 according to the old British standard BS 153 was established in structural calculations [29, 30, 31]. The method allows the service life of bridge structures to be prolonged by as much as three times. The authors recommend this method for the endurance assessment of historical bridges.
Figure 10.
Stress ratio frequency.
In some countries, the results of traffic load measurements have been published, giving the load spectra for analyzing existing bridges [32, 33]. New standards and guides for the testing and assessment of existing bridges have appeared [19, 34, 35, 36, 37].
6. Numerical analysis of welded butt splices with cover plates in bridges
The first welded bridge designers were aware that “a weld is the weakest place in the structure.” Because of welding imperfections, their resistance is lower than that of the welded material. The simplest and the most economical way to eliminate these differences seemed to be enlargement of the welded joint section by adding cover plates which compensated for the weakened section. In the welded plate girders of railway bridges constructed up to 1939 and in the period from 1945 to 1953, the butt splices of webs and flanges were covered with one- or two-sided cover plates [3].
In the 154 railway bridges which were checked radiographically, internal cracking was discovered in 438 welded joints. In this group, there were 28 plate girder structures; the constructions of their lower flanges are shown in Figure 11. In 18 structures, their butt splices are covered with one-sided rhomboid cover plates from the side of the girder longitudinal axis. The rhomboid cover plates are from 90 to 200 mm in width and from 160 to 340 mm long.
Figure 11.
Details of welded butt splices with cracks in 28 plate girder bridges.
To assess the endurance of such types of joints, fatigue strength tests were undertaken, which were discussed in Section 4. The results of the tests and the regression line are given in Figure 8. The determined infinitive fatigue strength value Zrj = 79 MPa at Ni = 2·106 load cycles constitutes only 26% of yield strength fy = 302 MPa for the steel of the specimens tested. It is worth mentioning that for three stress levels σ = 80, 100, and 140 MPa, on five specimens seven cracks appeared, as shown in Figure 12.
Figure 12.
Cracks in flanges with rhomboid cover plates after fatigue tests: The top three specimens – Damaged and the bottom two specimens – Undamaged.
The results of the fatigue tests show a very low fatigue limit value for the welded butt splices covered with rhomboid plates. The problem was solved numerically using an FEM model as shown in Figure 13. More details of the numerical analysis are given in [38, 39].
Figure 13.
Numerical model for analysis of a welded butt splice with cover plates.
For the numerical analysis, the welded splice was modeled using the FEM method (Figure 14) with Inventor Nastran software. Material parameters for structural steel are fy = 249 MPa and fu = 360 MPa. The stresses were calculated in four cross sections and on nine points for each section. Loading was modeled as 162, 173, 216, 260, and 303 kN tensile forces with 75, 80, 100, 120, and 140 MPa course tensile stresses in the flange. The same stress levels were formulated as for the laboratory fatigue tests.
Figure 14.
Details of the numerical model with cracks and structural steel material data.
Analysis of the tensile stresses in the welded joint allowed us to formulate some remarks:
rhomboid cover plates do not lower the stresses in a butt weld as was initially assumed (see Table 1); it was expected that the resistance of the joint would be increased by 25.9%;
cover plates appeared to be unnecessary components, causing some additional fatigue problems;
at the ends of the cover plates, the concentration of stresses appear within a range of 1.47–1.69;
the stress concentration together with the smallest concentration factor for globular (spherical) nonmetallic inclusions of 2.04 are the reasons for the formation of one-sided stochastic cracking already at the 80-MPa stress level (Figure 13); thus σ = 80.1.69.2.04 = 275 MPa which is greater than the steel yield strength fy = 249 MPa [39].
Cracks appeared at three stress levels, σ = 80, 100, and 140 MPa, with a varied number of load cycles from 535,000 to 990,200.
These are fatigue cracks developing in stages, as opposed to the rapidly developing cracks in the fatigue tests of welded joints on specimens U, C, and P (Figure 8). All the cracks had a similar fracture as shown in Figure 15, with three developing trajectories: I – crack initiations, II – growth, and III – final fracture. The scheme of fatigue crack zones is shown in Figure 16.
Figure 15.
Fracture surface of a broken specimen after the fatigue testing (see Figure 13).
Figure 16.
Scheme of a fatigue crack: Zone I – Origin, zone II – Fatigue zone and zone III – Final fracture.
The stress distribution on the circumference of the cracks is similar, with the smallest values in the upper zone. The values are equal to the upper values of yield strength fy = 280 MPa, while the maximum stress σ ∼ 306 MPa appeared at the crack tip.
A study of the literature shows that no direct criterion has been established for precise cracking in zones I and II, e.g. the zones of settled crack growth, and zone III (unstable crack growth). This has not been achieved since 1913 (C. E. Inglis) despite the development of 64 growing hypotheses at the microstructure level and thousands of publications [27, 28, 40, 41]. For example, after the chapter, “Fatigue crack growth” in [27], there is a list of 469 supplementary readings. Crack growth is described there probabilistically in a way that is comprehensible only for specialists.
Considering the results of the numerical calculations of stresses in cracked joints in Figure 17, a new way for describing ductile fracture growth (zone II) may be suggested. The analysis takes into account two laws of physics:
ductile fracture growth may be restrained at any moment by lowering stresses below the material’s yield strength;
the moving peaks of the upper size of the fracture with length 2 t on the top surface will first reach the elastic stress area σ = 99–100 and 100–104 MPa at stress level 100 MPa as well as σ = 172–180 and 176–180 MPa at stress level 140 MPa – see Figure 17. This is guaranteed by the geometry of the fracture t/h ∼ 2 and is assured by fracture surface analysis which shows that the fracture growth is along the top surface rather than into the material.
Figure 17.
Concentration of stresses at the ends of cover plates for stress levels: 100 and 140 MPa.
There is a reduction in edge surface stresses on the top surface to the measured values 274–310 MPa, i.e. to the upper yield strength of the material fyH = 280 MPa. The growth of ductile fracture disappears at the edge points on the top surface. This phenomenon evolves in the nearby “deep” points of the fracture and according to the stress equalizing rule, it gradually restrains a two-sided fracture from proceeding to the tip of the fracture. The cracking growth in zone II disappears totally.
Generally, it should be stated that no comprehensive model for a general description of fatigue fractures has yet been devised. All models described in the literature relate only to growth zones I and II. The only known model for transition from fracture zone to final fracture, zone III, was devised by A.H. Cottrel and N.J. Petch [40, 42]. The Cottrel–Petch theory describes the ductile-brittle transition properties of steel. A basis for the transition is assumed yield strength σpl.
When the yield strength is larger than the fracture growth stress, then the material is brittle and vice versa. “Brittle fracture will occur when the work of applied stress σ during fracture growth reaches the effective energy of newly formed surfaces.” This means that brittle fracture will occur under stress σ = σpl (Figure 17).
An explanation for this phenomenon in relation to the five cracks in the three damaged joints (Figure 12) is given in [38]. In the analysis, the results obtained during fatigue strength tests for three types of joints were used (Figure 7). Practically, this applies to the infinitive fatigue strength values Zrj given as a function of load cycles Ni.
7. Conclusions
During their service life, bridges, like other structures, undergo functional and material degradation. In many cases, tests show that despite non-strict conformity with actual design standards, they are able to carry actual service loadings. According to [1], calculations of existing steel bridges resistance should be carried out more precisely and in a more readable manner following a three-phase assessment: a preliminary evaluation, a detailed investigation, and an expert investigation. Some other studies have recommended using five assessment levels: a bridge rating, a preliminary evaluation, a detailed investigation, an expert investigation, and advance testing [16, 35, 36, 37]. Application of the assessment procedure led to improvements in knowledge and a calibration of confidence factors.
At the same time, the project “Sustainable bridges – assessment for future traffic demands and longer lives” with nine packages, deals with the increasing capacity and service life of existing railway bridges [35]. New methods for the resistance assessment of existing bridges were developed in standards and guidelines using calibrated partial safety coefficients.
The Steel Structure Chair at the Technical University in Szczecin (now WPUT) contributed to these issues by carrying out a multiyear program for the quality-level assessment of welded butt splices in existing railway bridges in service in Poland. Radiological tests on butt splices in the steel girders of around 200 railway bridges were carried out. Nearly, 200 bridges were tested using X-ray examination over a 37-year period. The number of joints tested was over 15,000; cracks were discovered in 400 welded joints in 34 bridges tested. Repeated tests on welded joints with cracks were undertaken as well as laboratory investigations for their complex assessment. Partial results of the laboratory fatigue testing are given in the paper.
Numerical analysis of tensile stresses in welded splices was undertaken to support and confirm the results of laboratory fatigue tests. The results of the FEM analysis of tensile stresses in welded joints with rhomboid cover plates are given. The FEM method allowed us to determine tensile stresses at each service stage. The analysis allowed for:
negative assessment of the welded joint type with cover plates – total disqualification of cover plates;
suggesting a new hypothesis for the initiation and growth of the surface fatigue fractures;
conformity assessment for the Cottrell–Petch theory for the transition from ductile fracture to brittle state at the final fracture.
\n',keywords:"welded bridges, reliability, welded joints, fatigue, NDT, imperfections",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81426.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81426.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81426",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81426",totalDownloads:13,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 19th 2021",dateReviewed:"March 9th 2022",datePrePublished:"April 21st 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 21st 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"During a decades-long program from 1953 to 1990, the quality of welded joints in railway bridges in Poland was assessed and quantified. It was discovered that many welded joints have technological cracks, and their quality is poor, especially in old constructions. Nearly, 200 bridges were tested using X-ray examination. The number of joints tested was over 15,000; cracks were discovered in 400 welded joints in the 34 bridges tested. To solve the problem, repeated examinations on welded joints with imperfections were undertaken and laboratory fatigue tests were performed. The tests and numerical analysis allowed fatigue behavior and tensile stresses in welded butt splices with cover plates to be recognized and excluded such a structural solution in bridges. The existing discontinuities and imperfections in welded joints following many years in service show no growths or forming of new cracks, as the applied stresses are below the threshold fatigue strength. As a result of decades of service, steel bridges undergo functional aging, and their structural steels undergo structural aging. There is a need to both harmonize differentiated procedures and create national recommendations to assess their safe endurance. Therefore, of use may be the findings presented in the chapter.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81426",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81426",signatures:"Janusz Hołowaty and Bernard Wichtowski",book:{id:"11080",type:"book",title:"Engineering Principles - Welding and Residual Stresses",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineering Principles - Welding and Residual Stresses",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Kavian Omar Cooke and Prof. Ronaldo Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-385-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-384-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-386-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Fatigue-induced structural changes in steels",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Quality of welds in railway bridges according to Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Fatigue tests on butt welds",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Stresses in welds with cracks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Numerical analysis of welded butt splices with cover plates in bridges",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Kühn B, Lukic M, Nussbaumer A, Günther H, Helmerich R, Herion S, et al. . In: Sedlacek G, Bijlaard F, Geradin M, Pinto Vieira A, Dimova S, editors. Assessment of Existing Steel Structures—Recommendations for Estimation of the Remaining Fatigue Life. EUR 23252 EN. Luxembourg (Luxembourg): Office for Official Publications of the European Communities; 2008 89 p. JRC43401'},{id:"B2",body:'Scheer J. Failed Bridges. Case Studies, Causes and Consequences. Berlin: Ernst &Sohn; 2010 307 p'},{id:"B3",body:'Wichtowski B. Fatigue Strength of Welded Butt Joints in Steel Railway Bridges. Szczecin: PS Scientific Works No. 572; 2002 203 p'},{id:"B4",body:'Barsom JM, Rolfe ST. Fracture and Fatigue Control in Structures. Applications of Fracture Mechanics. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: ASTM; 1999. 516 p. DOI: 10.1520/MNL41-3RD-EB'},{id:"B5",body:'Zenner H, Hinkelmann K. August Wöhler – Founder of fatigue strength research. On the 200th anniversary of August Wohler birth. Steel Construction. 2019;2:156-162. DOI: 10.1002/stco.201900011'},{id:"B6",body:'Hołowaty J, Wichtowski B. Properties of structural steels in bridges on a railway line No. 275—The line of August Wöhler fatigue research. Inżynieriai Budownictwo. 2020;1-2:31-35'},{id:"B7",body:'Hołowaty J. Properties of high tensile steels in historical railway bridges. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers—Construction Materials. 2018;171(6):234-245. DOI: 10.1680/jcoma.17.00012'},{id:"B8",body:'Hołowaty J. Structural steels of historical welded bridges. Welding Technology Review. 2018;90(5):99-102. DOI: 10.26628/ps.v90i5.907'},{id:"B9",body:'Wichtowski B, Jasiński W. Microstructural degradation processes in normalized mild steel from a railway bridge. Welding Technology Review. 2015;87:94-99'},{id:"B10",body:'Hołowaty J. Toughness tests on steels from old railway bridges. Procedia Structural Integrity. 2017;5:1043-1050. DOI: 10.1016/j.prostr.2017.07.067'},{id:"B11",body:'Wichtowski B, Hołowaty J. Degradation processes in normalized mild- and low-alloy steel building structures in service. In: F. Wald and M. Jandera, editors. Stability and Ductility of Steel Structures 2019: Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Stability and Ductility of Steel Structures (SDSS 2019). September 11–13, 2019; Prague, Czech Republic; CRC Press; 2019: 1275–1282'},{id:"B12",body:'Neuber H. Theory of Notch Stresses—Principles for Exact Stress Calculation. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Edwards Inc.; 1946 181 p'},{id:"B13",body:'Sonsino CM, Fricke W, de Bruyne F, Hoppe A, Ahmadi A, Zhangd G. Notch stress concepts for the fatigue assessment of welded joints—Background and applications. International Journal of Fatigue. 2012;34:2-16'},{id:"B14",body:'Gurnay TR. Fatigue of Welded Structures. Warszawa: PWN; 1976 356 p'},{id:"B15",body:'Wichtowski B. Fatigue life of the oldest welded bridges in Poland in the light of research. Welded Technology Review. 2017;89:75-79'},{id:"B16",body:'Pipinado A, editor. Innovative Bridge Design Handbook. Construction, Rehabilitation and Maintenance. Amsterdam, Boston, Heidelberg, London, New York, Tokyo: Elsevier; 2016 844 p'},{id:"B17",body:'Klimpel A. Control and Quality Assurance in Welding. Gliwice: WPŚ; 1998 266 p'},{id:"B18",body:'Rykaluk K. Cracks in Steel Structures. Wrocław: DWE; 1999 232 p'},{id:"B19",body:'Bakhat B, Humar J, Jalali J, Mufti A, Newhook J, Rahman S, et al. Guidelines for Structural Health Monitoring. Design Manual No. 2. ISIS Canada. 2001. 125 p'},{id:"B20",body:'Fisher JW. Fatigue and Fracture in Steel Bridges. Case Studies. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1984 315 p'},{id:"B21",body:'Fisher JS, Mertz DR. Hundreds of bridges—Thousands of cracks. Civil Engineering (ASCE). 1985;55:64-67'},{id:"B22",body:'Di Battista JD, Adamson DEJ, Kulak GL. Evaluation of remaining fatigue life for riveted truss bridges. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering. 1998;15(4):678-691'},{id:"B23",body:'Wichtowski B, Wichtowski M. Fatigue strength of butt welds with cover plates according Eurocode 3. Welding Technology Review. 2011;83(3):36-43'},{id:"B24",body:'Stüssi F. Entwurf und Berechnung von Stahlbauten. Berlin–Heidelberg: Springer–Verlag; 1958 577 p'},{id:"B25",body:'Caiza P, Ummenhofer T, Correia J, De Jesus A. Applying the Weibull and Stüssi methods that derive reliable Wöhler curves to historical German bridges. Practice Periodical on Structural Design. 2020;25(4) 9 p'},{id:"B26",body:'Kik T, Slovaček M, Moravec J. Hot cracking of welded joints—Tests and numerical simulations. Welded Technology Review. 2012;23(4):125-130'},{id:"B27",body:'Kacańda S. Fatigue Cracking of Metals. Warszawa: WNT; 1985 491 p'},{id:"B28",body:'Kacanda S. Fatigue Failure of Metals. Netherlands: Springer; 2011 382 p'},{id:"B29",body:'Czudek H, Pietraszek T. Endurance of Steel Bridge Structures under Variable Loads. Warszawa: WKŁ; 1980 140 p'},{id:"B30",body:'Wiśniewski DF, Casas JR, Ghosn. Codes for safety assessment of existing bridges—Current state and further development. Structural Engineering International. 2012;4:552-561. DOI: 10.2749/101686612X13363929517857'},{id:"B31",body:'British Standard BS 153: Specification for Steel Girder Bridges. Part 3A. Loads. BSI; 1972 39 p'},{id:"B32",body:'Herzog M. Realistischer Betriebsfestigkeitsnachweisfürstählerne. Eisenbahnbrücken Der Stahlbau. 1974;10:316-318'},{id:"B33",body:'Pelikan W. Eine Betrachtungüber die Gröβe der Betriebslasten von Eisenbahn – und Straβenbrücken und ihre Auswirkung auf die Bemessungdieser Bauwerke. Die Bauingenieur. 1968;6:207-214'},{id:"B34",body:'Helmerich R, Kühn B, Nussbaumer A. Assessment of existing steel structures. A guideline for estimation of the remaining fatigue life. Structure and Infrastructure Engineering. 2007;1:245-255'},{id:"B35",body:'Guideline for load and resistance assessment of existing European railway bridges: Advices on the use of advanced methods. Sustainable Bridges–Assessment for Future Traffic Demands and Longer Lives. SB-LRA. Technical Report. Skanska Sverige Ab, COWI A/S. 2007, 428 p'},{id:"B36",body:'Al-Amrani M, Aygül M. Fatigue design of steel and composite bridges. In: Raport. Chalmers University of Technology; 2014 156 p'},{id:"B37",body:'Lukić M, Al-Amrani M, Aygül M, Bokesjö M, Urushadze S, Frýba L, et al. Bridge fatigue guidance—Meeting sustainable design and assessment (BRiFaG). In: Final Report EUR 25866 EN. Luxembourg: Publication Office of the European Union; 2013 158 p'},{id:"B38",body:'Wichtowski B, Konecki K. Fatigue strength of steel plate girder railway bridges with butt joints reinforced with one-sided rhomb-shaped cover plates. Welded Technology Review. 2021;93(3):31-40. DOI: 10.26628/wtr.v93i3.1139'},{id:"B39",body:'Wichtowski B, Konecki K. The finite element analysis of fatigue cracks in a welded butt splice with one-sided rhomboid cover plates. Inżynieriai Budownictwo. 2021;3:107-113'},{id:"B40",body:'Wyrzykowski JW, Pleszakow E, Sieniawski J. Deformations and Cracking of Metals. Warszawa: WNT; 1999 491 p'},{id:"B41",body:'Neville W, Sachs PE. Understanding the surface features of fatigue fractures: How they describe the failure cause and the failure history. Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention. 2005;5(4):11-15'},{id:"B42",body:'Amstrong A. 60 years of hall-Petch: Past to present nano-scale connections. Materials Transactions. 2014;55:2-12'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Janusz Hołowaty",address:"jah@wp.pl",affiliation:'
West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Poland
West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Poland
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His role there involves in-house manufacturing (i.e., casting) of steel as well as testing its mechanical properties and fracture characteristics under various conditions. Dr. Abdallah has also worked at the Rolls-Royce University Technology Centre, Swansea University, where he was involved in the research and development of high-temperature alloys utilised in aero-engines. The power gearbox in the Rolls-Royce Ultrafan aero-engine is one of the major projects on which Dr. Abdallah has been working for several years. He has worked as a consultant for various industries in the United Kingdom, such as Airbus, TIMET, ETD, Rolls-Royce, within Swansea Materials Research and Testing (SMaRT) Ltd. Dr. Abdallah leads or has led, several modules at Swansea University. He also supervises several students working on various projects related to steel and metal alloys as well as the fatigue performance and life predictions of metallic structures. Dr. Abdallah has numerous journal publications, books, and international conferences to his credit. 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The book provides results of research work conducted by experts from all over the globe to add to the research community in the era of the casting process and modelling. The book was edited by two experts in the field of materials science and modelling, Dr. Abdallah and Dr. Aldoumani, whom both have several publications in peer-reviewed journals, worldwide conferences, and scientific books. The book introduces the casting processes and then discusses the various issues and possible solutions. Over the past years, various models have been proposed and utilized to predict the performance of castings. Some of these models proved to be accurate whereas others failed to predict the casting performance. The strength of any predictive tool depends on the employment of physically meaningful parameters that replicate the real-life conditions. This has been illustrated in the current book with such predictive models and finite element (FE) modelling to illustrate the behaviour of castings in real-life conditions.",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"58367",title:"Creep Lifing Models and Techniques",slug:"creep-lifing-models-and-techniques",abstract:"The deformation of structural alloys presents problems for power plants and aerospace applications due to the demand for elevated temperatures for higher efficiencies and reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. The materials used in such applications experience harsh environments which may lead to deformation and failure of critical components. To avoid such catastrophic failures and also increase efficiency, future designs must utilise novel/improved alloy systems with enhanced temperature capability. In recognising this issue, a detailed understanding of creep is essential for the success of these designs by ensuring components that do not experience excessive deformation which may ultimately lead to failure. To achieve this, a variety of parametric methods have been developed to quantify creep and creep fracture in high temperature applications. This study reviews a number of well-known traditionally employed creep lifing methods with some more recent approaches also included. The first section of this paper focuses on predicting the long-term creep-rupture properties which is an area of interest for the power generation sector. The second section looks at pre-defined strains and the re-production of full creep curves based on available data which is pertinent to the aerospace industry where components are replaced before failure.",signatures:"Zakaria Abdallah, Karen Perkins and Cris Arnold",authors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",surname:"Abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",email:"z.a.m.abdallah@swansea.ac.uk"}],book:{id:"6172",title:"Creep",slug:"creep",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"191540",title:"Prof.",name:"Rolf",surname:"Sandström",slug:"rolf-sandstrom",fullName:"Rolf Sandström",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Royal Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},{id:"206667",title:"Prof.",name:"Grzegorz",surname:"Golański",slug:"grzegorz-golanski",fullName:"Grzegorz Golański",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206667/images/system/206667.jpg",biography:"Grzegorz Golański, PhD, is Professor at the Institute of Materials Engineering, Czestochowa University of Technology. He specialises in the study of structure, heat treatment and properties of engineering materials, mainly creep-resistant alloy. He is the author and coauthor of ca. 230 scientific publications worldwide, including 5 monographs and books, more than 30 publications in the Philadelphia list, he won 15 awards. He is also the author and coauthor of ca.90 research works and expert opinions for industries.",institutionString:"Czestochowa University of Technology",institution:{name:"Częstochowa University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"207496",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Dan",surname:"Liu",slug:"dan-liu",fullName:"Dan Liu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Canterbury",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"207762",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",surname:"Lancaster",slug:"robert-lancaster",fullName:"Robert Lancaster",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"207973",title:"Dr.",name:"Dirk John",surname:"Pons",slug:"dirk-john-pons",fullName:"Dirk John Pons",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"208043",title:"Dr.",name:"Spencer",surname:"Jeffs",slug:"spencer-jeffs",fullName:"Spencer Jeffs",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"208702",title:"Prof.",name:"Mieczyslaw",surname:"Rękas",slug:"mieczyslaw-rekas",fullName:"Mieczyslaw Rękas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"AGH University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"208837",title:"Dr.",name:"Joanna",surname:"Jasak",slug:"joanna-jasak",fullName:"Joanna Jasak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"216276",title:"Dr.",name:"Krystyna",surname:"Schneider",slug:"krystyna-schneider",fullName:"Krystyna Schneider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"216926",title:"Dr.",name:"Cezary",surname:"Kolan",slug:"cezary-kolan",fullName:"Cezary Kolan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"attribution-policy",title:"Attribution Policy",intro:"
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Such processes, in turn, set off mass and heat transfer phenomena that influence not only the quality and quantity of crop production but also its environmental cost. While these processes have considerably been analyzed in separate, they strongly interact with one another. For instance, increased radiation (mainly thermal infrared) increases temperature, reduces humidity, consequently increases transpiration, and affects CO2 exchange as well as other reaction rates. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a numerical tool with a solid physical basis which allows, through the construction of a computational model, to simulate the fluid flow environment. Heating, ventilation, and condensation have been analyzed in the greenhouse environment with CFD techniques. The current challenge is the interaction of these processes and their impact on the production system. The present work summarizes some CFD investigations carried out in this topic, in order to analyze the processes of heat and mass transfer in a greenhouse for agronomic purposes.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Cruz Ernesto Aguilar Rodriguez and Jorge Flores Velazquez",authors:[{id:"173578",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Flores-Velazquez",slug:"jorge-flores-velazquez",fullName:"Jorge Flores-Velazquez"}]},{id:"66158",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84706",title:"Numerical Solution to Two-Dimensional Freezing and Subsequent Defrosting of Logs",slug:"numerical-solution-to-two-dimensional-freezing-and-subsequent-defrosting-of-logs",totalDownloads:620,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Two-dimensional mutually connected mathematical models have been created, solved, and verified for the transient non-linear heat conduction in logs during their freezing and subsequent defrosting. The models reflect the influence of the internal sources of latent heat of both the free and bound water on the logs’ freezing process and also the impact of the temperature on the fiber saturation point of wood species, with whose participation the current values of the thermo-physical characteristics in each separate volume point of the subjected to freezing and subsequent defrosting logs are computed. The chapter presents solutions of the models with explicit form of the finite-difference method and their validation towards own experimental studies. Results from experimental and simulative investigation of 2D non-stationary temperature distribution in the longitudinal section of beech and pine logs with a diameter of 0.24 m and length of 0.48 m during their many hours freezing in a freezer and subsequent defrosting at room temperature are presented, visualized, and analyzed.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Nencho Deliiski and Natalia Tumbarkova",authors:[{id:"43040",title:"Prof.",name:"Nencho",middleName:"Stanev",surname:"Deliiski",slug:"nencho-deliiski",fullName:"Nencho Deliiski"},{id:"284649",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",middleName:"Yordanova",surname:"Tumbarkova",slug:"natalia-tumbarkova",fullName:"Natalia Tumbarkova"}]},{id:"67626",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86738",title:"The Boundary Element Method for Fluctuating Active Colloids",slug:"the-boundary-element-method-for-fluctuating-active-colloids",totalDownloads:920,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The boundary element method (BEM) is a computational method particularly suited to solution of linear partial differential equations (PDEs), including the Laplace and Stokes equations, in complex geometries. The PDEs are formulated as boundary integral equations over bounding surfaces, which can be discretized for numerical solution. This manuscript reviews application of the BEM for simulation of the dynamics of “active” colloids that can self-propel through liquid solution. We introduce basic concepts and model equations for both catalytically active colloids and the “squirmer” model of a ciliated biological microswimmer. We review the foundations of the BEM for both the Laplace and Stokes equations, including the application to confined geometries, and the extension of the method to include thermal fluctuations of the colloid. Finally, we discuss recent and potential applications to research problems concerning active colloids. The aim of this review is to facilitate development and adoption of boundary element models that capture the interplay of deterministic and stochastic effects in the dynamics of active colloids.",book:{id:"8416",slug:"non-equilibrium-particle-dynamics",title:"Non-Equilibrium Particle Dynamics",fullTitle:"Non-Equilibrium Particle Dynamics"},signatures:"William E. Uspal",authors:[{id:"279308",title:"Prof.",name:"William",middleName:null,surname:"Uspal",slug:"william-uspal",fullName:"William Uspal"}]},{id:"66487",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85735",title:"Mean Aspects Controlling Supercritical CO2 Precipitation Processes",slug:"mean-aspects-controlling-supercritical-co-sub-2-sub-precipitation-processes",totalDownloads:736,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The use of supercritical CO2 is an excellent alternative in extraction, particle precipitation, impregnation and reaction processes due to its special properties. Solubility of the compound in supercritical CO2 drives the precipitation process in different ways. In supercritical antisolvent process, mass and heat transfers, phase equilibria, nucleation, and growth of the compound to be precipitated are the main phenomena that should be taken into account. Mass transfer conditions the morphology and particle size of the final product. This transfer could be tuned altering operating conditions. Heat transfer in non-isothermal process influences on mixing step the size of generated microparticles. In rapid expansion of supercritical solution, phenomena as the phase change from supercritical to a CO2 gas flow, rapid mass transfer and crystallization of the compound, and expansion jet define the morphology and size of the final product. These phenomena a priori could be modulated tuning a large number of operating parameters through the experiments, but the correlations and modeling of these processes are necessary to clarify the relative importance of each one. Moreover, particle agglomeration in the expansion jet and CO2 condensation are determinant phenomena which should be avoided in order to conserve fine particles in the final product.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Antonio Montes, Clara Pereyra and Enrique J. Martínez de la Ossa",authors:[{id:"55991",title:"Mr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Montes",slug:"antonio-montes",fullName:"Antonio Montes"},{id:"55992",title:"Dr.",name:"Clara",middleName:null,surname:"Pereyra",slug:"clara-pereyra",fullName:"Clara Pereyra"},{id:"55993",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez De La Ossa",slug:"enrique-martinez-de-la-ossa",fullName:"Enrique Martinez De La Ossa"}]},{id:"66317",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85254",title:"Review Heat Transfer of Non-Newtonian Fluids in Agitated Tanks",slug:"review-heat-transfer-of-non-newtonian-fluids-in-agitated-tanks",totalDownloads:1001,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The heating and cooling of non-Newtonian liquids in tanks with mechanical impellers are operations commonly employed as chemical reactors, heat exchangers, distillers, extractors, thinners and decanters. In particular, the design of heat exchangers (jackets, helical coils, spiral coils and vertical tubular baffles) in tanks requires the prior knowledge of the rheology of the liquid for the calculation of the convection coefficients and the Reynolds number, in order to obtain the area thermal exchange. This chapter aimed to present the basic concepts of tanks with agitation, non-Newtonian liquids, hydrodynamics, heat transfer and, finally, with a practical design example for engineers and undergraduate students.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Vitor da Silva Rosa and Deovaldo de Moraes Júnior",authors:[{id:"187128",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vitor",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"vitor-rosa",fullName:"Vitor Rosa"},{id:"188792",title:"Dr.",name:"Deovaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Moraes Júnior",slug:"deovaldo-moraes-junior",fullName:"Deovaldo Moraes Júnior"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66878",title:"Design of Industrial Falling Film Evaporators",slug:"design-of-industrial-falling-film-evaporators",totalDownloads:1753,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The high performance evaporators are important for process industries such as food, desalination and refineries. The falling film evaporators have many advantages over flooded and vertical tubes that make them best candidate for processes industries application. The heat transfer area is the key parameter in designing of an evaporator and many correlations are available to estimate the size of tube bundle. Unfortunately, most of the correlation is available only for pure water and above 322 K saturation temperatures. Out of these conditions, the areas are designed by the extrapolation of existing correlations. We demonstrated that the actual heat transfer values are 2–3-fold higher at lower temperature and hence simple extrapolated estimation leads to inefficient and high capital cost design. We proposed an accurate heat transfer correlation for falling film evaporators that can capture both, low temperature evaporation and salt concentration effectively. It is also embedded with unique bubble-assisted evaporation parameter that can be only observed at low temperature and it enhances the heat transfer. The proposed correlation is applicable from 280 to 305 K saturation temperatures and feed water concentration ranges from 35,000 to 95,000 ppm. The uncertainty of measured data is less than 5% and RMS of regressed data is 3.5%. In this chapter, first part summarized the all available correlations and their limitations. In second part, falling film evaporation heat transfer coefficient (FFHTC) is proposed and model is developed. In the last part, experimentation is conducted and FFHTC developed and compared with conventional correlations.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Muhammad Wakil Shahzad, Muhammad Burhan and Kim Choon Ng",authors:[{id:"174208",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Wakil",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"muhammad-wakil-shahzad",fullName:"Muhammad Wakil Shahzad"},{id:"249811",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Burhan",slug:"muhammad-burhan",fullName:"Muhammad Burhan"},{id:"254696",title:"Prof.",name:"Kim Choon",middleName:null,surname:"Ng",slug:"kim-choon-ng",fullName:"Kim Choon Ng"}]},{id:"66102",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer of Additive Manufacturing Processes for Metals",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-of-additive-manufacturing-processes-for-metals",totalDownloads:1302,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Additive manufacturing (AM), a method in which a part is fabricated layer by layer from a digital design package, provides the potential to produce complex components at reduced cost and time. Many techniques (using many different names) have been developed to accomplish this via melting or solid-state joining. However, to date, only a handful can be used to produce metallic parts that fulfill the requirements of industrial applications. The thermal physics and weld pool behaviors in metal AM process have decisive influence on the deposition quality, the microstructure and service performance of the depositions. Accurate analysis and calculation of thermal processes and weld pool behaviors are of great significance to the metallurgy analysis, stress and deformation analysis, process control and process optimization etc. Numerical modeling is also a necessary way to turn welding from qualitative description and experience-based art into quantitative analysis- and science-based engineering branch. In this chapter, two techniques for producing metal parts are explored, with a focus on the thermal science of metal AM: fluid flow and heat transfer. Selective laser melting (SLM) is the one that is most widely used because it typically has the best resolution. Another is named metal fused-coated additive manufacturing (MFCAM) that is cost competitive and efficient in producing large and middle-complex components in aerospace applications.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Zhengying Wei and Jun Du",authors:[{id:"47614",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhengying",middleName:null,surname:"Wei",slug:"zhengying-wei",fullName:"Zhengying Wei"},{id:"282052",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Du",slug:"jun-du",fullName:"Jun Du"}]},{id:"66563",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer in Outward Convex Corrugated Tube Heat Exchangers",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-in-outward-convex-corrugated-tube-heat-exchangers",totalDownloads:1037,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Heat and mass transfer in outward convex corrugated tube heat exchangers is of significant importance for the optimization, fabrication, and application of outward convex corrugated tube heat exchangers. This chapter gives a deep investigation of the heat and mass transfer in outward convex corrugated tube heat exchangers. Based on the experimental setup developed, the performances of a novel outward convex corrugated tube heat exchanger are presented. Simulation methods are then used to detail the heat and mass transfer at tube side and shell side of the outward convex corrugated tube heat exchanger, and these include the flow structure, temperature distribution, and turbulence kinetic energy. Heat and mass transfer enhancements of the outward convex corrugated tube heat exchanger are also studied, and they are from tube side, shell side, and overall system aspects. Finally, multi-objective optimization of the outward convex corrugated tube heat exchanger is conducted to obtain the optimal performances through using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA-II). Main conclusions and future outlook are then briefly stated and summarized. We firmly believe that the contents presented in this chapter can not only enrich the knowledge of heat exchangers but also develop methods for studying heat exchangers.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Huaizhi Han, Bingxi Li, Yaning Zhang, Quan Zhu and Ruitian Yu",authors:[{id:"23828",title:"Dr.",name:"Quan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"quan-zhu",fullName:"Quan Zhu"},{id:"148369",title:"Prof.",name:"Bingxi",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"bingxi-li",fullName:"Bingxi Li"},{id:"196928",title:"Dr.",name:"Yaning",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yaning-zhang",fullName:"Yaning Zhang"},{id:"281875",title:"Prof.",name:"Huaizhi",middleName:null,surname:"Han",slug:"huaizhi-han",fullName:"Huaizhi Han"},{id:"282268",title:"Mr.",name:"Ruitian",middleName:null,surname:"Yu",slug:"ruitian-yu",fullName:"Ruitian Yu"}]},{id:"66317",title:"Review Heat Transfer of Non-Newtonian Fluids in Agitated Tanks",slug:"review-heat-transfer-of-non-newtonian-fluids-in-agitated-tanks",totalDownloads:1001,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The heating and cooling of non-Newtonian liquids in tanks with mechanical impellers are operations commonly employed as chemical reactors, heat exchangers, distillers, extractors, thinners and decanters. In particular, the design of heat exchangers (jackets, helical coils, spiral coils and vertical tubular baffles) in tanks requires the prior knowledge of the rheology of the liquid for the calculation of the convection coefficients and the Reynolds number, in order to obtain the area thermal exchange. This chapter aimed to present the basic concepts of tanks with agitation, non-Newtonian liquids, hydrodynamics, heat transfer and, finally, with a practical design example for engineers and undergraduate students.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Vitor da Silva Rosa and Deovaldo de Moraes Júnior",authors:[{id:"187128",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vitor",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"vitor-rosa",fullName:"Vitor Rosa"},{id:"188792",title:"Dr.",name:"Deovaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Moraes Júnior",slug:"deovaldo-moraes-junior",fullName:"Deovaldo Moraes Júnior"}]},{id:"65692",title:"Advances in Concentrated Solar Power: A Perspective of Heat Transfer",slug:"advances-in-concentrated-solar-power-a-perspective-of-heat-transfer",totalDownloads:1114,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Solar energy has the potential to reduce the dependence on the dwindling supply of fossil fuels through concentrated solar power (CSP) technology. CSP plants utilize solar thermal energy to produce electrical energy based on different thermodynamic power cycles. Solar collectors, reflectors, receivers, thermal fluid, and turbines are the main components of each CSP plant and involve intensive heat transfer at all stages. This chapter illustrates the thermal characteristics of the main components used in CSP technology. In addition, the solar thermal fluid characteristics and its stable operational ranges are discussed in this chapter. Heat capacity, vapor pressure, volume expansion, density and viscosity of the thermal fluid should not differ significantly at different temperatures during various operation stages because these variations can cause failure in the system, which is designed at the fixed material properties. Currently, CSP technology is associated with a higher cost compared to the electricity generated through gas power plants. Many efforts are made to search for sustainable and inexpensive materials to minimize the cost of CSP. One critical issue faced by CSP technology is the intermittent nature of the sun. Modern CSP plants integrate thermal energy storage (TES) unit to smoothen the power production or to shift the production from peak sunshine hours to peak demand hours.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Fadi Alnaimat and Yasir Rashid",authors:[{id:"151722",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadi",middleName:null,surname:"Alnaimat",slug:"fadi-alnaimat",fullName:"Fadi Alnaimat"},{id:"291252",title:"Mr.",name:"Yasir",middleName:null,surname:"Rashid",slug:"yasir-rashid",fullName:"Yasir Rashid"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"954",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/79169",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"79169"},fullPath:"/chapters/79169",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()