\r\n\tHence, this book is targeted to deliver the bundled characteristics and features of MXenes to transfer the various scopes and virtues to the research community.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-120-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-119-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-121-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"184e1a0c9b5e62ebb3c7ebc53103db9f",bookSignature:"Prof. Dhanasekaran Vikraman",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11994.jpg",keywords:"Energy Devices, Semiconducting Devices, MXene Formulation, Supercapacitors, Batteries, Water Electrolysis, Li-Ion, FET, Photodetectors, Solar Cells, Perovskites, W2C",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 19th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"20 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Dhanasekaran Vikraman is an Assistant Professor at Dongguk University-Seoul, Seoul, Korea. 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After that, he completed his Master's and Ph.D. degrees at the Department of Physics, Alagappa University, India. Later, he received a visiting scientist position at KIST, Korea; a Marie-Curie Experienced Researcher fellowship at the Department of Physics, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece; and Post-Doc positions at Sejong University and Ajou University, Korea. He has authored more than 175 international journal articles and 3 book chapters. He is serving as a Guest Editor and topic Editor for various journals. 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1. Introduction
Currently the chemotherapeutic drugs are part of cancer treatment. Among their side effects, neurotoxicity at peripheral nervous system is a well recognize dose-limiting side effect. It is relevant because it causes persistent pain and sensory loss in cancer survivors. The prevalence of chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) has been reported around 30% of patients at 6 months after treatment. It reaches up to 40% when patients are also examined with nerve conduction studies [1]. It is important to note that neurotoxicity could be subclinical, it means that it may start before patient starts to be symptomatic.
The clinical picture at presentation of CIPN is a length-dependent sensory polyneuropathy despite other combination of sensory, motor and autonomic nerve dysfunction are possible. It is important to recognize different types of sensory nerve fibers which are specific to different sensory modalities (touch, vibration, temperature and pain). All of these neurons have their cell bodies in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG). The thin-myelinated Aδ fibers and unmyelinated C fibers are known as small nerve fibers carrying thermal and painful stimulus to the brain. We need selective neurophysiological and histological techniques to evaluate them as well as to examine the function of the autonomic nervous system [2].
The most neurotoxic families of chemotherapeutic drugs are the platinum derivates (e.g. oxaliplatin, carboplatin or cisplatin), taxanes (e.g. paclitaxel and docetaxel), vinca alkaloids (e.g. vincristine), proteasome inhibitors (e.g. bortezomib) and immunomodulators (e.g. thalidomide and checkpoint inhibitors). Others, as methotrexate or arsenic salts are less frequently used. See Figure 1 a general schema with different targets on the peripheral nervous system and in Table 1 a list of them with their mechanism of neurotoxicity.
Figure 1.
Different targets to produce neurotoxicity by chemotherapy.
There are drugs that can produce acute neurotoxicity, a side effect commonly seen with oxaliplatin. It is characterized by transient paresthesia, dysesthesia and muscle cramps induced by cold exposure, a phenomenon often called cold allodynia that typically appears during or immediately after infusion of the treatment. It usually resolves within a few hours or days before the next oxaliplatin cycle [3]. Symptoms reported by patients include tingling paresthesia in the hands (100%), feet (42%) and orofacial area (50%) and also, pharyngeal or laryngeal regions, all of them triggered by cold (especially when drinking). More infrequently, patients report fasciculations (29%), jaw spasms (26%), cramps (20%), difficulty of swallowing (18%) and neuromyotonia-like syndrome. All these phenomena reveal an increase in sensory and motor nerve excitability related to the impairment of voltage-gated sodium channels induced by oxaliplatin [4]. A functional study demonstrated that oxaliplatin induces reversible slowing of sodium channel inactivation [5]. We know that it does not require discontinuation of treatment or dose reduction, but prolonging the time of infusion from 2 h to 4 or 6 h is recommended [6]. Some authors have found a relationship to later develop of chronic neuropathy [7, 8]. In particular when cold allodynia persists for days or weeks after infusion. Even some patients, continued to report residual symptoms in subsequent doses of oxaliplatin [9]. Another symptom that patients frequently ask is the Lhermitte’s sign, a sudden lightening sensation radiate out into both arms or feet when neck flexion is forced. The mechanism to produce it at cervical spinal cord is unknown but usually self-limited despite in some exceptional cases it could appear lately and be persistent during months [10, 11].
It has been described in addition acute sensitization of nociceptors with paclitaxel, the paclitaxel-associate acute pain syndrome. It consists of aching or other pain sensations mainly at lower legs peaked on day 4 after paclitaxel initiation. This is related to fast infusion of treatment (3 hours) but also, indicates more risk to sensory neuropathy after 12 weeks of therapy [12].
3. Targets of neurotoxicity at peripheral nerves
Even when all body is exposed to chemotherapy, there are tissues more vulnerable to chemotherapy than others. This is the case of sensory neurons located at dorsal root ganglion (DRG) which are outside the protection of the blood–brain barrier. They are the principal targets of platinum derivates such us oxaliplatin, cisplatin or other platinum agents. Thus, neurons are damaged directly at DRG producing a progressive sensory neuronopathy. However, neurotoxicity also causes multiple lesions within the axons both for platinum agents and for other drugs as taxanes generating distal axonopathy. This will have different consequences for patients.
On one hand, the myelinated sensory nerve fibers lose their function. This is noted by many patients in a “glove and stocking” pattern of sensory loss involving hands and feet. They frequently refer reduced precision to make fine movements with tip of the fingers which is noted by having less ability to cross buttons when dressing or when typing the computer. Also, gait disturbances affect their daily activities because of instability when walking in irregular ground or for descending stairs. On the other hand, thin myelinated (Aδ fibers) and unmyelinated (C fibers) carrying the information of temperature and pain are also damaged. A combination of negative and positive symptoms (see Figure 2) contributes to sensory disturbances. The unpleasant dysesthesias and neuropathic pain are consequence of the gain of function in damaged sensory nerve fibers that increases their excitability by producing spontaneous burning sensation or electric shock-like pain.
Figure 2.
Comparison of positive and negative symptoms in CIPN.
This clinical picture is common for all chemotherapy agents despite the mechanisms may differ among them. Also, it may determine the severity of axonal loss and its recovery since regeneration is expected to occur if the axon is affected distally whereas poor should be assumed in a neuronopathy. In general, we use the term sensory polyneuropathy for CINP when symptoms have a characteristic distance-dependent pattern even when we know that it is combined with sensory neuronopathy which has been demonstrated for oxaliplatin and cisplatin [13, 14].
There are other drugs such as vincristine, bortezomib or arsenic salts with ability to produce a more generalized axonal damage in all nerves. In this case, sensory deficits are accompanied by frequent muscular cramps, predominantly at night in both legs as well as distal weakness in upper and lower extremities because of motor neuropathy. Moreover, the failure in autonomic nerves leads to chronic constipation, reduced distal sweating and dizziness when standing (orthostatic hypotension) due to autonomic neuropathy or dysautonomia.
More recently, the introduction of the checkpoint inhibitors as a treatment for advance melanoma have opened the possibility of different immune-mediated neuromuscular manifestations reported as complication of the treatment in 75% of patients [15]. In this case acute demyelinating polyneuropathy (Guillain-Barré syndrome), demyelinating sensorimotor neuropathy, myositis or myasthenic syndrome have to be considered.
The combination of peripheral and central neurotoxicity at spinal cord should be considered in intrathecal infusion of chemotherapy. This is necessary for patients with acute leukemia treated with methotrexate. It has been described also after vincristine treatment. In this case, proximal motor roots can be unexpectedly block with a variable extension of myelitis at the level of lumbar infusion producing a complete paresis in lower limbs (paraparesis) with a lower abdomen level of sensory loss together with urinary dysfunction. This is a devastating situation that has been reported in few cases with poor prognosis for recovery [16, 17].
4. Risks and other conditionings for CIPN
It is difficult to establish in humans exactly the timing of changes on peripheral nerves after a pharmacological insult. Even though we know the day chemotherapy starts, there are different risk factors than makes neuropathy more probable in one patient than another. In Table 2 are listed the most known of them. In particular, one of such factors is the cumulative dose, especially for platinum agents. It was demonstrated that high-dose cisplatin was intrinsically more neurotoxic [23]. There is a range between 300 and 400 mg/m2 from which sensory symptoms starts to be persistent and from 540 to 850 mg/m2 from which the CIPN is generally stablished with high risk to be a long-term condition. However, we know now that there is no specific dose to be secure and probable neurotoxicity starts from first dose with a cumulative effect within sensory neurons.
One phenomenon that usually appears with platinum agents (cisplatin and oxaliplatin) is the coasting effect. It refers to the further progression of neurotoxicity during 3 to 6 months after stopping the treatment that results from its capacity to accumulate in DRG for a long time. It was described first for cisplatin [18, 27, 28] and later for oxaliplatin [9, 29, 30]. This surprises the patient who frequently ask worried because of deterioration of their sensory deficits after treatment was stopped.
5. Clinical assessment for early detection of CIPN
A good complement for clinical examination is the use of validated scales. It allows systematic data acquisition which is comparable in the follow-up of patients and also, their inclusion in research studies. There are different types of scales, ones are self-administered, others are based on clinical examination or they include a combination of clinical and results of complementary tests. We will comment two of the most used scales for CIPN and one self-administered scale.
The National Cancer Institute-Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events (NCI-CTCAE) includes a scale based on the degree of impact of peripheral sensory neuropathy which is the most widely used scale used by oncologists [31]. It grades from 1 to 5 patient’s functionality disturbance due to sensory symptoms of neuropathy. There are different versions which are updated by the Division of Cancer Treatments and Diagnosis. The version 4.03 published in 2009 is currently the most referenced in last publications. The 5 grades are: 1) asymptomatic (weakness or loss of tendon reflex on examination) or paresthesia not interfering with function; 2) symptomatic or sensory alterations interfering with function but not with daily activities; 3) weakness or sensory alterations interfering with daily activities; 4) life threatening disabling; 5) death.
The second most used scale for CIPN is the total neuropathy score (TNS). Its complete version was originally developed and validated for diabetic neuropathy. It combines clinical information obtained from grading symptoms and signs with neurophysiological parameters as nerve conduction studies and quantitative evaluation of sensory modalities. The clinical version (TNSc) includes the first 7 items (range 0 to 28) which are based only on clinical examination. It is showed in Table 3. A good correlation was reported between both, TNSc vs. NCI-CTCAE [32] even when TNSc is more sensitive in detecting mild sensory damage [33].
0
1
2
3
5
Sensory symptoms
None
Symptoms limited to fingers or toes
Symptoms extends to ankle or wrist
Symptoms extends to knee or elbow
Symptoms above knees or elbows, or functionally disabling
Motor symptoms
None
Slight difficulty
Moderate difficulty
Require help/assistance
Paralysis
Autonomic symptoms
0
1
2
3
4 or 5
Pin sensibility
Normal
Reduced in fingers or toes
Reduced up to wrist/ankle
Reduced up to elbow/knee
Reduced above elbow/knee
Vibration sensibility
Normal
Reduced fingers or toes
Reduced up to writs/ankle
Reduced up to elbow/knee
Reduced above elbow/knee
Strenght
Normal
Mild weakness
Moderate weakness
Severe
Paralysis
Tendon reflex
Normal
Ankle reflex reduced
Ankle reflex abset
Only
All reflexes absent
Table 3.
TNS clinical (TNSc) scale useful for the follow-up of patients.
Note: Ranged from 0 to 28. CINP is significant if score > 5 points [32].
However, assessment of CIPN needs to involve subjective and objective information as well as the impact of the symptoms on functional activity. With this purpose, the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) developed the self-administered scale QLQ-CIPN20. It includes 20 items in the form of auto-administered questions consisting of 3 scales (sensory, motor and autonomic). Each item range 1 (not at all) to 4 (very much) and a higher score is equivalent to worse or more symptoms during the past week. It should provide valuable information on CIPN-related symptoms and functional limitations of patients at risk [34].
6. Neurophysiological assessment for early detection of CIPN
There are different non-invasive techniques that provide information regarding the type of nerves (motor, sensory or autonomic) involved in CIPN. This is important to confirm the diagnosis but also to identify early markers of axonal damage and additionally, it may help to establish the prognosis for recovery.
6.1 Nerve conduction studies (NCS)
Peripheral nerves usually can be easily stimulated by electrical stimulus and brought to action potential. It can be applied to sensory or motor nerves. We measure the amplitude which reflects the amount of excitable axons, and the latency of the response to calculate the velocity conduction. It is essential to note that both, latency and velocity conduction reflect only the fastest conducting fibers. On the other hand, low amplitude of the sensory nerve potential indicates severe axonal loss [35]. In Figure 3 there are examples of sensory nerve action potentials from a patient with sensory polyneuropathy after treatment with oxaliplatin.
Figure 3.
Different techniques for diagnose CIPN. This figure shows two of the most common techniques (nerve conduction studies and thermotest) at evaluating the sensory function in suspected CIPN. a) the conventional sural nerve response, which is within normal limits (above) is compared with the more distal recording of the sural dorsal (below), which is clearly diminished; b) the thermode is applied at dorsum of the foot to test warm detection threshold (1–4 stimuli) and hot pain threshold (5–6 stimuli). Horizontal red line indicates normal values. The recording shows high thresholds to both, warm and pain. Note that detection of warm is near pain sensation because of the loss of function in C-fibers.
The reduced amplitudes at sensory nerves with no significative changes in velocity conduction and motor responses are the common finding after treatment with platinum agents and taxanes. It affects distally sensory nerves at both sides in feet and hands. The sural nerve measured at ankle shows higher changes that other nerves such us radial or cubital nerves [36]. However, it is possible that the amplitude for sural nerve will fall within normal reference values, especially after treatment with oxaliplatin and taxanes in which sensory damage is limited to fingers or sole of the foot. The recording of the dorsal sural nerve is also recommendable to demonstrate low amplitudes in sensory distal polyneuropathy [37] (see Figure 3a). Nevertheless, not having normative values for such a distal nerve and the absence of response expected in the majority of the patients with CIPN makes results in amplitude necessary to be interpreted in relation to those obtained proximally at sural nerve in the same patient. If sensory symptoms are limited to hands, median entrapment neuropathy should be also rule out. Long-term follow up of patients after oxaliplatin showed persistent low amplitudes at sensory nerves 3 year after treatment [38].
Other chemotherapy agents such us bortezomib or thalidomide produce a severe sensorimotor polyneuropathy with low amplitudes to all tested nerves. Despite axonopathy is the most frequent finding, in some cases a demyelinating pattern with reduced conduction velocities and prolonged proximal motor response (F-wave) may be possible (i.e., for example, 3 of 26 patients reported by Chaundhry [26]). The presence of signs of denervation in distal muscles at lower limbs is expected on EMG as well as atrophy of muscles together with weakness and instability to walk due to sensory deficits at feet.
6.2 Quantitative sensory testing (QST)
The measurement of sensory thresholds to thermal, vibration or mechanical stimulus indicates the loss or gain of function to each sensory modality. Commonly, temperature (cold and warm) detection and pain thresholds are evaluated distally in the dorsum of the hands and feet. At this sites, skin thickness-dependent delay and attenuation of temperature is reduced for contact heating (thermode) in comparison to glabrous skin [39]. Through QST examination we obtain functional information from small and large nerve fibers depending of the sensory modality examined.
One of the most common findings in QST is cold allodynia, that means early pain sensation at low temperatures (range from 10° to 25°C) frequently seen in oxaliplatin treated patients. Moreover, signs of sensory loss are present early in CIPN at hands and feet in comparison to other proximal sites (see an example in Figure 3b). Patients show high thresholds for warm and cold detection as well as for hot pain revealing deficient function of small nerve fibers [8, 10, 40]. In addition, the higher vibration and mechanical detection thresholds at upper and lower limbs reported by different authors indicates the coexistence with distal damage at large myelinated sensory fibers [38, 41, 42]. In fact, vibration detection threshold at tip of the big toe was found abnormal earlier than thermal QST [43]. However, QST has also important limitations that should be considered. First, it needs patient’s cooperation. Second, a trained examiner should repeat stimuli to ensure consistency of responses. Finally, abnormal thresholds have been reported and considered a subclinical deficit for warm and cold sensations before receiving chemotherapy (at baseline) which makes difficult to detect a significant change related with starting of CIPN [10, 20, 21, 44].
6.3 Study of the autonomic nervous system
To evaluate the presence of dysautonomia, which is a failure of the sympathetic and/or parasympathetic nervous system, it may be possible to record the palmar and plantar sudomotor skin response. This is a change in the voltage measured from the surface of the skin which occurs after emotional or noxious stimuli, or following deep inspiration. The absence of response has been associated to axonal unmyelinated peripheral neuropathies [45]. More recently, the measurement of electrochemical skin conductance (Sudoscan) is an easy-use alternative that could have its role in future studies on CINP [46]. Parasympathetic function is assessed by measuring the variability of the R-R interval of heart’s beat by different maneuvers (normal breathing, Valsalva, stand up). It requires more complex neurophysiological setting and the clinical relevance in CINP is still to be investigated.
7. Other non-neurophysiological techniques for early detection of CIPN
Skin biopsy allow us to examine directly under microscopy the free sensory nerve endings at skin. This is a well-recognize technique to quantify axonal damage occurring in sensory fibers with a minimal invasive punch biopsy. It provides support for diagnosing small fiber neuropathy [47] and is considered an early marker of more generalized (large and small) sensory polyneuropathy such us diabetic polyneuropathy. It makes skin biopsy presumably useful for early detection and monitoring patients receiving chemotherapy. Although a significant reduction in intraepidermal nerve fiber density has been reported by some authors after receiving oxaliplatin [42, 48], others have found cutaneous innervation more preserved [49]. In our experience, even when many patients show functional loss of small fibers (higher warm and cold detection thresholds at feet), the intraepidermal nerve fibers density seems to be partially preserved. Indeed, the rationale to less vulnerability of small neurons at DRG or higher capability to reinnervate the terminal small nerve fibers in contrast to myelinated receptors and fibers is still open.
Neuroimage is becoming available in different ways for providing signs of neurotoxicity in CIPN. Information by using these techniques is limited to few studies so far. Nerve high resolution ultrasound served to identify an increase in the cross-sectional area meaning a nerve enlargement at upper and lower limbs in patients receiving oxaliplatin [50] and taxanes [51]. By using magnetic resonance neurography has been also reported a significant hypertrophy of DRG [52] whereas other nerves, sciatic nerve, remain normal. In addition, changes at central nervous system, in dorsal columns at spinal cord, has been reported in patients affected by thalidomide-induced CIPN [53, 54].
Molecular biomarkers may also have a role in early detection of CIPN. They are in different categories, from pharmacogenomics to surrogate markers of neurotoxicity. Unfortunately, none has been established in clinical practice because of lack of large-scale and validation studies. The majority of genetic variants which has been candidates to indicate higher susceptibility of neurotoxicity showed controversial results (for example, see recent reviews [55, 56]. More is known about other molecules reflecting nerve damage which are available at blood analysis such us neurofilaments. Neurofilament light chain (NfL) is a cytoskeletal neuron-specific protein which has found increased after receiving vincristine and oxaliplatin [57]. Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) levels were also find higher in painful CIPN whereas they remained stable in patients with painless or absent CIPN [49]. Other metabolic parameters such us low hemoglobin or vitamin D levels or higher gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) have been identified as independent predictors associated to CIPN [58].
8. When CIPN is supposed to be resolved? Indicators of recovery
This is the main question in patient’s mind which is difficult to answer. It depends on many factors, specially the severity of axonal loss at maximum of the neurotoxic effect of the drug. Complete recovery is calculated in about 40% of patients at 8–12 months after discontinuation of oxaliplatin whereas in almost 35% of patients is estimated to be persistent more than 5 years [59, 60]. Lower incidence has been reported for cisplatin which is estimated in 20% of patients at 12 months after therapy [27]. Patients treated with taxanes experience symptomatic sensory neuropathy distally at fingertips in hands and feet. It has been estimated in more than 70% of patients, being persistent in most of them longer than 5 years in some series [61]. Vincristine-induced neuropathy in pediatric population combines sensory and motor symptoms that are persistent in 27% of patients 2 years after treatment [62]. No correlation has been established between time until recovery and any clinical or neurophysiological parameter as far as I know. However, it is possible to said that low amplitudes at sensory nerve action potentials make prognosis for recovery very poor despite intraepidermal nerve fibers are partially preserved (personal observation).
9. Neuroprotection and other recommendations
Neuroprotectants have limited beneficial effects for preventing CIPN. The first step is to modify the chemotherapy regimen, such as dose reduction and longer interval between cycles, especially platinum agents like oxaliplatin or cisplatin and vincristine [63]. This is necessary in approximately 40% of patients based on average from different reports [64].
The intend to reduce oxidative-stress and the up-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines due to chemotherapy have led many authors to test antioxidant therapy. This is the case of vitamin B6, vitamin E and alpha-lipoic acid among others. Despite of contradictory results reported until now in different trials (see a recent review, [65]), the easiness to acquire these products for patients and their natural origin, most of them nutritional supplements, makes them a good choice in poor symptomatic CIPN or intermittent therapy between cycles of chemotherapy. Other pharmacological products such as the amifostine, glutathione, calcium/magnesium, minocycline or mangafodipir need further research.
Symptomatic treatment with antiepileptic drugs (pregabalin, gabapentin, oxcarbazepine) or antidepressants (duloxetine, amitriptyline) is recommended at low dose with a progressive increase until partial or total alleviation of sensory symptoms.
Regular exercise and lifestyle interventions help to prevent inactivity and improve body mass index [66]. Regular aerobic exercise training (30 minutes/day or 4 hours/week) and daily walking activity between 8000 to 10000 steps/day during 5 days/week are recommended (see https://www.foundationforpn.org). Indeed, they contribute to sensory and motor rehabilitation, improve self-confidence to walk previously diminished because of sensory loss in CIPN. Sensory feet stimulation with a rubber carpet of different textures as well as hand manipulation of soft tissue or lentils could be a form of manual therapy for neurorehabilitation after receiving chemotherapy treatment. An interdisciplinary team is also recommended to attend needs of persons with CIPN in every oncologic center [67].
10. Conclusion
This chapter reports on clinical assessment of CIPN in such a way to be easily understandable. The number of cancer survivors has been fortunately growing, so complications of neurotoxicity after chemotherapy has become a first order problem for clinicians that are searching a better quality of life for their patients. Mechanisms to produce CIPN are diverse depending of the drug and most of them converge on the same targets. The present manuscript emphasizes a comparison of different type of nerve fibers that lead to a wide spectrum of symptoms, mainly sensory, which are related to axonal damage at different type of nerve fibers. Selective techniques are necessary to detect sensory disfunction which seems to affect early distal vibration and warm perception. No indicators have found to predict patient’s recovery so we have to assume that this process is possible, although perhaps partially, in all cases. The future will come to reduce toxic damage by personalized drug plans as well as multidisciplinary professional care to our patients.
Acknowledgments
This publication was supported by a grant from Instituto de Salud Carlos III through the project FI16/00894 (Co-funded by European Regional Development Fund (FEDER).
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"chemotherapy-induced neuropathy, oxaliplatin-induced neuropathy, neurotoxicity, polyneuropathy, toxic neuropathy",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79037.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79037.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79037",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79037",totalDownloads:64,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:44,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"September 3rd 2021",dateReviewed:"September 17th 2021",datePrePublished:"October 18th 2021",datePublished:"March 30th 2022",dateFinished:"October 18th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Antineoplastic drugs may be neurotoxic and the clinical features frequently include distal sensory loss and neuropathic pain. This is related to a direct damage in sensory neurons and non-selective degeneration of sensory nerve fibers. Due to different mechanisms, there are agents that affects also motor or autonomic nerves. In the case of immune checkpoint inhibitors, an inflammatory response attacks the muscle, motor neurons or neuromuscular transmission. We present an easy-to-read article to understand first symptoms of chemotherapy-induced neuropathy (CIN) with describing each agent and the course of neuropathy as well as the clinical assessment with neurophysiological techniques. In addition, skin biopsy allows us to examine histological changes such as reinnervation. Neuroprotection with antioxidant therapy is possible but more effort in this field is needed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79037",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79037",book:{id:"10736",slug:"neurotoxicity-new-advances"},signatures:"Jordi Casanova-Mollà",authors:[{id:"420697",title:"Dr.",name:"Jordi",middleName:null,surname:"Casanova-Mollà",fullName:"Jordi Casanova-Mollà",slug:"jordi-casanova-molla",email:"jcasanov@clinic.cat",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/420697/images/17827_n.jpg",institution:{name:"Hospital Clinic of Barcelona",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Acute neurotoxicity",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Targets of neurotoxicity at peripheral nerves",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Risks and other conditionings for CIPN",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Clinical assessment for early detection of CIPN",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Neurophysiological assessment for early detection of CIPN",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"6.1 Nerve conduction studies (NCS)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"6.2 Quantitative sensory testing (QST)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"6.3 Study of the autonomic nervous system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"7. Other non-neurophysiological techniques for early detection of CIPN",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"8. When CIPN is supposed to be resolved? Indicators of recovery",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"9. Neuroprotection and other recommendations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"10. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Seretny M, Currie GL, Sena ES, Ramnarine, Grant R, MacLeod MR, Colvin LE, Fallon M. 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DOI: 10.1007/s00520-021-06371-x.'},{id:"B65",body:'Starobova H, Vetter I. Pathophysiology of chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy. Front Mol Neurosci 2017; 10:174.'},{id:"B66",body:'Tofthagen CS, Cheville AL, Loprinzi CL. The physical consequences of chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy. Curr Oncol Rep 2020; 22:50.'},{id:"B67",body:'Tofthagen C, Visovsky C, Eckelman E, Clatterbuck B, Leggatt M, Buck H. Starting a nurse-led clinic for patients with peripheral neuropathy. Nursing 2018; 48:39-42.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jordi Casanova-Mollà",address:"jcasanov@clinic.cat;, jcasanovamolla@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Neurology, Hospital Clínic of Barcelona, Institut d’Investigació Biomedica Agustí Pi Sunyer (IDIBAPS), University of Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
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1. Introduction
Soil erosion is perhaps one of the leading threats to land use in many regions of the world regardless of the piling volume of research on soil erosion agenda [1]. Precisely, about 7348 articles were published on soil erosion between 2016 and 2018 alone, compared to the whole of the twentieth Century publications with just about 5698 articles [2]. Despite this long history and huge volume of research, soil erosion studies in most parts of sub-Saharan Africa, particularly Nigeria, are still grossly insufficient. Soil erosion event implies the net long-term balance of all activities that displaces soil from its initial location to another destination by any entrainment agent(s) [3]. Water and wind agents are largely responsible for soil erosion phenomena witnessed across the globe. However, [4] reported other agents of soil erosion to include mass wasting by soil slumping, explosion cratering, trench digging, land leveling, soil quarrying, and crop harvesting activities. Of all these agents, water erosion affects larger land area and has received more research attention than wind, plus all other erosion agents [5]. Gully erosion is likely to be the largest source of soil sediment yield among the other water-induced erosion types. It is formed where sufficient concentrated water flow occurs to incise soils progressively downwards until it contacts an underlying hard material(s). Classical gullies are incised channels that cannot be filled in by normal tillage operations, compared to the ephemeral (transient) gully (EG) erosion features [6, 7].
In recent years, few studies on the development, field processes and distributions of ephemeral or classical gully erosion features over the Mubi regional landscape were reported as either measured or predicted with empirical or physically-based models by a few erosion research scholars. These research efforts are largely tied to the pressing need to generate a local databank for consultations, as erosion datasets from other foreign places might not truly represent the local field conditions of the Mubi region. Essentially, [8] reported that local adaptation of scarce process-based models and erosion results from one region may not apply to another, due to differences in study methods, making data accuracy, reliability, and credibility debatable. This chapter, therefore, intends to, (i) review the few reports on soil erosion studies around the Mubi area, and (ii) harmonize the research views and highlight the salient ideas where agreement is less firmly established towards holistic management implementation options by potentially interested land users in the region, and perhaps, also to serve as reference material to the neighboring regions.
Mubi area which is situated in the Northeastern part of Nigeria on the western hillside of the Mandara Mountains gives its high and undulating topography that spurs runoff, surface incisions, and gullying with a consequently high soil loss rates along the region [9, 10, 11, 12]. Previous studies on soil erosion features in the Mubi region were reported largely on both the classical and ephemeral gully (EG) erosion, and only a few or no works were carried out on splash, sheet, and rill erosion features. Thus, there is still a dearth of information concerning the splash, sheet, rill, and stream bank sloughing erosion activities in the region. The EG erosion is a recently recognized erosion class in the context of global erosion that still lacks both sufficient models and datasets to test and/or predict its processes [13, 14], while the classical gully is the advanced form of EG erosion feature with deeper (>0.3 m depth) and wider (>2.0 cm width) channels [6, 7, 13]. The menace of soil erosion has generated huge management concerns in recent times. Both government and private donors have devoted some attention to addressing the effects felt by residents along the riverine and/or floodplain sections of the Mubi region. More efforts are still expected to study and report erosion activities and consequent implications to both farmers and residents in the Mubi region. It is hoped that published reports on soil erosion studies are consulted and conned in this text and their views understood and refocused for better understanding and field use in the region.
2. The Mubi region
2.1 Description and location
Mubi region is the present headquarter of Northern Senatorial District of Adamawa state, Northeast Nigeria. The region consists of 5 Local Government Areas (LGAs) namely: Madagali, Maiha, Michika, Mubi-North, and Mubi-South. The Mubi region used to be a part of Northern Cameroon under the German Colony until 1922 when the area was given by the United Nations under Britain as Trusteeship Territory and later merged under Independent Nigeria in 1961 [15, 16]. The regional land area is 4728.77 km2 and has a population size of 759,045 people in 2003 (1991, census projected figure). The Mubi region lies between latitudes 9°30″ and 11°00″ North and between longitudes 13°00″ and 13°45″ East of the Greenwich Meridian (Figure 1). The predominant physical feature notable in the Mubi region is the Mandara Mountain ranges lying along its eastern border by the Republic of Cameroon. The region falls within the Sudan Savannah belt of Nigeria and is characterized by sparse trees and grass vegetation, aquatic weeds in river valleys, and dry land weeds interposed by weedy and shrub plants.
Figure 1.
Map of Mubi region showing LGAs and district headquarters. Source: Adapted from [17].
2.2 Climate and agriculture
The climate of the Mubi region is comprised of typical wet and dry seasons. The dry season spans for about 5–6 months (November to April), while the wet season usually starts from April or May to October each year. The average annual rainfall is usually within the ranges of 900 mm and 1050 mm depths with mean rain intensities of 18–24 mm as the highest in the region as reported by [17, 18]. The driest months are March and April when the relative humidity is about 13%. The average minimum temperature is 15.2°C in the months of December and January, while the maximum temperature of up to 42°C is attainable in April [19]. Agricultural land use is mostly mixed farming systems involving cattle rearing and rain-fed arable farming, with few irrigation farming practices. Soil fertility is maintained using animal dung and inorganic fertilizer sources to support continuous crop production. The dominant crops cultivated in the area include maize, sorghum, rice, groundnut, and sugar cane. Sugar cane and vegetable crops are mainly grown on a few fadama lands under irrigation. The arable crops are usually grown as intercrops of maize/cowpea, sorghum/cowpea, or as sole crops of sorghum, cowpea, groundnut, and rice, which are sometimes grown in rotation based on economic reasons [17]. Basic conservation practices include tied ridges, contour bunds and shallow tillage using indigenous farm tools such as hoes, built terraces and stone lines, sandbag lines, and established vegetative barriers [20].
2.3 Soils and erosion activities
The soils of the Mubi region falls under the ferruginous tropical soil category based on genetic classifications, and as either lithosols, luvisols, or gleyic cambisols [17, 21]. The soils are derived from the underlying basement complex rocks, gneiss, and granites that characterize the Mandara Mountain ranges. The region’s land topography is widely undulating with consequent erosion activities at varying levels of devastations [22, 23, 24]. There also exist a spatial pattern of land distributions often moderated by the annual rainfalls. The soils range from yellow through red to brown in colors. The soils have generally coarse, stony, and very shallow depths with nearly undefined profiles [25]. The soils are deeper at the foothills and thins out up the slopes with a predominantly sandy-loam and moderate to coarse soil textures. Soil reaction (pH) varies in the soils across the region but is generally slightly acidic to slightly alkaline with few incidences of low or high pH rates in some soils in the region. The soil organic matter (SOM) contents are widely moderate to low [10, 26]. Though the region has shallow soils (lithosols) with adequate drainage, it still has considerable soil fertility. However, the region’s rockiness, isolated hills, slopes, and valleys have equally been responsible for the yearly colossal loss of soils and soil nutrients around the Mubi region. The relationship existing between soil erosion activities and their moderating variables is reported in Table 1.
S/no.
Erosion predictor variable
The coefficient of determination of soil erosion activity
The results reported in Table 1 shows that soil bulk density, shear strength, clay content, and SOM contents reduced soil erosion progress, while soil erodability index, gully erosion channel length, depth, land slope, soil plastic limits, and surface runoff increased soil erosion activities around the Mubi region [27, 29].
Erosion activities are visibly spread across the region, particularly along the foothills of the Mandara Mountains such as the Mubi area (Mubi-North and South LGAs), where considerable studies were carried out to assess the magnitude of soil erosion. Field observation shows that sheet and gully erosion are the most commonly spread features on the gentle to moderately undulating terrains around Michika LGA, such as at Bazza, Garta, and Jeddel areas. The presence of such surface erosion features are found around Duhu-Yelwa, Gwaba, Sukur-Daurowa, and Kaya areas in Madagali LGA, and at Mayo-Bani District in the northern parts of Mubi-North LGA [9, 10, 17, 26]. Likewise, rill and gully erosion features are widely spread around the hilly areas of the Mubi area, especially at Digil, Vimtim, Muvur, and Betso in Mubi-North LGA, and as well as at Hurida, Madanya, Yewa, and Lamorde areas in Mubi-South LGA. Several other surface and channelized erosion features exist in most of the villages and/or farm locations scattered all around the Mubi regional landscape.
The notable agent responsible for spurring geologic soil erosion features is largely the regional terrain and/or topography that is periodically sharpened by rainfalls, agriculture, and other human activities in the Mubi region [19]. These factors make the landscape even more vulnerable to soil erosion severity and the probability of local floods around the region.
According to [11], raindrop or splash erosion was observed as one of the predominant forms of erosion by water on the scantly vegetated or nearly bare soil surfaces, particularly at the onsets of rainy seasons in the region. Hence, soil erosion risks were found to be higher on cultivated than on fallowed lands. However, such sheet and splash erosion features are often obliterated by regular tillage activities that suppress their activities from being noticed compared to channel erosion in the region. Even though, the continuous cultivation of farmlands in an up and downhill pattern on the commonly moderate to steep slopes are notably responsible for the moderate to severe soil erosion incidences noticed around the Mubi region.
Table 2 presents the prevailing soil degradation types and their causative factors. The results accounted for soil erosion as the main cause of soil degradation in the region [26]. Soil erosion such as splash, sheet, and rill features aggravate the destruction of organically enriched topsoils, while gullying activities worsen such problems by total removal of the top and sub-soils, plus their soil nutrients irreversibly. Findings in Table 3 show that the channel lengths averaged between 107 m and 136 m long and between 114 m and 149 m in the months of April and in November, respectively.
S/no.
Soil degradation type
Causative factor(s)
Reference
1.
Soil surface destruction
Sheet, rill, and gully erosion, incompatible tillage applications
The channel widths averaged between 7.12 m and 18.12 m wide in April, and was between 7.85 m and 15.19 m wide in the month of November in both years, while the channel depths respectively averaged between 2.03 m and 2.88 m in April, and was between 2.65 m and 3.77 m deep in November 2003/2004. Similar works by [9, 10, 26, 30] earlier reported comparable channel indices in the region. Previously, [9, 26] lamented the implication of such actions as they translate into poor soil fertility, lowered SOM, stoniness, and reduced agricultural production benefits, especially around areas along the Mandara mountain ranges in the region.
3. Principle of soil erosion processes and development around the Mubi region
The underlying principle of such as gully erosion is governed by flow conditions on watersheds. Gullying occurs whenever the water flow rate (runoff) on a slopping landscape exceeds the threshold limit or resistance of soil, then erosion is initiated, followed by downward incision [33] and upstream head-cut migration [34]. Likewise, whenever the flow rate drops below the erosion potential, then the erosion process ceases [35]. Gully erosion processes are active on a sloppy or rolling topography that increases soil particle detachments on usually two intersecting planes and/or watershed areas due to applied runoff force that voids the soil surfaces such as around the Mubi region. The soil detachment continues in time steps, except otherwise, limited by the effect of slope and/or vegetation roughness. Since the flow rate is unsteady and spatially varied, the head-cut migration rate, rate of sediment entrainment, transport, channel width, and deposition will all vary accordingly in time and space [34, 36].
The periodic erosion processes, therefore, yields both head-ward migration in an upstream direction and soil sediments transportation at the gully outlets as deposited materials. The flow rate is proportional to the upstream drainage area that supplies runoff for transporting detached particles downslopes. The distance between the head-cut and the gully outlet defines the actual concentrated flow length. Depending on additional runoff, the head-cut first incises down to the tillage layer (lower boundary), before it starts migrating backward at a rate proportional to the flow rate [37]. As the erosion progresses, the head-cut continues to migrate upstream (Figure 2), and the contributing drainage area decreases, so that discharge at the head of the EG also decreases until it attains a maximum EG length for a given watershed area.
Figure 2.
(a–f) Showing some channelized erosion features in the Mubi region.
3.1 Conceptual framework of soil erosion processes
The concept of soil erosion formation begins with the understanding of the actual erosion process that is often caused by rainfall impacts, soil factors, and topographic variables that initiate soil erosion, then followed by subsequent channel morphological stages of development, if left unobliterated [13], as illustrated in Figure 2. Soil erosion is a natural phenomenon that is as old as the earth itself, and whose effects are targeted at a man and his ecosystem [38].
The soil erosion process starts with the gradual wash of soil surfaces by either water, wind, or human activities [39]. Generally, the soil erosion management principle is centered on prevention, rather than ignoring it to degenerate before controls, which often comes at very prohibitive costs. As has been the case around the neighboring parts of Adamawa State, Nigeria, and in most other parts of the world, the impacts of soil erosion such as sheet, rill, and gully erosion activities are widely spread across the regional landscape of the Mubi and her environs (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Schematic diagrams of EG erosion showing, (a) EG erosion channel formed on a sloping intersectional watershed areas, and, (b) erosion processes describing a developing EG channel with an actively migrating head-cut in the upstream direction. Source: adapted from [32, 34, 40].
4. Soil erosion predictions around the Mubi region
In the past, erosion assessment tools were used to determine surface and channel erosion development, soil losses, and their morphological processes around the Mubi region using field measurements (estimations) of such as sheet, rill, and gully erosion features [10, 11]. In addition, the use of empirical models for predicting area, volume, and weights of soil loss was developed and tested by [23]. Other linear models such as the universal soil loss equation were tested by [11]. Trials of sophisticated prediction models such as the ephemeral gully erosion model (EGEM), and its adapted versions, and the water erosion prediction project-WEPP model were respectively tested by [24, 32], while the RUSLE-2 and ArcGIS software 10.3 were also tested by [11, 12]. Even though, few erosion prediction technologies were tried around the Mubi region, yet, several other researchers are still only concerned about the channel morphological properties. Future studies are expected to be more involved in predictive, rather than limiting efforts to document channel properties without including soil losses and their accompanying economic implications in the region (Table 4).
4.1 Field studies of channelized erosion features around the Mubi region
4.1.1 Empirically predicted soil losses
Earlier, [9] reported that gullying activities are widely spread in areas along the foothills of the Mandara mountain ranges in the Mubi region. Researches have been documented on the scale and intensity of such channelized erosion processes in the region by a handful of earth scientists in recent times. Table 5 presents the yearly soil loss reported at some gully erosion sites in the Mubi area during 2003/2004 and 2008/2009 respectively.
The erosion indices reported in Table 5 shows an erosion trend from 2003 to 2004, and from 2008 to 2009. The reports clearly suggest a relative decrease in soil loss rates at the same erosion sites over the observation time intervals. These reductions were largely influenced by the conservation measures adapted at the erosion sites in order to curtail erosion progress at the same sites during the 6 years period.
4.1.2 Prediction of erosion indicators and soil losses using physically-based erosion models
Until recently, some highly sophisticated erosion models were adapted and tested in predicting EG and classical gully erosion processes around the Mubi region. Several works by [24, 32] evaluated the efficiencies of some foreign physically-based erosion models such as EGEM, RUSLE-2, and WEPP models, and were compared with some earlier tested empirical and mathematical equations in the same Mubi region.
In addition, [11] computed soil erosion on a watershed using a Kriging interpolation technique in ArcGIS software 10.3 model. On the other hand, the works of [9, 20, 26, 30, 44], reported some suitable conservation measures for erosion controls around the Mubi area, but without quantitative information.
Table 6 presents the reports of earlier predicted soil losses using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE-2) in ArcGIS software [11, 12], as well as the empirical, EGEM and WEPP models in the Mubi region [24, 32, 45]. Results from the different prediction tools used in the Mubi area reported an average soil loss of 3.52 tons/ha/year from a watershed area covering 148.43 km2 using the RUSLE-2 software at Mubi-South LGA. Earlier works by [24] that tested an EGEM software technology recorded an average soil loss of between 0.37 and 1.37 tons/ha/year. at Mubi-South, and still found a relatively lower range of 0.50 - 1.15 tons/ha/year. of soil loss at Mubi-North LGA. The wide difference between the RUSLE-2 and EGEM predictions within the neighboring erosion sites accounted for the RUSLE-2 as having over predictions compared to the EGEM outputs. This was perhaps due to the larger area coverage by the RUSLE-2 during the research, compared to the EGEM applied to EG erosion channels with smaller sizes. However, future trials and revalidation of RUSLE-2, and other technologies are strongly recommended towards developing suitable conservation alternatives in the Mubi region. Further trials by [32, 45] involving EGEM, WEPP, and empirical models show that the observed erosion strongly correlated with the empirical (r2 = 0.67) than with both EGEM (r2 = 0.57) and the WEPP (r2 = 0.53) models. The results suggest opportunities for adaptability of even the more sophisticated foreign models around the Mubi region, and therefore, the need for further trials of other efficient erosion models towards the selection of more realistic and/or suitable tool for erosion management around the Mubi region.
4.2 Economic implications of soil erosion in the Mubi region
Although volumes of research works on economic implications of soil erosion exist elsewhere, the Mubi region is still facing a dearth of information on such an agenda in monetary terms, apart from the few research results reported by [46]. There are still no other published records of economic analysis on soil erosion devastations in the Mubi region.
Table 7 presents the results of some analyzed economic implications of soil and soil nutrient losses observed at 4 farm locations in the Mubi area in 2003 and 2004. The estimated weights of soils and their inherent nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) losses were quantified at costs within the range of $305 and $5698 for the study sites in both years. The gross cost of the nutrient loss over the 2 years was as high as $19,377, considering the small-sized erosion channels. Although, these values seem to fall within considerable limits, nutrient losses in larger erosion channels might be very disturbing and prohibitive.
Location
Weight of soil loss (kg)
Soil analytical data
Weight of nutrient loss (kg)
Equivalent number of fertilizer bags (50 kg)
Estimated cost of nutrient loss ($)
Total costs of nutrient loss ($)
N (%)
P (ppm)
K cmol(+)/kg)
N
P2O5
K2O
N (urea)
P (SSP)
K (MOP)
N
P
K
2003
Muvur
725,345
0.27
20.88
3.47
1958.43
34.58
1177.93
85
4
39
3905
103
949
4957
Vimtim
159,574
0.14
14.33
4.23
223.40
5.24
315.90
10
1
10.5
460
26
255
741
Gella
161,257
0.15
22.65
1.36
241.89
8.36
102.64
10.5
1
3.5
482
26
85
593
Lamorde
589,620
0.17
25.88
2.03
1002.35
34.95
560.16
43.5
4
19
1999
103
462
2564
Gross annual cost
6846
258
1551
8855
2004
Muvur
984,401
0.21
21.00
3.85
2067.24
47.33
1773.69
90
5
59
4135
128
1435
5698
Vimtim
266,689
0.15
35.03
4.45
445.03
23.79
617.88
19
3
20.5
873
77
499
1449
Gella
101,556
0.11
23.17
1.51
111.71
5.38
71.77
5
1
2
230
26
49
305
Lamorde
620,090
0.20
26.34
2.06
1240.18
37.40
606.53
54
4
20
2481
103
486
3070
Gross annual cost
7719
334
2469
10,522
Gross total cost
19,377
Table 7.
Soil and nutrient loss and their cost estimates per hectare per annum (2003–2004).
Keywords: (1) conversion factor of P (kg) into P2O5 = 2.29 and K (kg) into K2O = 1.20, (2) conversion rate of 1$ = N370 in Nigerian currency, (3) a bag of (a) urea fertilizer cost $46, (b) a bag of single superphosphate (SSP) costs $26, and (c) a bag of murate of potash (MOP) in 2021.
The results in Table 8 presents a similar economic analysis of the quantity of soil loss by gully erosion as reported by [46] in the same Mubi region. However, such economic analysis on erosion-related researches has not yet been reported, apart from those reported by [46]. The results show that locations such as the Muvur site with wider and/or deeper gullies recorded larger soil removals with proportionate economic losses, while other locations with the narrowest and/or shallowest channels such as the Gella site, had lesser soil and associated economic losses. The gross cost of soil loss ($19,377) was over twice the cost of nutrient loss ($34,840) during the 2 study seasons. These soil and nutrient loss cost estimates ($54,217) appear very high and prohibitive, if converted into the Nigerian local currency (N20,060,290). This is an amount that could pay off 1 month salary bills of about 50 professors in the Nigerian Universities.
Erosion site location
Weight of soil loss (kg/ha/year)
Equivalent number of tipper load (156 T) (6160 kg)
Cost of soil loss ($)
2003
2004
2003
2004
2003
2004
Digil
404,321.63
239,185.65
66
36
2640
1560
Muvur
725,345.01
984,400.56
178
160
7120
6400
Vimtim
159,574.14
296,680.60
26
48
1040
1920
Gella
161,257.14
101,566.00
26
17
1040
680
Lamorde
589,619.57
620,089.74
96
101
3840
4040
Madanya
211,619.27
491,007.60
34
80
1360
3200
Total
2,251,736.72
2,732,930.15
426
445
17,040
17,800
Gross total cost
34,840
Table 8.
Soil loss and cost estimates.
Keywords: (1) equivalent weight of tipper load (156 T) = 6160 kg, (2) unit cost of a tipper load = $40.
4.3 Erosion management practices adopted around the Mubi region
The erosion features in the Mubi region have also received considerable management efforts from farmers, residents, government officials, and environmental scientists over the years. Table 9 presents some of the management measures adopted at some villages across the Mubi region [10, 32]. The report details the major soil degradation sources adopted conservation practices, and their corresponding impacts on arable agriculture around the Mubi region. The major soil degradation sources include soil erosion such as sheet, rill, and gully, Sloughing along gullies, impeded drainages, and soil exhaustion. The majority of the gullies and stream bank erosion features have been controlled over time with such as stone lines/bunds, sandbag lines, vegetative barriers, earthen-contour bunds, and hillside-terraces. In addition, soil exhaustion caused by continuous cropping and selective plant nutrient uptakes, have been remedied with the application of organic manure, and some other soil-enriching mulching practices to restore soil quality after erosion damages. These measures have shown some proven protection of soil surfaces against the menacing effects of such as gullying, siltation problems, and channelized erosion spread in the Mubi region.
A handful of researchers such as [10, 11, 17, 18, 20, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31] suggested several, but varying soil erosion control options for implementation around the Mubi region. According to [30, 31], overgrazing, deforestation, and indiscriminate bush burning that leaves the soils bare during dry seasons up to the onsets of rainfalls makes the soils more vulnerable to surface destructions at the slightest impacts of rain splash, rills, or gullying activities in the region.
5. Conclusions
This study found out that only a few quantitative data exist on the soil erosion agenda in the Mubi region at present. The available literature reported only a little or no information on the sheet, splash, and rill erosion processes, compared to EG and classical gully erosion features that are widely spread across the Mubi region. Other works such as [18, 20, 26, 30, 31] also dwelled on soil erosion management and conservation measures practiced around the Mubi region. The study noted field measurements, observations, and trials of empirical and few other physically-based foreign erosion models such as ArcGIS 10.3 software, EGEM software, and WEPP software technologies, have been implemented successfully, especially around the foothills of the Mubi area.
It suffices to conclude that, more of the researches were more concentrated in the Mubi area (Mubi-North and South LGAs) [10] than at any other part of the Mubi region. Only a little information related to the economic analysis of soil erosion implications around the Mubi region was reported, and there exists the need to improve. However, soil loss researches by a handful of authors were considerably reported in the region [9, 10, 18, 22, 23, 24, 26, 29, 32, 44, 45, 46]. Reports related to soil degradation and recommendable conservation measures in the Mubi region were as well documented [26, 29, 30, 31, 32]. Recently, erosion risk analysis on a watershed using ArcGIS software at the Mubi South LGA was reported by [11, 12], with about 3.52 tons/ha/year of soil loss as being of high risk in the Mubi area.
Future research efforts need to be focused on finding soil losses and their economic implications of such as the commonly visible land sloughing along with gully features and river/stream banks, and also from sheet erosion features being the inadequately studied agenda, in order to complement existing research works.
Acknowledgments
I wish to acknowledge the material and moral supports given to me by my Head of Faculty and the Vice-Chancellor which enabled me to complete this work, despite few challenges. I also acknowledge my dear friend and wife, Engr. (Mrs) Ijapari Deborah Ijasini for her assistance in the collation of most of the secondary data from the Ethernet to enrich this chapter.
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
Notes/thanks/other declarations
Thanks to IntecOpen officials who found me qualified to contribute a chapter to this Open Access book on “Soil Science: Emerging Technologies, Global Perspectives, and Applications”. Hoping that this book chapter shall achieve the goal for which it was invited and/or contributed for wider readability.
\n',keywords:"Hilly areas, soil erosion, erosion predictions, economics/managements of soil erosion, Mubi region",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79546.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79546.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79546",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79546",totalDownloads:96,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 16th 2021",dateReviewed:"September 15th 2021",datePrePublished:"December 3rd 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"December 3rd 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Soil erosion is a severe degradation phenomena that has since received huge attention among earth scientists in the developed worlds, and same efforts are now extending to Africa and other parts of underdeveloped worlds. This chapter focuses on collation, analyzing and appraising of soil ero¬sion studies around Mubi region, Northeast Nigeria, where the Mandara mountain ranges is notably responsible for spurring soil erosion. This chapter reviewed reports on the: (a) Mubi regional soil properties, erosion processes and principles of their occurrence, (b) soil erosion predictions using empirical and physically-based models by researchers, and, (c) economicimplications and managements of soil erosion in the region. This chapter reveals that classical and rill/ephemeral gully (EG) erosion features received more research attention than surface erosion such as splash and sheet. No information was reported on effects of landslides/slumping noticeable along rivers/stream banks around the region. The few economic analysis reported for soil nutrient and sediments entrained by concentrated flow channels were very high and intolerable to the predominantly peasant farmers in the region. It is hoped that the considerable volumes of erosion researches and recommendations assembled in this chapter shall be carefully implemented by prospective farmers, organizations, and residents in the Mubi region.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79546",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79546",signatures:"Ijasini John Tekwa and Abubakar Musa Kundiri",book:{id:"10952",type:"book",title:"Soil Science - Emerging Technologies, Global Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Soil Science - Emerging Technologies, Global Perspectives and Applications",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Michael Thomas Aide and Dr. Indi Braden",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10952.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83969-521-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-520-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-522-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"185895",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Aide",slug:"michael-aide",fullName:"Michael Aide"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The Mubi region",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Description and location",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Climate and agriculture",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Soils and erosion activities",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Principle of soil erosion processes and development around the Mubi region",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Conceptual framework of soil erosion processes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Soil erosion predictions around the Mubi region",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1 Field studies of channelized erosion features around the Mubi region",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"Table 6.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.2 Economic implications of soil erosion in the Mubi region",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.3 Erosion management practices adopted around the Mubi region",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Notes/thanks/other declarations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO/UN) and Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils (ITPS). Status of the World’s Soil Resources—Main Report. Rome; 2015. p. 649. Available from: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5199e.pdf'},{id:"B2",body:'Web of Science. Available from: www.webofknowledge.com [Accessed: 20 March 2019]'},{id:"B3",body:'Lupia-Palmieri E. Erosion. In: Goudie AS, editor. Encyclopedia of Geomorphology. London, UK: Routledge; 2004. pp. 331-336'},{id:"B4",body:'Poesen J. Soil erosion in the Anthropocene: Research needs. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms. 2018;43(1):64-84'},{id:"B5",body:'Pennock DJ, Appleby PG. Site selection and sampling design. In: Zapata F, editor. 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Journal of the Environment. 2006;1(1):35-43'},{id:"B11",body:'Thlakma SR, Iguisi EO, Odunze AC, Jeb DN. Prediction of soil erosion risk in Mubi South catchment area, Adamawa state, Nigeria. IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology. 2018;1:40-47'},{id:"B12",body:'Thlakma SR, Iguisi EO, Odunze AC, Jeb DN. Estimation of soil erosion risk in Mubi South watershed, Adamawa state, Nigeria. Journal of Remote Sensing and GIS. 2018;7:1-10. DOI: 10.4172/2469.1000226'},{id:"B13",body:'Capra A, Mazzara LM, Scicolone B. Application of the ephemeral gully erosion model to predict ephemeral gully erosion in Sicily, Italy. Catena. 2004;59(2):1-13'},{id:"B14",body:'Foster GR. Understanding ephemeral gully erosion in National Research Council, Board on Agriculture. In: Soil conservation: Assessing the National Research Inventory. Vol. 2. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1986. pp. 90-118'},{id:"B15",body:'Kirk G. Adamawa: Past and present. London, Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1969'},{id:"B16",body:'Nwafor JC. Historical development 2: Nigeria since independence. In: Barbour KM et al., editors. Nigeria in Maps. London: Hodder & Stoughton; 1982. pp. 38-39'},{id:"B17",body:'Adebayo AA. Mubi Region: A Geographical Synthesis. 1st ed. Yola-Nigeria: Paraclete Publishers; 2004. pp. 32-38'},{id:"B18",body:'Reij C, Scoones I, Toulmin C. Sustaining the Soil: Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation in Africa. UK: Earthscan Publications Ltd; 1996. pp. 191-201'},{id:"B19",body:'Adebayo AA, Tukur AL. Adamawa State in Maps. 1st ed. Yola: Department of Geography F.U.T.; 1999. p. 92'},{id:"B20",body:'Tekwa IJ, Belel MD. Impacts of traditional Soil conservation practices in sustainable food production. Journal of Agriculture and Social Sciences. 2009;5:128-130. Available from: http://www.Fspublishers.org'},{id:"B21",body:'Food and Agricultural Organization/United Nation Economic, Scientific and Cultural Organization (FAO/UNESCO). FAO: Soil Map of the World. Paris; 1988'},{id:"B22",body:'Tekwa IJ, Usman BH, Ibrahim A. Estimation of soil nutrient loss by gully erosion and its economic implications in Mubi LGA, Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Sciences. 2006;10(2):1-12'},{id:"B23",body:'Tekwa IJ, Alhassan AB, Chiroma AM. Effect of selected erosion predictors on seasonal soil loss from ephemeral gully erosion features in Mubi area, Northeastern Nigeria. Scholarly Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2013;3(10):401-409. Available from: http://www.scholarly-journals.com/SJAS'},{id:"B24",body:'Tekwa IJ, Laflen JM, Kundiri AM. Efficiency test of adapted EGEM model in predicting ephemeral gully erosion around Mubi, Northeast, Nigeria. International Soil and Water Conservation Journal. 2015;3(1):15-27. Available from: www.sciencedirect.comwww.elsevier.com/locate/iswcr'},{id:"B25",body:'Yohanna E. Soils and vegetation. In: Adebayo AA, editor. Mubi Region: A Geographical Synthesis. Yola, Nigeria: Paraclete Publishers; 2004. pp. 38-48'},{id:"B26",body:'Ray HH. Cultural soil conservation techniques practiced in Mubi and environs. Journal of Sustainable Development in Agriculture and Environment. 2006;2:163-167'},{id:"B27",body:'Tekwa IJ, Sadiq AS. Sensitivity analysis of some environmental variables as EGEM inputs to predict ephemeral gully erosion in Mubi, semi-arid Northeast Nigeria. Asian American Environment and Agriculture Research Journal. 2014;1:1-12'},{id:"B28",body:'Tekwa IJ. Prediction of soil loss from ephemeral gully erosion on some soils of Mubi, Northeast Nigeria [thesis]. Nigeria: University of Maiduguri; 2014'},{id:"B29",body:'Tekwa IJ, Laflen JM, Yusuf Z. Estimation of monthly soil loss from ephemeral gully erosion features in Mubi, Semi-arid Northeastern Nigeria. International Research Journal—Agricultural Science Research Journal. 2014;4(3):51-58. Available from: http://www.resjournals.com/ARJ'},{id:"B30",body:'Sadiq AA, Tekwa IJ. Soil fertility and Management practices in Mubi region. 1st ed. Yola, Nigeria: Life-Line International Printing Press; 2018. pp. 3-5, 23-33, 65-70'},{id:"B31",body:'Sadiq AA, Abdullahi M, Ardo AU. An overview of soil fertility degradation in Mubi area, Northeastern part of Nigeria. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications. 2019;9(2):692-697'},{id:"B32",body:'Tekwa IJ, Laflen JM, Kundiri AM, Alhassan AB. Evaluation of WEPP versus EGEM and empirical model efficiencies in predicting ephemeral gully erosion around Mubi area, Northeast Nigeria. International Soil and Water Conservation Research. 2021;9:11-29'},{id:"B33",body:'Foster GR. Modeling the soil erosion process. In: Haan CT, editor. Hydrologic Modeling of Small Watershed. St. Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers; 1982. Monograph No. 5. pp. 297-379'},{id:"B34",body:'Gordon LM, Bennett SJ, Bingner RL, Theurer FD, Alonso CV. Simulating ephemeral gully erosion in AnnAGNPS. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers. 2007;50(3):857-866'},{id:"B35",body:'Casali JJ, Lopez J, Giraldez JV. Ephemeral gully erosion in Southern Navarra (Spain). Catena. 1999;36:56-84'},{id:"B36",body:'Thomas AW, Welch R. Measurement of ephemeral gully erosion. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 1988;31:1723-1728'},{id:"B37",body:'Alonso CV, Bennett SJ, Stein OR. Predicting headcut erosion and migration in concentrated flows typical of upland areas. Water Resources Research. 2002;38(12):39-1-39-15'},{id:"B38",body:'Rose E. Traditional and modern strategies for soil and water conservation in the Sudano-Sahelian area of West Africa. In: Rimwanich S, editor. Land Conservation for Future Generations. Bangkok: Department of land development; 1992. pp. 913-924'},{id:"B39",body:'Pennock D. Soil Erosion: The Greatest Challenge for Sustainable Soil Management. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2019. pp. 1-23'},{id:"B40",body:'Watson DJ, Laflen JM, Franti TG. Ephemeral gully erosion estimator. In: Woodward DE, editor. Method to Predict Cropland Ephemeral Gully Erosion. Vol. 37. Michigan, USA: Catena; 1986. pp. 393-399'},{id:"B41",body:'Wolf B. Diagnostic Techniques for Improving Crop Production. USA: Haworth Press; 2003'},{id:"B42",body:'Trout TT, Garcia-castillas IG, Hart WE. Soil Water Engineering Field and Laboratory Manual. New Delhi, India: M/S Eurasia; 1987'},{id:"B43",body:'Walkley A, Black C. Chronic acid titration method for determining soil organic matter. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 1934;37:29'},{id:"B44",body:'Tekwa IJ, Bele MD, Alhassan AB. The effectives of indigenous soil conservation techniques on sustainable crop production. Australian Journal of Agricultural Engineering. 2010;1(3):74-79'},{id:"B45",body:'Tekwa IJ, Kundiri AM, Chiroma AM. Efficiency test of modeled empirical equations in predicting soil loss from ephemeral gully erosion around Mubi, Northeast Nigeria. International Soil and Water Conservation Research. 2016;4:12-19'},{id:"B46",body:'Tekwa IJ, Ambali OY, Abubakar B. Economic analysis of soil and associated nutrient loss by gully erosion in Mubi area, Adamawa state, Nigeria. In: Proceedings of the 6th National Conference on Organic Agriculture; 21-24 November; 2010, Maiduguri, Nigeria: University Press; pp. 145-151'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ijasini John Tekwa",address:"jasini.john2@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Department of Soil Science and Land Resources Management, Federal University Wukari, Wukari, Taraba State, Nigeria
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Abubakar Musa Kundiri",address:null,affiliation:'
Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Department of Soil Science and Land Resources Management, Federal University Wukari, Wukari, Taraba State, Nigeria
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The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
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Cárdenas-Aguayo, M. del C. Silva-Lucero, M. Cortes-Ortiz,\nB. Jiménez-Ramos, L. Gómez-Virgilio, G. Ramírez-Rodríguez, E. Vera-\nArroyo, R. Fiorentino-Pérez, U. García, J. Luna-Muñoz and M.A.\nMeraz-Ríos",authors:[{id:"42225",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Luna-Muñoz",slug:"jose-luna-munoz",fullName:"Jose Luna-Muñoz"},{id:"114746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Meraz-Ríos",slug:"marco-meraz-rios",fullName:"Marco Meraz-Ríos"},{id:"169616",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Cardenas-Aguayo",slug:"maria-del-carmen-cardenas-aguayo",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Cardenas-Aguayo"},{id:"169857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Silva-Lucero",slug:"maria-del-carmen-silva-lucero",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Silva-Lucero"},{id:"169858",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Cortes-Ortiz",slug:"maribel-cortes-ortiz",fullName:"Maribel Cortes-Ortiz"},{id:"169859",title:"Dr.",name:"Berenice",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Ramos",slug:"berenice-jimenez-ramos",fullName:"Berenice Jimenez-Ramos"},{id:"169860",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Virgilio",slug:"laura-gomez-virgilio",fullName:"Laura Gomez-Virgilio"},{id:"169861",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez-Rodriguez",slug:"gerardo-ramirez-rodriguez",fullName:"Gerardo Ramirez-Rodriguez"},{id:"169862",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Vera-Arroyo",slug:"eduardo-vera-arroyo",fullName:"Eduardo Vera-Arroyo"},{id:"169863",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorentino-Perez",slug:"rosana-sofia-fiorentino-perez",fullName:"Rosana Sofia Fiorentino-Perez"},{id:"169864",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"ubaldo-garcia",fullName:"Ubaldo Garcia"}]},{id:"58070",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72427",title:"MRI Medical Image Denoising by Fundamental Filters",slug:"mri-medical-image-denoising-by-fundamental-filters",totalDownloads:2564,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Nowadays Medical imaging technique Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays an important role in medical setting to form high standard images contained in the human brain. MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:23,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"},{id:"80821",title:"Neuroimmunology and Neurological Manifestations of COVID-19",slug:"neuroimmunology-and-neurological-manifestations-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:41,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103026",abstract:"Infection with SARS-CoV-2 is causing coronavirus disease in 2019 (COVID-19). Besides respiratory symptoms due to an attack on the broncho-alveolar system, COVID-19, among others, can be accompanied by neurological symptoms because of the affection of the nervous system. These can be caused by intrusion by SARS-CoV-2 of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) and direct infection of local cells. In addition, neurological deterioration mediated by molecular mimicry to virus antigens or bystander activation in the context of immunological anti-virus defense can lead to tissue damage in the CNS and PNS. In addition, cytokine storm caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection in COVID-19 can lead to nervous system related symptoms. Endotheliitis of CNS vessels can lead to vessel occlusion and stroke. COVID-19 can also result in cerebral hemorrhage and sinus thrombosis possibly related to changes in clotting behavior. Vaccination is most important to prevent COVID-19 in the nervous system. There are symptomatic or/and curative therapeutic approaches to combat COVID-19 related nervous system damage that are partly still under study.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Robert Weissert"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",slug:"j.-kevin-summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{}},subseries:{item:{id:"25",type:"subseries",title:"Evolutionary Computation",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. 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Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. 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