Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6165",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Entrepreneurship - Development Tendencies and Empirical Approach",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Development Tendencies and Empirical Approach",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In context of entrepreneurship, this book was motivated by a desire of a team of well-known authors. The book consists of 23 closely related thematic contributions, which fall into 4 separate sections: Interactions between Economy and Entrepreneurship; Innovation in Entrepreneurship and Economic Growth; Current Trends in Family Business, Social Entrepreneurship and Responsibility; and The Role of Human Resource Management, Education and Gender in Entrepreneurship. Authors-contributors have submitted the results of their recent research and presented essential findings about the decision-making process of entrepreneurs in order to maintain their businesses competitive. The reader can get an insight into the selection of the best scientific contributions that have been reviewed and ready for debate. Our piece of work, Entrepreneurship: Development Tendencies and Empirical Approach, has interdisciplinary features. This work by authors from different countries - Finland, Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Italy, Spain, Turkey and Malaysia - is dedicated to readers providing up-to-date research data and background for further research as well as implementation techniques in business practice.",isbn:"978-953-51-3761-0",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3760-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4050-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68372",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"entrepreneurship-development-tendencies-and-empirical-approach",numberOfPages:472,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a486ac3894ef64c8dad75e45a948d9d1",bookSignature:"Ladislav Mura",publishedDate:"January 24th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6165.jpg",numberOfDownloads:30834,numberOfWosCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitations:21,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:38,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:76,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 16th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 6th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 20th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 1st 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 20th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"85474",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ladislav",middleName:null,surname:"Mura",slug:"ladislav-mura",fullName:"Ladislav Mura",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/85474/images/system/85474.jpg",biography:"Prof. Mura is an associate professor at the Faculty of Economics and Business, Pan-European University in Bratislava, Slovakia. He is a supervisor for master and doctoral students as well as an author of a number of national and international journal articles. His research interests include small and medium enterprises, family business, business innovation, the impact of internationalization on business activities, human resource management.",institutionString:"Pan-European University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Pan-European University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovakia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"453",title:"Entrepreneurial Economics",slug:"entrepreneurial-economics"}],chapters:[{id:"57488",title:"Entrepreneurs and Growth: An Option, Obligation or Obsession",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70527",slug:"entrepreneurs-and-growth-an-option-obligation-or-obsession",totalDownloads:1968,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"“Growth” as a word carries a positive tone in it; human beings grow and mature, gaining new knowledge and resources, and so do companies. Growth, however, has never been for all. In competitive markets, some grow and others do not—or grow at slower pace than others. Furthermore, growth is a process that strains the capabilities and resources of an individual, company, and its acting entrepreneurs to their extreme. Growth means also learning and leaving behind something learned of possessed before. Growth disrupts the history and path of a single company and its entrepreneur. The text synthetizes the scattered literature in growth and entrepreneurship. A case study shows how growth is viewed in an entrepreneurial company. The author shows how companies can be categorized to different sub-segments based on their growth opportunities, urge to grow, and growth aspirations. The typical enablers and hindrances of growth hindrances get introduced. The chapter underlines that for some companies, growth is one of the strategic options, whereas to some, it is more of an internal and external obligation. Despite the existence of multiple stage-based models, growth is an individual path and no model should be taken in a law-like manner.",signatures:"Juha Saukkonen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57488",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57488",authors:[{id:"207054",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juha",surname:"Saukkonen",slug:"juha-saukkonen",fullName:"Juha Saukkonen"}],corrections:null},{id:"57418",title:"Entrepreneurship and Creative Economy: Mental Models of Cultural Entrepreneurs in Belo Horizonte, Brazil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70770",slug:"entrepreneurship-and-creative-economy-mental-models-of-cultural-entrepreneurs-in-belo-horizonte-braz",totalDownloads:1053,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study aims to analyze the common elements in the mental models of cultural entrepreneurs in Belo Horizonte, Brazil, as well as to contribute to the expansion of public policies that enable the development of such enterprises. The theoretical framework of this study addresses entrepreneurship and the mental models of entrepreneurs in the creative economy sector. The Brazilian government has showed concern with the development of the creative economy sector, considering its importance in the national and international scenario. There is a lack of information and data that describes the specific characteristics and issues of the creative economy. Thus, it is important not only to present a statistical data on the sector, but also qualitative data that can broaden and deepen the knowledge of the sector and its professionals.",signatures:"Anna G.M. Oliveira and Marlene C.O.L. Melo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57418",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57418",authors:[{id:"207393",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Anna",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"anna-oliveira",fullName:"Anna Oliveira"},{id:"217914",title:"Dr.",name:"Marlene",surname:"Melo",slug:"marlene-melo",fullName:"Marlene Melo"}],corrections:null},{id:"56784",title:"Economic Transition and the Corporate Governance Implementation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70533",slug:"economic-transition-and-the-corporate-governance-implementation",totalDownloads:1192,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In Slovakia, the privatization of the state property in the beginning of the 1990s created a need for the corporate governance implementation. The aim of this chapter is to evaluate the level of implementation of corporate governance in Slovakia after more than 25 years since starting the transition from a centrally planned to a market economy, including a legal framework for its implementation. To support our analysis, we explored a relationship between the level of the corporate governance implementation and economic results of corporations. For this purpose, we reviewed annual reports for year 2015 by 27 corporations listed on the Bratislava Stock Exchange. The average profit of the evaluated corporations was approaching 21 million EUR, and the average assets value was at 1.2 billion EUR. Using the scoring method devised by us for this purpose, the average score of the annual report evaluation reached 2.59 points out of maximum 5 points. Finally, we tested a hypothesis that improving the level of corporate governance implementation may contribute to profitability and assets value of corporations.",signatures:"Zuzana Kittová, Dušan Steinhauser and Viera Ružeková",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56784",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56784",authors:[{id:"207431",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Zuzana",surname:"Kittova",slug:"zuzana-kittova",fullName:"Zuzana Kittova"},{id:"208363",title:"Mr.",name:"Dušan",surname:"Steinhauser",slug:"dusan-steinhauser",fullName:"Dušan Steinhauser"},{id:"216786",title:"Mrs.",name:"Viera",surname:"Ružeková",slug:"viera-ruzekova",fullName:"Viera Ružeková"}],corrections:null},{id:"57461",title:"The Roll of the Entrepreneur in the Establishment of Economic Equilibria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70674",slug:"the-roll-of-the-entrepreneur-in-the-establishment-of-economic-equilibria",totalDownloads:1016,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, a simple market model is presented to illustrate how random entrepreneurial activity can be responsible for the establishment of economic equilibria without the assumption of perfect knowledge. In this model it is assumed that the entrepreneurs (both traders and producers) have no information regarding the other entrepreneurs’ preferences, wealth, or production skills. The only information they have is the past transaction prices, and yet this information is sufficient for the market to reach equilibrium price. Equilibrium is not a stationary process on the microscopic level. It is a process, which consists of interactions between entrepreneurs, who act randomly without insight. Consequently, the market price continuously oscillates randomly around the equilibrium values. The higher the risk the producers are willing to take, the more stable is the equilibrium. When entrepreneurial actions are depressed, the market may drift from its optimal point. This model also investigates the more realistic scenario, in which, due to specialization, the production boundary frontiers are convex (instead of linear). It is shown that in this case, the drifts are suppressed and the optimal equilibrium is more stable. Moreover, the amount of risk aversion has a clear effect on the production growth of the economy. The lower the risk aversion is, the higher is the growth rate of the economy.",signatures:"Er’el Granot",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57461",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57461",authors:[{id:"181601",title:"Prof.",name:"Er'El",surname:"Granot",slug:"er'el-granot",fullName:"Er'El Granot"}],corrections:[{id:"65667",title:"Erratum - The Roll of the Entrepreneur in the Establishment of Economic Equilibria",doi:null,slug:"erratum-the-roll-of-the-entrepreneur-in-the-establishment-of-economic-equilibria",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,correctionPdfUrl:null}]},{id:"57750",title:"Determinants of Established Entrepreneurs’ Innovative Activity in Northern and Western Europe",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71843",slug:"determinants-of-established-entrepreneurs-innovative-activity-in-northern-and-western-europe",totalDownloads:1005,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"For established entrepreneurs from Western European economies (WEEs) and Northern European economies (NEEs), we estimated relationships between firms’ innovative activity and their owner-managers’ educational level, the firms’ international orientation, and their growth aspirations. International orientation proved to be positively and significantly related to innovative activity in both groups, but associations were stronger in NEEs. Established entrepreneurs with higher educational levels are more innovative than those with less education, with an exception for NEEs, where more innovative are entrepreneurs with a secondary instead of a postsecondary degree. Established entrepreneurs with growth aspirations are more innovative only for the NEEs. The empirical results confirm our two hypotheses for both groups of economies, whereas the third hypothesis which suggests that established entrepreneurs with aspirations for growing their firms are expected to be more innovative is confirmed only for the NEEs.",signatures:"Karin Širec and Dijana Močnik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57750",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57750",authors:[{id:"208473",title:"Prof.",name:"Karin",surname:"Širec",slug:"karin-sirec",fullName:"Karin Širec"},{id:"221122",title:"Prof.",name:"Dijana",surname:"Močnik",slug:"dijana-mocnik",fullName:"Dijana Močnik"}],corrections:null},{id:"57068",title:"Business Intelligence: An Innovative Technological Way to Influence Corporate Entrepreneurship",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70538",slug:"business-intelligence-an-innovative-technological-way-to-influence-corporate-entrepreneurship",totalDownloads:1853,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Adaptation to dynamism and complex environments in today’s Knowledge Society is key for firms to survive and improve their positions. This paper applies business intelligence (BI) to the firm to shape its organizational design and improve its performance. The paper also relates business intelligence to organizational performance management through organizational learning (OL), knowledge management (KM) and the technological competencies of the company’s employees and managers. Theoretical study of the main current research serves as the basis for the development of several propositions to fill the gaps in knowledge of business intelligence. Finally, the paper presents conclusions about application of business intelligence in firms.",signatures:"Reyes Giménez-Figueroa, Rodrigo Martín-Rojas and Víctor Jesús\nGarcía-Morales",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57068",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57068",authors:[{id:"208170",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Rodrigo",surname:"Martin-Rojas",slug:"rodrigo-martin-rojas",fullName:"Rodrigo Martin-Rojas"},{id:"208171",title:"Ms.",name:"Reyes",surname:"Giménez-Figueroa",slug:"reyes-gimenez-figueroa",fullName:"Reyes Giménez-Figueroa"},{id:"208172",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor Jesus",surname:"Garcia-Morales",slug:"victor-jesus-garcia-morales",fullName:"Victor Jesus Garcia-Morales"}],corrections:null},{id:"56990",title:"Entrepreneurship and Sustainability as Key Elements for Innovation: A Brazilian Dilemma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70771",slug:"entrepreneurship-and-sustainability-as-key-elements-for-innovation-a-brazilian-dilemma",totalDownloads:1356,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Considering the socio-economic reality of Brazil and from the relevance of the issues related to entrepreneurship and organizational innovation in the country, the importance of sustainability for the organizations could become a solution for the integration of entrepreneurship with innovation. The objective of this research is to highlight the relevance of sustainability for organizations as a way to trigger the integration of entrepreneurship toward innovation in the Brazilian context. Various exploratory and descriptive researches on the dynamics of entrepreneurship, innovation and sustainability in the main organizations of the Serra Gaúcha (RS), Brazil were carried out through the Multidisciplinary Research Group on Innovation and Competitiveness, in partnership with a research Nucleus on Innovation, Entrepreneurship and Sustainability. The main results indicate that the key sectors of this Brazilian regional economy present less “innovation intensity,” which are mainly characterized by internal organizational activities of innovation, preventing them to become “regional systems of innovation,” and which presupposes the lack of sustainability. Those limitations can be characterized as “innovation ghettos.” In that logic, the researchers have also demonstrated the presence of “ghettos of sustainability, ghettos of innovation, and therefore, ghettos of sustainability and innovation” in the sectors of this Brazilian regional economy, but in differentiated and restricted perspectives",signatures:"Eric Charles Henri Dorion, Pelayo Munhoz Olea, François Coallier,\nCleber Cristiano Prodanov, Eliana Andrea Severo, Julio Cesar Ferro\nGuimarães, Cristine Hermann Nodari, Ana Cristina Fachinelli, Vânia\nBeatriz Merlotti Heredia, Fernando Fantoni Bencke, Nilson Varella\nRubenich, Paula Patricia Ganzer, Claudio Baltazar Corrêa De Mello,\nAdrieli Alves Pereira Radaelli, Cassiane Chais, Oberdan Teles Da\nSilva, Luana Folchini Da Costa, Vanessa Machado, Joel Tshibamba\nMukendi and Vandoir Welchen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56990",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56990",authors:[{id:"22626",title:"Dr.",name:"Eric",surname:"Dorion",slug:"eric-dorion",fullName:"Eric Dorion"},{id:"114255",title:"Dr.",name:"Eliana Andrea",surname:"Severo",slug:"eliana-andrea-severo",fullName:"Eliana Andrea Severo"},{id:"137241",title:"Dr.",name:"Pelayo Munhoz",surname:"Olea",slug:"pelayo-munhoz-olea",fullName:"Pelayo Munhoz Olea"},{id:"137242",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristine Hermann",surname:"Nodari",slug:"cristine-hermann-nodari",fullName:"Cristine Hermann Nodari"},{id:"204862",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula Patricia",surname:"Ganzer",slug:"paula-patricia-ganzer",fullName:"Paula Patricia Ganzer"},{id:"204863",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudio Baltazar",surname:"Corrêa de Mello",slug:"claudio-baltazar-correa-de-mello",fullName:"Claudio Baltazar Corrêa de Mello"},{id:"209651",title:"Dr.",name:"Vânia Beatriz Merlotti",surname:"Heredia",slug:"vania-beatriz-merlotti-heredia",fullName:"Vânia Beatriz Merlotti Heredia"},{id:"209653",title:"Dr.",name:"François",surname:"Coallier",slug:"francois-coallier",fullName:"François Coallier"},{id:"209654",title:"Dr.",name:"Cleber Cristiano",surname:"Prodanov",slug:"cleber-cristiano-prodanov",fullName:"Cleber Cristiano Prodanov"},{id:"209655",title:"MSc.",name:"Adrieli Alves",surname:"Pereira Radaelli",slug:"adrieli-alves-pereira-radaelli",fullName:"Adrieli Alves Pereira Radaelli"},{id:"209656",title:"MSc.",name:"Oberdan",surname:"Teles Da Silva",slug:"oberdan-teles-da-silva",fullName:"Oberdan Teles Da Silva"},{id:"209657",title:"BSc.",name:"Luana",surname:"Folchini Da Costa",slug:"luana-folchini-da-costa",fullName:"Luana Folchini Da Costa"},{id:"209658",title:"BSc.",name:"Vanessa",surname:"Machado",slug:"vanessa-machado",fullName:"Vanessa Machado"},{id:"209659",title:"BSc.",name:"Joel",surname:"Tshibamba Mukendi",slug:"joel-tshibamba-mukendi",fullName:"Joel Tshibamba Mukendi"},{id:"209660",title:"BSc.",name:"Vandoir",surname:"Welchen",slug:"vandoir-welchen",fullName:"Vandoir Welchen"},{id:"209712",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Cassiane",surname:"Chais",slug:"cassiane-chais",fullName:"Cassiane Chais"},{id:"209728",title:"Dr.",name:"Julio Cesar Ferro",surname:"Guimarães",slug:"julio-cesar-ferro-guimaraes",fullName:"Julio Cesar Ferro Guimarães"},{id:"209844",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando Fantoni",surname:"Bencke",slug:"fernando-fantoni-bencke",fullName:"Fernando Fantoni Bencke"},{id:"209845",title:"Dr.",name:"Nilson Varella",surname:"Rubenich",slug:"nilson-varella-rubenich",fullName:"Nilson Varella Rubenich"},{id:"209852",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Cristina",surname:"Fachinelli",slug:"ana-cristina-fachinelli",fullName:"Ana Cristina Fachinelli"}],corrections:null},{id:"57588",title:"Entrepreneurship and Consulting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70673",slug:"entrepreneurship-and-consulting",totalDownloads:1339,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"For entrepreneurs, counselling means one of the ways how to overcome the challenges of developing markets and the environment through flexibility and creative innovation potential. It brings effects in the form of problem solving with the help of a counsellor and by adjusting the business entity to the change that this solution brings. All changes, suggested or implemented by counsellors, should contribute directly or indirectly to improving business performance and improving overall business performance. Therefore, the task and the aim of counselling are to find new solutions and optimize the entire corporate system, which is reflected in the savings and economic growth of a business as a measurable effect.",signatures:"Eva Hanuláková and Ferdinand Daňo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57588",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57588",authors:[{id:"207780",title:"Prof.",name:"Eva",surname:"Hanulakova",slug:"eva-hanulakova",fullName:"Eva Hanulakova"},{id:"207781",title:"Prof.",name:"Ferdinand",surname:"Dano",slug:"ferdinand-dano",fullName:"Ferdinand Dano"}],corrections:null},{id:"57541",title:"Family Business: Experience from the Czech Republic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71020",slug:"family-business-experience-from-the-czech-republic",totalDownloads:1013,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter deals with problems of small family-owned companies in the Czech Republic. The main aim of the chapter is to describe a family business in the Czech Republic. The partial aims of the chapter are as follows: presentation of family business definition used in investigation of Czech family businesses and model of successful transfer of power to the next generation called “relay.” This chapter uses a research methodology of the secondary as well as primary data collection. In the frame of secondary data collection, the data were obtained from the company’s websites as well as from the official Amadeus database and those by the Czech Statistical Office. The collection method of primary data was based on interviews with the company’s founder and his children and on the questionnaire survey. So gained interview results were transformed into the paper form and then transcribed. The research case study was analysed and focused on the case. This chapter states the results of qualitative research regarding a small family-owned company, called Kaláb—Building Company, Ltd. The concerning research part has the form of a case study. Two models are given in discussion of research results: (1) strategy of small family-owned enterprise and (2) power delegation in a family-owned enterprise.",signatures:"Vojtěch Koráb and Anastasia Murinova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57541",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57541",authors:[{id:"207366",title:"Prof.",name:"Vojtěch",surname:"Koráb",slug:"vojtech-korab",fullName:"Vojtěch Koráb"},{id:"207367",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Anastasia",surname:"Murinova",slug:"anastasia-murinova",fullName:"Anastasia Murinova"}],corrections:null},{id:"57899",title:"Investment in Microenterprises for Scaling up Business Growth: Evidence from Social Business Project",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72126",slug:"investment-in-microenterprises-for-scaling-up-business-growth-evidence-from-social-business-project",totalDownloads:1277,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Promoting entrepreneurship among the youth and women is an emerging global trend for inclusive sustainable development. This study aims to unlock the potential of social business investments in microenterprises for turning unemployment into entrepreneurship and scaling up business growth. According to Prof Yunus, “social business is selfless business to solve social problems” based on seven principles. The study has selected 264 enterprises of Nobin Udyokta (NU) meaning new entrepreneurs under Nobin Udyokta Project (NUP) of Grameen Telecom Trust (GTT). NUs and GTT have co-investments under equity participation for at least one or more than 1 year. NUs are basically emerging micro entrepreneurs, who are often disproportionately burdened with multi-dimensions of poverty and lack of working capital, which inhibits business growth. Findings of regression analysis show that social business fund can significantly influence the growth of NU enterprises and increased investment can also create more employments. Therefore, this study is having value to the promoter, advocates, investors in social enterprises, and policy makers seeking strategy for reducing poverty and unemployment through entrepreneurship for sustainable development leaving no one behind.",signatures:"Farhana Ferdousi and Parveen Mahmud",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57899",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57899",authors:[{id:"198685",title:"Dr.",name:"Farhana",surname:"Ferdousi",slug:"farhana-ferdousi",fullName:"Farhana Ferdousi"},{id:"208422",title:"Mrs.",name:"Parveen",surname:"Mahmud",slug:"parveen-mahmud",fullName:"Parveen Mahmud"}],corrections:null},{id:"57218",title:"Social Entrepreneurship in an Inclusive Business Model: A New Business Model for Sustainable Agroforestry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70295",slug:"social-entrepreneurship-in-an-inclusive-business-model-a-new-business-model-for-sustainable-agrofore",totalDownloads:1597,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Business’s role in society is expanding; they are held accountable not only for their (traditional) business conduct but also for institutional development that leads to alleviation of poverty as well as institutional development. The aim of the case study is to identify critical factors for the implementation of an inclusive business model. These factors are contextualized at a regional and local level as a part of an ongoing agro-food project. The forestry company’s operations in Lao PDR, offers an understanding of challenges related to political, social and financial sourcing conditions in needs of an inclusive business model. Creating the shared values relates to creating job opportunities, embracing gender aspects and engaging in institutional development in marginalized communities. A key factor in the development is a social entrepreneur, who re-creates a new community of practice by coordinating corporate strategies with local and regional needs. This case study offers a narrative of the development of a new context bound business model that positively influences the development of a multinational enterprise, an industry, a local community and academic understanding of what might become a dominant discourse for industrial upgrade and sustainable development.",signatures:"Cecilia Mark-Herbert and Brita Prejer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57218",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57218",authors:[{id:"121344",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",surname:"Mark-Herbert",slug:"cecilia-mark-herbert",fullName:"Cecilia Mark-Herbert"},{id:"215924",title:"MSc.",name:"Brita",surname:"Prejer",slug:"brita-prejer",fullName:"Brita Prejer"}],corrections:null},{id:"56866",title:"Entrepreneurship with Social Responsibility",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70609",slug:"entrepreneurship-with-social-responsibility",totalDownloads:1719,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Since the second half of the twentieth century, the society’s thinking about the behavior of companies has gradually begun to change. Companies are expected to use their power and finances to influence life around themselves, especially their quality. The corporate social responsibility (CSR) concept is a very progressive management approach that focuses on long-term goals and long-term returns. CSR seeks to harmonize relationships with stakeholders, which the company identifies and implements activities that go beyond legal and ethical standards. A socially responsible company performs something extra volunteer, conducts dialog with its stakeholders, and invests in improving relationships. The Department of Economics of the University of Žilina conducted a marketing survey entitled “Perceptions of Corporate Social Responsibility and its Communication by Companies”. The survey was conducted to find out how companies in Slovakia use the CSR concept and what is the level of their communication about this concept in relation to the external environment. Anonymous questionnaire method was used to obtain this data. The method of induction and deduction was used to process the obtained data and the phenomena investigated and to generalize and produce conclusions. Mathematical and statistical methods were used to evaluate survey data, and the synthesis method was used to create recommendations for companies.",signatures:"Anna Križanová, Katarína Moravčíková and Jana Klieštiková",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56866",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56866",authors:[{id:"207368",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Katarína",surname:"Moravčíková",slug:"katarina-moravcikova",fullName:"Katarína Moravčíková"},{id:"217839",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",surname:"Križanová",slug:"anna-krizanova",fullName:"Anna Križanová"},{id:"218210",title:"Dr.",name:"Jana",surname:"Klieštiková",slug:"jana-kliestikova",fullName:"Jana Klieštiková"}],corrections:null},{id:"56823",title:"Importance of Corporate Governance in Socially Responsible Behaviour of Enterprises",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70536",slug:"importance-of-corporate-governance-in-socially-responsible-behaviour-of-enterprises",totalDownloads:1340,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Many organisations have already realised that if they want to be successful, they must have a sense of responsibility not only for their business activities, but also for the whole society. That approach is entirely consistent with the basic idea of the concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR). In the economic area of the CSR concept, corporate governance plays an important role. Based on the OECD definition, corporate governance (CG) is a system by which business corporations are directed and controlled. The chapter provides the first comprehensive survey of corporate governance, the way to estimate the level of CG to individual companies on the Slovak capital market through our own corporate governance index. In analytical part of this chapter, we investigate disclosure of corporate governance in selected enterprises in Slovakia for the period 2011?2015 and on the basis of this information we prepare a corporate governance index. The corporate governance index helps assess the level of compliance with CG principles in companies whose securities are listed on the Bratislava Stock Exchange. The chapter fulfils a need for advancing knowledge on corporate governance and provides a practical framework for responsible behaviour of shareholders and managers in socially responsible enterprises.",signatures:"Hussam Musa, Zdenka Musová and Lenka Debnárová",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56823",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56823",authors:[{id:"208526",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hussam",surname:"Musa",slug:"hussam-musa",fullName:"Hussam Musa"},{id:"208548",title:"Prof.",name:"Zdenka",surname:"Musová",slug:"zdenka-musova",fullName:"Zdenka Musová"},{id:"208596",title:"Dr.",name:"Lenka",surname:"Debnárová",slug:"lenka-debnarova",fullName:"Lenka Debnárová"}],corrections:null},{id:"57585",title:"Management of Human Resource in Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises: Case Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70294",slug:"management-of-human-resource-in-small-and-medium-sized-enterprises-case-study",totalDownloads:1711,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Strategic management is a current direction of management types. It is applied in all types of businesses, including small and medium-sized enterprises. However, the use of its principles is limited in SMEs. The limits are caused by the size of these enterprises related to greater focus on operational management. For SMEs, cumulating of functions is also typical; oral communication is more common than written, etc. Despite those limitations, implementation of strategic principles in the management of SMEs is able to increase their competitiveness, reduce costs, improve decision-making, facilitate the introduction of employee motivation, shorten delivery times, provide better customer care, etc. The paper discusses whether and to what extent SMEs implement the principles of strategic management and whether its use is effective. The basic principle of strategic management is the formulation and selection of a strategy. Most of the SMEs in the sample formulated a strategy. However, a written strategy was designed mostly by enterprises with more than 25 employees; enterprises with fewer employees designed a written strategy only exceptionally. Classified by the type of activity, a strategy is seen less frequently in wood-work enterprises. On the other hand, enterprises operating in trade and services, including transport, designed a strategy, or even a written strategy, the most often. Quality and stabilisation were the most monitored characteristics, regardless of the number of employees or business type. Profit was the least monitored strategy in the sample. Positive effects after the introduction of strategic management principles were rated as significant by 27% of the subjects analysed and by 36% as moderate, and 38% of enterprises had no positive effects. The most striking positive effect, after the introduction of strategic management principles, was achieved by 44% in decision-making and costs. The smallest number of enterprises, only 8%, had a positive effect of the introduction of strategic management principles in the area of internal communication. The results show that the introduction of strategic management has a positive impact on small and medium enterprises, and it is highly desirable that its principles were introduced into these entities.",signatures:"Darja Holátová and Monika Březinová",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57585",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57585",authors:[{id:"208227",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Monika",surname:"Březinová",slug:"monika-brezinova",fullName:"Monika Březinová"},{id:"208275",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",surname:"Březinová",slug:"monika-brezinova",fullName:"Monika Březinová"}],corrections:null},{id:"57679",title:"Understanding the Motivation that Shapes Entrepreneurship Career Intention",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70786",slug:"understanding-the-motivation-that-shapes-entrepreneurship-career-intention",totalDownloads:1345,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Entrepreneurship intention for graduate students like many other job and work career options depends on other considerations. Individuals who pursue their intentions are most likely to implement their intention. Interest in entrepreneurship as career appears to be growing. Reviews show the need in investigating the determinants of entrepreneurship as a career intention of students and it has remains the focus of most of the recent studies. This is due to the facts that entrepreneurs are creating jobs and driving economic development of a nation. In this study, the Theory of Planned Behaviour is applied to investigate students’ entrepreneurial motivation and entrepreneurship intention. A total of 413 sets of completed questionnaire collected using the structured sampling methodology from the various faculties, races and student seniority at a University located in Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia were used in the analyses. The factors of entrepreneurial motivation affecting career entrepreneurship intention were found to be behavioural control, subjective norm, and attitude towards entrepreneurship. Behavioural control is found to be at a very good level while subjective norm and attitude towards entrepreneurship are both at a good level. Multiple regression analyses indicated that subjective norm and attitude of self-employment are both significantly related to student immediate and future entrepreneurship intentions. The behavioural control entrepreneurial motivation indicated significant relationship with student immediate career intention. However it was found that it is not related to entrepreneurship career intention. This study implies that young aspirant entrepreneur can be identified and targeted for development via the Planned Behaviour model for entrepreneurial interventions initiatives.",signatures:"Ng Kim-Soon, Abdul Rahman Ahmad and Nurul Nadia Ibrahim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57679",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57679",authors:[{id:"109304",title:"Prof.",name:"Kim-Soon",surname:"Ng",slug:"kim-soon-ng",fullName:"Kim-Soon Ng"}],corrections:null},{id:"57560",title:"Entrepreneurship, Leadership and Charisma: Which Are the Links with Business Models Sustainability?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70535",slug:"entrepreneurship-leadership-and-charisma-which-are-the-links-with-business-models-sustainability-",totalDownloads:1435,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Leadership ethics tend to emphasise the benefits of implementing ethical practices within organisations, focussing on the importance of a leader’s values and virtues and the positive effects of a leader’s behaviour on employees’ satisfaction, the organisational culture and stakeholders’ relationships. Drawing from this premise, the work addresses entrepreneurial and managerial leadership model, such as charismatic and virtues-based leadership, and its contribution in developing sustainability-oriented strategy. Using a methodological approach which merges the inductive and deductive perspective, a critical review of leadership approaches is followed by the empirical analysis based on a case study relative to a large Italian public company—Brunello Cucinelli Spa—driving attention to the effectiveness of sustainable business models which require managers and entrepreneurs to govern the internal and external complexity and actively contribute to both the sustainability of the company and the local and global environment.",signatures:"Mara Del Baldo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57560",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57560",authors:[{id:"208657",title:"Dr.",name:"Mara",surname:"Del Baldo",slug:"mara-del-baldo",fullName:"Mara Del Baldo"}],corrections:null},{id:"57811",title:"Entrepreneurship in Higher Education: The Effect of Academy, Motivation, Resources, Incentives, and Self-Efficacy in the Entrepreneurship Potential",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71695",slug:"entrepreneurship-in-higher-education-the-effect-of-academy-motivation-resources-incentives-and-self-",totalDownloads:1084,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Entrepreneurship in higher education is a current and relevant topic. The objective of this study is to analyze to what extent the entrepreneurial potential of polytechnic higher education students can be predicted from entrepreneurial motivations, opportunities, and resources to undertake, incentives to entrepreneurship, and self-perception of student efficacy, controlling for academic preparation and desire to undertake. Body—Research methods: Through the analysis of the reasons that encourage higher education students to undertake, a survey was carried out to 6532 students of Portuguese Polytechnic Institutes, who answered to the following measures: scale of opportunities and resources to undertake, scale of entrepreneurial motivations, scale of incentives to entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial potential, academic preparation to undertake, and desire to undertake. Conclusion—Key results: Hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed that academic preparation to undertake explained R2 = 5% of entrepreneurial potential, followed by motivations to undertake (ΔR2 = 11.5%), opportunities and resources to undertake (ΔR2 = 1.4%), incentives to undertake (ΔR2 = 0.7%), and self-efficacy (ΔR2 = 3.6%). The results are discussed taking into account the models of entrepreneurship and the importance of the academic preparation to undertake.",signatures:"Pedro Miguel Dinis Santos Parreira, Lisete dos Santos Mónico, Carla\nMaria Santos de Carvalho and Alexandra Cristina Riscado da Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57811",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57811",authors:[{id:"208247",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Pedro",surname:"Parreira",slug:"pedro-parreira",fullName:"Pedro Parreira"},{id:"208268",title:"Prof.",name:"Carla",surname:"Carvalho",slug:"carla-carvalho",fullName:"Carla Carvalho"},{id:"208269",title:"Prof.",name:"Lisete",surname:"Mónico",slug:"lisete-monico",fullName:"Lisete Mónico"},{id:"208271",title:"MSc.",name:"Alexandra",surname:"Silva",slug:"alexandra-silva",fullName:"Alexandra Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"57170",title:"Higher Education, Entrepreneurship and Learning by Practice: Collaborative Work from the Stakeholders’ Point of View",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70539",slug:"higher-education-entrepreneurship-and-learning-by-practice-collaborative-work-from-the-stakeholders-",totalDownloads:1040,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The involvement of different stakeholders has created a positive dynamics in the context of higher education, on the one hand by the reinforcement of entrepreneurship linked to innovation, the transference of technology, and the creation of companies and on the other hand by offering extracurricular activities in the formal curricular plans involving different academic stakeholders. Although there are countless initiatives and entrepreneurship programmes, in Portugal there are no (or, at least, no known) studies that analyse the non-formal and informal apprenticeships conceived and implemented by the stakeholders in order to clarify the potential development of entrepreneurial competences. Our results gathered from the research project: “Entrepreneurial learnings, cooperation and labour market: good practices in higher education (POAT-FSE)” show which are the main stakeholders or interface institutions between the university and the surrounding community in the process of technological and knowledge transfer. Our analysis proceeds to a report of the profiles, fields of work, advantages and factors of marked obstacles. By highlighting the contributions of these results, used for the innovation and revitalisation of the partnership networks in the field of science, technology and knowledge transfer, we intend to anchor the discussion about the relevance of the stakeholders in European Higher Education governance.",signatures:"Ana Paula Marques",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57170",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57170",authors:[{id:"208274",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Paula",surname:"Marques",slug:"ana-paula-marques",fullName:"Ana Paula Marques"}],corrections:null},{id:"57253",title:"The Entrepreneurship in Communication as an Educational- Learning Method: University Teaching and Educommunication",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71369",slug:"the-entrepreneurship-in-communication-as-an-educational-learning-method-university-teaching-and-educ",totalDownloads:1040,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This text is based on a study that was done with the aim of analysing the development of university training processes through real entrepreneurship projects. The research was carried out using the study case modality, and it was focused on observing the teaching methodology variations according to the implementation—or not—of a real entrepreneurship project as a method in a certain subject, collecting data of both the faculty and the students. Departing from the current situation of economic crisis and unemployment in Spain and from the despondency and discouragement situation of the students in their latest years of university studies, the self-employment is set up as a new job opportunity for the training projects of these university students. This study departs from the inclusion of an entrepreneurship plan as a method of evaluation and teaching in several subjects belonging to Advertising and Public Relations studies. With this entrepreneurship model, we study the formative consequences for the students and the impact on the society. Results showed a common methodological pattern regardless of the training model of the subject—obligatory entrepreneurship versus optional entrepreneurship—and a faculty interest in alternating several methodologies.",signatures:"Gloria Jiménez-Marín, Rodrigo Elías Zambrano and Elena Bellido-\nPérez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57253",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57253",authors:[{id:"213908",title:"Dr.",name:"Gloria",surname:"Jiménez-Marín",slug:"gloria-jimenez-marin",fullName:"Gloria Jiménez-Marín"},{id:"216693",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodrigo",surname:"Elías Zambrano",slug:"rodrigo-elias-zambrano",fullName:"Rodrigo Elías Zambrano"},{id:"216694",title:"MSc.",name:"Elena",surname:"Bellido Pérez",slug:"elena-bellido-perez",fullName:"Elena Bellido Pérez"}],corrections:null},{id:"58157",title:"Business Plan: In or Out? A Holistic View of the Combination of Planning and Learning Processes when Evaluating Business Opportunities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71844",slug:"business-plan-in-or-out-a-holistic-view-of-the-combination-of-planning-and-learning-processes-when-e",totalDownloads:1757,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Entrepreneurship is an important driver of innovation that is a critical factor to boost the competitiveness of modern economies. However, the rate of failure of start-ups tends to be quite significant. This chapter offers a new understanding of entrepreneurship inasmuch as a particular attention is given to different insights on the business plan in the creation of start-ups. In this context, we propose a broader understanding of the business plan integrating it in a holistic understanding of the business planning process. This investigation project results from the merits associated with the concomitant approach that combines planning and learning when creating new businesses. We support the adoption of this approach by developing a scheme that combines two processes that seem to be opposite. One focuses on the business planning and the other on the information collected from customers and other stakeholders. This scheme is likely to guide entrepreneurs and managers when they choose the concomitant approach that combines planning and learning over the other approaches previously studied. Furthermore, we also establish the foundation for future scientific research to develop a framework that can be used to help decrease the number of new businesses that do not survive in the market.",signatures:"Sandra Filipa Moreira Fernandes, Amélia Maria Pinto da Cunha\nBrandão and Carlos Henrique Figueiredo e Melo de Brito",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58157",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58157",authors:[{id:"143325",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Brito",slug:"carlos-brito",fullName:"Carlos Brito"},{id:"217805",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Sandra",surname:"Fernandes",slug:"sandra-fernandes",fullName:"Sandra Fernandes"},{id:"222064",title:"Prof.",name:"Amélia",surname:"Brandão",slug:"amelia-brandao",fullName:"Amélia Brandão"}],corrections:null},{id:"57198",title:"Does Gender Matter in Strategies Adopted to Face the Economic Crisis? A Comparison Between Men and Women Entrepreneurs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70292",slug:"does-gender-matter-in-strategies-adopted-to-face-the-economic-crisis-a-comparison-between-men-and-wo",totalDownloads:1181,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of this paper is to understand how Italian micro-entrepreneurs responded to the economic crisis and strategies they adopted to deal with it. A comparison between male and female entrepreneurs is presented, in order to understand if they adopted similar or different strategies. The paper also aims to understand if variables, other than gender, influenced strategies adopted to face the economic crisis. Drawing from a telephone questionnaire survey involving a sample of 300 (150 male and 150 female) owners of Italian micro-enterprises, located in Marche Region, findings suggest that entrepreneurs mostly dealt with the crisis through a defensive approach (restructuring and resizing strategies). Compared to men, female entrepreneurs had a lower propensity towards offensive strategies (innovation, development and growth). Differences in the approach towards the crisis were also identified with respect to company’s age, industry and impact of the crisis. These findings contribute to the debate on gender-based differences in behaviors, attitudes and preferences. Moreover, they can help to identify economic policy measures useful to help men and women entrepreneurs to address the crisis. Policy-makers who want to support female entrepreneurship should consider these aspects, in order to identify tools and policies that can help female firms to resist the crisis more effectively in the short-term and to seize new market opportunities in the recovery phase. The sample is restricted to sole proprietors and to a limited geographical context. So further analysis should involve companies of different sizes and located in different geographical contexts, both in Italy and abroad.",signatures:"Andrea Buratti, Francesca Maria Cesaroni and Annalisa Sentuti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57198",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57198",authors:[{id:"207476",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Francesca Maria",surname:"Cesaroni",slug:"francesca-maria-cesaroni",fullName:"Francesca Maria Cesaroni"},{id:"207528",title:"Dr.",name:"Annalisa",surname:"Sentuti",slug:"annalisa-sentuti",fullName:"Annalisa Sentuti"},{id:"207529",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Buratti",slug:"andrea-buratti",fullName:"Andrea Buratti"}],corrections:null},{id:"57829",title:"Testing Gender Productivity Difference with Informal Enterprises Data: A Case Study of Burkina Faso",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71696",slug:"testing-gender-productivity-difference-with-informal-enterprises-data-a-case-study-of-burkina-faso",totalDownloads:955,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the literature, we have seen results stating that women are less efficient than men in entrepreneurship. In this chapter, we have used data of informal enterprises in Burkina Faso to test gender productivity difference. Our data support the assumption that men’s enterprises employ and carry out more income than women’s enterprises. Nevertheless, women’s enterprises are technically more efficient and stable than men’s enterprises. We have also found out that to succeed in entrepreneurship, it is profitable for women to be young. However, men need to get more experiences in order to become efficient in informal entrepreneurship.",signatures:"Akouwerabou Babikigalaga Dénis, Legala-Keud Genesquin Guibert\nand Bayala Balibié Auguste Serge",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57829",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57829",authors:[{id:"213761",title:"Dr.",name:"Denis",surname:"Akouwerabou",slug:"denis-akouwerabou",fullName:"Denis Akouwerabou"},{id:"213862",title:"Mr.",name:"Keudem",surname:"Legala",slug:"keudem-legala",fullName:"Keudem Legala"},{id:"220637",title:"Prof.",name:"Serge",surname:"Bayala",slug:"serge-bayala",fullName:"Serge Bayala"}],corrections:null},{id:"56997",title:"Deinstitutionalization through Business Model Evolution: Women Entrepreneurs in the Middle East and North Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70834",slug:"deinstitutionalization-through-business-model-evolution-women-entrepreneurs-in-the-middle-east-and-n",totalDownloads:1561,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter is among the first to examine the interplay between deinstitutionalization and the rollout of novel business models by women entrepreneurs in developing countries. Much of the existing literature has examined the ways in which policy directives by formal institutions are the key drivers of entrepreneurial activity among women. Implicitly, this orientation suggests that the fate of women entrepreneurs is tied to, and cascades from, macro-level deinstitutionalization efforts, arising through changes in policies, laws and regulations championed at the highest levels. While this top-down view may intuitively be attractive, there are empirical reasons to doubt that the “institutional cascading” model accurately captures the underlying mechanisms of entrepreneurial activity among women. Taking a radically different tack, we develop and test an alternative, market-based perspective in which novel business models developed by women drive deinstitutionalization in bottom-up fashion. The context for our study involves detailed case histories of 95 women who started new businesses in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), 1960–2012. Using a question-driven research design, our findings indicate that deinstitutionalization is strongly associated with the timing and substance of entrepreneurial action taken by MENA women.",signatures:"Richard A. Hunt and Lauren L. Ortiz-Hunt",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56997",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56997",authors:[{id:"207571",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",surname:"Hunt",slug:"richard-hunt",fullName:"Richard Hunt"},{id:"216029",title:"Ms.",name:"Lauren",surname:"Ortiz-Hunt",slug:"lauren-ortiz-hunt",fullName:"Lauren Ortiz-Hunt"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5826",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"82f12348a5b3544c8caae7b1d1731f9b",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",bookSignature:"Ladislav Mura",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5826.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"85474",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ladislav",surname:"Mura",slug:"ladislav-mura",fullName:"Ladislav Mura"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2261",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Born, Made and Educated",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6b9d8745c32f3c93df38a88c74594d07",slug:"entrepreneurship-born-made-and-educated",bookSignature:"Thierry Burger-Helmchen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2261.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105866",title:"Prof.",name:"Thierry",surname:"Burger-Helmchen",slug:"thierry-burger-helmchen",fullName:"Thierry Burger-Helmchen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2262",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Creativity and Innovative Business 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The book offers an immersion into multiple pregnancy. Each chapter presents the reader with various important issues related to the subject matter. The book covers all spectrums of multiple pregnancy such as epidemiology, etiology, diagnosis, prenatal care, unique complications in monochorionic pregnancies, preterm birth and mode of delivery. Through its 10 chapters the book contemplates the most relevant aspects of multiple pregnancy. Authors from all over the world have contributed to this book, bringing the best from their research experiences. The book give the reader a state-of-the-art update of multiple pregnancy.",isbn:"978-1-78985-080-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-079-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-764-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73973",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"multiple-pregnancy-new-challenges",numberOfPages:232,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"f599a465410812da5aee0b247d427e9b",bookSignature:"Julio Elito Jr.",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7173.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:11774,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfTotalCitations:16,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 22nd 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 15th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 14th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 2nd 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 1st 2018",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"35132",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio",middleName:null,surname:"Elito Jr.",slug:"julio-elito-jr.",fullName:"Julio Elito Jr.",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35132/images/system/35132.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Julio Elito Junior PhD graduated in Medicine from Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP) - Brazil in1989. He obtained his Master in 1995 and his Doctorate in 1997 both from UNIFESP. He is a specialist in laparoscopy (Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 2000) and has a PhD in reproductive medicine (2008). Due to the relevance of his research he obtained the title of Associate Professor of the Department of Obstetrics of UNIFESP (2006). He has experience in the field of Medicine, with emphasis in Gynecology and Obstetrics, acting mainly in the following subjects: ectopic pregnancy, methotrexate, ultrasonography, beta-hCG, polymorphisms, serological markers and multiple pregnancy. He has published a predictive score for medical treatment in ectopic pregnancy and reference charts for twins. He has published 68 articles in international and national journals, is a reviewer in several national and international journals, and a speaker at a number of national and international congresses. He wrote the book 'Ectopic Pregnancy' (2010), was an editor of the books 'Multiple Pregnancy - New Challenges' (2019) and 'Non-Tubal Ectopic Pregnancy' (2020), as well as an author of numerous chapters in national and international books. He has been nominated several times as an honored Professor by his students at the Medical School of Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP).",institutionString:"Federal University of Sao Paulo",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Federal University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1067",title:"Maternal-Fetal Medicine",slug:"maternal-fetal-medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"62717",title:"Historical Studies of Hellin’s Law",slug:"historical-studies-of-hellin-s-law",totalDownloads:932,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"249480",title:"Prof.",name:"Johan",surname:"Fellman",slug:"johan-fellman",fullName:"Johan Fellman"}]},{id:"62902",title:"Twinning as an Evolved Age-Dependent Physiological Mechanism: Evidence from Large Brazilian 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facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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1. Introduction
Housing is second most essential basic needs of humankind outside food. Its impact on the health and welfare and output of man is profound. Therefore housing plays a vital role in a person’s standard of living and place in the society [1]. Nigeria has an estimated population of about 200 million people and this implies that urgent attention should be placed on the country housing sector if the housing needs of the inhabitant are to be met. One key issue affecting housing delivery in Nigeria is that the level of housing shortage has not been adequately presented. This is as a result of inadequate and inappropriate statistics and data by the managers of housing in Nigeria [2].
However, there are still attempts to estimate the magnitude of the housing shortage in Nigeria. In 1991, the National Housing Policy specified in detail that to achieve the goal of providing 8 million housing units by the year 2000, 700,000 housing units would have to be built each year; it concluded that this number is necessary to compensate for the housing shortage in the country [3, 4, 5]. According to Okonjo-Iweala [5], around 100,000 housing units are built each year, and an average of 80% of Nigerians live in informal housing, which is plagued by problems related to poor quality and inadequate infrastructure that have hitherto been discussed [6].
It is estimated that, in terms of funding, 12 trillion naira (about 45.3 billion pounds) is needed to solve the existing housing scarcity problem [2]. It is projected that in Nigeria’s 20-year time frame, an average of 56 trillion naira (approximately 211 billion pounds) is needed each year to meet the demand for housing [2, 7, 8]. Although the exact reasons for the housing shortage vary across the country, the main problem in Nigeria is the low income of residents. This is problematic since privately constructed houses are expected to comply with official planning laws and other costs incurred during the construction of the house [7, 9, 10]. High occupancy rate ranging from 5 to 8 persons per room which is above the official recommended range of 2-4 persons per room in many Nigeria cities is one factor that shows there is housing shortage [11, 12]. One reason for this is that most of the housing stock is traditional in form, and the sharing of one room by more than two persons along with the sharing of individual housing units by several households is a central feature of housing in in many cities in Nigeria.
Since then, huge resources including effort, time, materials and money, have been devoted to planning the Nigerian environment at the national and sub-national levels. Nonetheless, the various challenges that have been, and are being addressed have hardly diminished [13]. In fact, the problems of housing shortages, like those of unemployment, physical deterioration, poverty, inadequacies and inequality in service delivery systems have escalated. The incidence and growth of these problems seem to outpace the capacity of government to take them. Nigerians are faced with the fact that their cities are in trouble and that there is an urgent need to do something that will ameliorate the emerging problems.
2. Finance and housing delivery
Housing finance is one of the most important factors affecting housing delivery and urban policies. Several authors believe that establishing a suitable financing system can improve housing in any given society [5, 7, 10, 14]. Some governments have updated their financial institutions to encourage private sector financing organizations to participate in the provision of housing delivery financing [14]. As Makinde [7] and Mukhtar et al. [14] stated, in Nigeria, housing delivery is affected by the lack of an adequate housing financing system, which undermines housing production.
In Nigeria, housing financing is divided into formal and informal [7, 14, 15]. Formal institutions include financial institutions such as commercial banks, Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria (FMBN), and Specialized Development Banks. In contrast, informal sources of housing finance are typified by individuals saving money for extensive periods of time in order to build a house. Most of the houses (80%) constructed in Nigeria were provided through long-term personal savings [7, 10, 14]. Other informal funding sources include: voluntary housing drives and different credit union organizations and individual money lenders [5, 7, 10]. Although informal sources often help provide the necessary funds for housing delivery, because such practices are not planned or documented, it is impossible to statistically measure their impact on housing delivery. Their scope of operation differs [16].
Institutions embedded in formal financial mechanisms make it difficult for many people who want to build houses to obtain this form of financing. In 1991, the Nigerian National Housing Policy (NHP) established a dual system of housing finance. In the 1991 housing policy, the first housing finance system was the Primary Mortgage Bank (PMB), and the second system was the Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria (FMBN) created in 1977 to offer financing for the provision of standard housing to the people. One of the main functions of FMBN is to guide and manage the PMBs. Nevertheless, this function has been reallocated to the Central Bank of Nigeria [7]. The two goals of FMBN are to strengthen the formation and expansion of the PMB Bank nationwide and provide funding for housing. It was established to oversee the National Housing Fund (NHF), which ensures that public and private employees make mandatory contributions to the fund [7, 17]. In 1992, the NHF was established to provide long-term mortgages at an affordable interest rate to people. However, the achievement level were not successful because only 12,000 people benefited from a total of 3.8 million qualified taxpayers who applied for loans [5]. In order to apply for an NHF loan, certain requirements must be met, including an annual income of more than 3,000 naira and a donation of 2.5% of the employee’s basic monthly income. These compulsory contributions and the long wait for obtaining these funds often limit the ability of workers to obtain such funding sources [5]. In addition, the interest paid on such loans must not exceed 9%, and the repayment period is approximately 30 years. In addition, the funds granted to any individual applicant must not surpass 5 million naira [10]. At present, this is not enough to build high-quality houses, and it is also unaffordable for most of the Nigerian population. The capacity to provide housing in Nigeria through access to formal financial mechanisms has been affected by several challenges. These include housing finance problems, for example; people are constrained by various institutional bottlenecks, bureaucratic procedures to obtain land ownership hamper the payment of NHF funds, high inflation and interest rates in the country, and the inability of people and developers to obtain long-term funds loans [10, 14].
2.1 The National Housing Policy in Nigeria
A number of programmes and policies have been articulated and presented in a bid to meet the housing challenges facing the built milieu in Nigeria. In this light, the first national policy on housing in Nigeria was launched in 1991 with the aim of providing housing for all Nigerians by the year 2000. The policy encountered major obstacles in the implementation process, and failed to achieve the expected effect on the social environment to provide decent housing for all in the target year of 2000. This is due to the deficiencies of the Primary Mortgage Institution (PMI) and the lack of access to land and the affordability of mortgage loans etc. as evidenced in the housing delivery programmes embarked upon by the government of Nigeria from the pre-independence era till the year 2000 which was a massive failure [18].
Given the significance of housing in the national economy and because of the inability of previous policies and programmes to efficiently resolve the logjam of housing problems in the country, there was need to practically review the 1991 National Housing Policy. “The draft policy was subjected to critical comments and inputs and the New National Housing Policy was published in the year 2006” (8 p 64). Therefore, the new National Housing Policy objectives amongst others are:
Develop and sustain the political will of the government for the provision of housing for Nigerians.
Provide adequate incentives and an enabling environment for greater private sector (formal and informal) participation in the provision of housing.
Strengthen all existing public institutions involved in the housing delivery at the federal level.
Encourage and promote active participation of other tiers of government in housing delivery.
Make land for housing development easily accessible and affordable.
The 2006 housing policy did not live up to expectation because the imperfections of the 1978 land-use act on land administration process nationwide, this could not provide a panacea for the cost of housing construction amongst others as land was very expensive to buy. Again, a bid was made to revise the 2002 national housing policy in September 2011, with important evidences affecting the housing sector. The reason for revisiting the previous policy was to enable a revitalisation of the housing sector to enable it to serve as a panacea for effective socio-economic development.(National Housing Policy (NHP) [19], therefore, in 2012, a new national policy on housing was enacted to meet the challenges of housing delivery through more public private-partnership, encourage active participation of all the three tiers of government in the provision of housing, to reduce the cost of producing houses by promoting the use of locally made building materials and also to improve the quantity and quality of rural housing, amongst others [19].
As assessed in this chapter, the impact of the national housing policy and the government’s resolve to provide housing for the Nigerian society traverse the numerous housing programmes implemented by the government. Here, various development programs have been launched under the NHP to provide housing that meets various income levels, from the lowest to the highest income levels. However, from the previous debates [7, 8, 20], it can be seen that there has been little success in achieving these policy goals. This is because of the diverse challenges faced, reasons for failure include; production costs, government changes, political influence, corruption, and shortage of skilled workers.
2.2 History of public housing programmes in Nigeria
This section examines the trajectory of different housing initiatives in Nigeria and that despite these laudable programmes public housing delivery is beset with a number of challenges with has compromised the quality and quantity of housing delivered in Nigeria.
The international urban housing situations of the bulk of urban dwellers have continued to wane in both measurable and qualitative footings. (United Nations Human Settlement Programme [21] this trend has been bothersome and has continued to stimulate and contest ideas around different housing provision approaches over the last four decades, for periods discussed below. The involvement of the public sector in housing in Nigeria has been more of policy formulation than housing delivery. Below is step by step account on efforts by the government to provide housing in Nigeria.
The pre-independence era marked the first effort towards housing delivery in Nigeria. This marked the beginning of the Government Residential areas known as GRAs, where houses were built to provide adequate comfort for the residents as the “housing forms and spatial patterns of the GRAs reflected the English nostalgia for the garden city” ([22], p. 3). However, following the pre-independence era is the Post-independence Housing Era, 1960-1972. In this era, there was no marked difference in the provision of housing during the pre-independence era which was characterized by colonial government. In the Post-independence Housing Era, 1960-1972 [23] housing units in the government reservation areas (GRA) formally occupied by the colonialist became the abode of the new Nigerian administrative and political elites without any form of objection by these elites [24]. In the post –Independence era, the National Development plans were proposed which are discussed below:
The First National Development Plan (1962-1968) was launched to cater for the provision of 61,000 housing units, of which only a total number of 500 housing units were constructed by the Federal Government, which ended as a result of the civil war. Consequently, the second national development plan was initiated in (1971-1974) to cater for 59,000 low-cost housing again 7,080 housing units were built. Reasons offered for the failure are insufficient planning and formation, insufficient funding, errors in execution, under-pricing and costing etc. [22].
In order to provide housing to cater for the need of the Nigerian populace the Third National Development Plan (1975-1980) was launched. Here 202,000 low-cost housing units principally for the low income groups were to be provided, in all 28,000 housing units were delivered [25]. This then gave rise to the Fourth National Development Plan (1981-1985) which was embarked upon by the Civilian government. Only 23.6% of the initially intended 160,000 housing units were built [26] as a result of corruption, politicization and uncooperative attitude of state executives [27]. Following the post –Independence era is the Post Second Republic till present, it was characterized by the following periods. Military Governments (1986-1999) and Civilian Governments (1999-to date). The military government embarked on housing delivery efforts of delivering 121,000 housing units across the federation, 5,500 units were delivered, which was brought to a halt by an inauguration of a democratically elected government [28].
Following the election of a democratically elected administration in May 1999, the Federal Ministry of Works and Housing (FMWH) and several state governments indicated their willingness to participate in housing programs [29]. As a result, in 1999, the National Housing and Urban Development Policy was established to provide an additional 10,271 housing units through a public-private partnership and 4,440 housing units were provided under a public-private partnership [28]. Following the inauguration of a new civilian government on May 29, 2011, a variety of housing interventions/programs were implemented in the federal capital area, with a focus on public-private partnerships (PPPs), with the goal of providing (Table 1):
208 housing units under the prototype plan.
20,009 housing units through Federal Housing Authority (FHA)
To provide through mortgages provided by Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria (FMBN), a total of 43, 934 housing units
To provide through estate development loans provided by FMBN a total of 7510 housing units. (FMWH, 2014).
Period/establishment
Total number of housing unit
Achievement level
Pre-independence
Houses were built for the expatriates but number of units is unknown
Houses were built for the expatriates but number of units is unknown
Post-Independence
First National Development Plan (1962-1968)
Planned construction of 61,000 housing units
The political instability and the resulting civil were contributing factors for delivering only 500 units.
Second National Development Plan (1970-1974)
The National Council of housing was established in (1972) to advise government on housing matters.
59,000 housing units were planned for direct construction
Low-cost housing units across the federation.
Only 7,080 housing units were provided
Third National Development Plan (1975-1980)
Federal Ministry of Housing, Urban Development and Environment was created.
Land use Decree was promulgated (1978)
Planned construction of 202,000 low-cost housing units nationwide.
Only 28,000 planned housing units were provided.
Fourth National Development Plan (1981-1986)
National Housing Programmed was launched for the first time in 1980
160,000 low-income housing units to be constructed were allocated for N1.9 billion naira.
The second stage of the housing programme under this plan was planned to construct 20,000 housing units across the country.
23.6% representing a total of about 47,234 housing units were constructed in the first phase
The second face was cut short by military coup.
Post Second Republic
Military Government (1986-1999)
121,000 housing units were planned for construction on site and services housing programme between 1993 and 1995
1991 the National Housing Policy was launched.
5500 housing units were delivered.
Civilian Government (1999-date) Ministry Prototype Housing Scheme within the Federation
262 prototype housing units
2,140 housing units planned to be constructed
238 housing units were completed
1,756 housing units were completed
FHA signed up with some states to provide housing units.
FMBN
Estate Development Loan
Primary Mortgage Institution (NHF Mortgage)
7,510 housing units to be constructed
4,934 housing units to be constructed
7,510 housing units were provided
4,934 housing units were constructed
PPP- Construction Initiative
3,284 housing units to be provided
2009 housing units so far have been constructed.
Table 1.
Overview of housing provision in Nigeria (pre- Independence- to date).
The Nigerian Government again set out to remedy the challenges of housing delivery within different states in the country by engaging with PPP (Public-Private Partnership) or through Federal Housing Corporations (FHA). Here, deliveries were made of some prototype housing programmes at the state and federal level respectively where 10 completed luxury town houses in Lagos State were provided by public-private partnership and 2&3 bedroom bungalows in Kaduna State were built by Federal Housing Authority (FHA) amongst others. In spite of the government efforts in this direction, to deliver on intended number of housing units, the problem of housing delivery remain insurmountable as unimpressive results have been recorded in the provision of housing in Nigeria, despite huge allocations of money to the housing sector in the National Development Plans as discussed earlier [30, 31, 32].
2.3 Challenges of different types of housing delivery in Nigeria
In Nigeria, the delivery of housing is provided by both formal and informal sectors, houses provided by both the public and private sector are regarded as formal sector housing while those built or delivered by individuals, co-operatives, families or through community development efforts that to not comply to official building standards are referred to as informal sector housing
In Nigeria, according to [25] the majority of housing provision is executed by the private sector. Here 90% houses delivered are by individuals (self-built) and this signifies a high proportion of housing units produced by individuals. However, housing delivered by organized formal private sector, as well as the state (real estate developers) are insignificant. In Nigeria, many households in the urban areas are characterized by a mix of mix of middle-income earners and low-income earners [7, 33]. The range of socio-economic classes present in cities echoes the diversity of housing types delivered within Nigeria cities. This means that people with middle income to the lower income earners live in rented, informal low quality houses, while high income earners occupy luxury owner-occupied housing [34]. This implies that notwithstanding all efforts made by the Nigeria populace at providing housing through private mechanisms, housing delivery in qualitative and quantitative terms remains a mirage and this is aggravated by the presence official standards that are alien to Nigerian culture [2, 7, 29, 35, 36, 37]. Housing development in some Nigeria states; Edo, Lagos, Delta, Bayelsa, and Imo is limited by local practices which further worsens the engagement of individuals in the process of housing delivery. This is because of certain demands made by the Community Development Association (CDA) in form of levies. These levies are all informal payments demanded by the (CDAs) from housing developers before they can commence building in addition to other formal payments made to the appropriate official agency to obtain building permits. Ezeanah [38] showed that large sums of money are collected from housebuilders before they are allowed to build houses, hence posing a great challenge to housing delivery within Edo and some other Nigeria states.
Moreover, the rental type of housing categorized as public and private is a type of house delivered in Nigeria and 80% of households in Nigeria live in the private rental houses [9, 29, 35, 36]. This type of housing is plagued with various issues such as issues of finance, poor building materials, and demands for high levies, bureaucratic bottlenecks, extensive importation of building materials and this accounts for housing shortages within the Nigeria shortages [7, 10, 37, 38]. Consequently, in Nigeria despite efforts made at delivering housing through both the formal and informal sector, the housing deficit in Nigeria is huge as there is still a housing shortfall of approximately 16 million.
While the private initiatives enabled more houses to be delivered, these private initiatives were limited by local practices that worsened the engagement of some individuals in Nigeria with the house building processes, thereby limiting the quantity of housing delivered within Nigeria. Therefore, housing delivered are usually not enough to meet with the demands of housing in Nigeria with a shortfall of approximately 16 million housing units.
3. Conclusions
In Nigeria, diverse housing initiatives and programmes embarked on by the federal government to deliver housing for the populace have been saddled with a lot of challenges and has failed to provide the intended number of houses for the people. Again efforts at providing housing for the people through the diverse development plans in Nigeria failed which regrettable demonstrates the uninspiring attitude of the Nigerian Government in providing housing for the people. The failure of the government in ensuring that formulated policies and programmes shown in the development plans from 1962 till to date are sustained and implemented is one key cause for its failure at delivering houses for the people. Furthermore, institutions embedded in formal financial mechanisms made it difficult for many people who want to build houses to obtain formal form of financing which again limited the peoples effort at constructing houses.
In conclusion, housing shortages in Nigeria for both the middle and low income earners is observed notwithstanding the various housing initiatives carried out by the government. Also, it is shown that most of the populace in Nigeria housed either through rental housing or self-built housing are faced with a lot of housing challenges such as; limited access to land, high cost of building materials, high cost of levies, bureaucratic bottlenecks, institutional problems, enforcement issues amongst others which constrain the delivery of housing in Nigeria.
Acknowledgments
My thanks goes to Dr. Maren Mallo Daniel whose consistent push and encouragement has helped me to conclude this Chapter. Finally, I wish to thank the anonymous peer reviewers at IntechOpen for their time, insightful comments and expertise which has helped to improve this Chapter.
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"Challenges, public housing, housing finance, housing programmes",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/77805.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/77805.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77805",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77805",totalDownloads:280,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:43,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 2nd 2021",dateReviewed:"July 6th 2021",datePrePublished:"August 3rd 2021",datePublished:"February 23rd 2022",dateFinished:"August 3rd 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"One of the policy goals of sustainable development is the delivery of adequate housing for Countries in the global south. This is because in many countries of the global south housing is delivered more through private mechanisms, consequently this poses challenges to adequate housing delivery for most countries of the global south and the Nigeria populace. Some of the challenges faced in providing decent and adequate housing for the people include problems of unskilled workmen, unachievable westernized building standards, housing finance, high level of urbanization, poor policy programmes, and contravention of building standards in addition to poor building materials. This chapter explores housing challenges in Nigeria. In this chapter problems of housing in Nigeria will be explored; the trajectory of the history of national housing delivery and housing policies will be presented. Also, various challenges bedeviling adequate housing delivery in Nigeria is explored and explains how the quality and quantity of housing delivered in Nigeria has affected by these challenges.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/77805",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/77805",book:{id:"10986",slug:"sustainable-housing"},signatures:"Uyi Ezeanah",authors:[{id:"414752",title:"Dr.",name:"Uyi",middleName:null,surname:"Ezeanah",fullName:"Uyi Ezeanah",slug:"uyi-ezeanah",email:"ezeanahu@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Finance and housing delivery",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 The National Housing Policy in Nigeria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 History of public housing programmes in Nigeria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Challenges of different types of housing delivery in Nigeria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Jiboye, A. D. Evaluating Tenants’ Satisfaction with Public Housing in Lagos, Nigeria Urbanistikair architektūra Town Planning and Architecture; 2009 33(4), p. 239-247'},{id:"B2",body:'Alagbe, O. A., and Opoko, P. A. Housing Nigerian Urban Poor through Self-Build Housing Concept Using Compressed Stabilized Laterine Bricks. International Journal of Research in Social Sciences; 2013, 2(4), p. 13-18.'},{id:"B3",body:'Federal Republic of Nigeria National Housing Policy, February 1991.'},{id:"B4",body:'COHRE (2004) - Housing Rights in West Africa: Report of Four Fact-Finding Missions – A Draft Report, for Consultation, Discussion, and Networking Purposes. Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE). In Alagbe, O.A, Opoko, A.P. (2013) Housing Nigerian Urban Poor Through Self-Build Housing Concept Using Compressed Stabilized Laterite Bricks. International Journal of Research in Social Sciences. 2 (4) pp. 13-18. www.ijsk.org/ijrss'},{id:"B5",body:'Okonjo-Iweala, N. Unleashing the Housing Sector in Nigeria and in Africa. In 6th Global Housing Finance Conference; 2014.'},{id:"B6",body:'Federal Government of Nigeria Report of the Vision2020National Technical Working Group on Housing, Federal Government of Nigeria; 2009.'},{id:"B7",body:'Makinde, O.O. Housing Delivery System Need and Demand, Journal of Environmental Development and Sustainability; 2013, 16 (1), p. 49-69.'},{id:"B8",body:'Waziri, A.G. and Roosli, R. Housing Policies and Programmes in Nigeria: A Review of the Concept and Implementation. Journal of Business Management Dynamics; 2013, 3(2), p. 60-68.'},{id:"B9",body:'Ogu, V. I. Housing Enablement in a Developing World City: The Case Study Of Benin City, Nigeria. Habitat International; 1999, 23(2), p. 231-248.'},{id:"B10",body:'Udechukwu, C.E. Obstacles to individual home ownership in Nigeria, International of Housing Markets and Analysis; 2008, 1(2), p. 182-194.'},{id:"B11",body:'Omuta, G. E. D. Minimum versus affordable environmental standards in third world cities. Cities; 1986, 3(1), p. 58-71.'},{id:"B12",body:'Fiadzo, E. Estimating the determinants of housing quality: The case of Ghana (No. 6). Joint Centre for Housing Studies, Graduate School of Design [and] John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University; 2004.'},{id:"B13",body:'Fokolade, A. and Coblentz, H.S. Citizen Participation in Urban and Regional Planning in Nigeria. Community Development Journal; 1981, 2(3), p. 45-55'},{id:"B14",body:'Mukhtar, M.M, Amirudin, R. and Mohamad, I. Housing delivery problems in developing countries: a case study of Nigeria ", Journal of Facilities Management; 2016, 14(4), p. 315 – 329.'},{id:"B15",body:'Nubi, T.O. ‘Procuring, Managing and Financing Urban Infrastructure: Towards an Integrated Approach Land Management and Property Tax Reform in Nigeria, in `Omirin et al., (ed.) Department of Estate Management, University of Lagos, Akoka; 2002.'},{id:"B16",body:'Adedeji, Y. D. and Olotuah, A. O. An evaluation of Accessibility of Low-income Earners to Housing Finance in Nigeria. European Scientific Journal, ESJ; 2012, 8(12), p.80-95'},{id:"B17",body:'Sanusi, J.O. Mortgage Financing in Nigeria: Issues and Challenges. A Paper Presented at the 9th Edition Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors and Valers Organised John Wood Ekpenyong Memorial Lecture on 29th January; 2003.'},{id:"B18",body:'Okewole, I.A and Aribigbola, A. Innovations and sustainability in Housing Policy Conception and Implementation in Nigeria; 2006, p. 414-420.'},{id:"B19",body:'National Housing Policy Federal Republic of Nigeria; 2012.'},{id:"B20",body:'Lekwot V.E, Vachaku B.N, Usman T.M, Ifeanyi E. An Assessment of Government Intervention in Urban Housing Development in Nigeria. International Scientific Research Journal; 2012, 1(2), p. 34-41.'},{id:"B21",body:'UN-HABITAT. The Challenge of Slums - Global Report on Human Settlements; 2003.'},{id:"B22",body:'Olayiwola, L. M., Olurotimi Adeleye, and L. Ogunshakin. "Public housing delivery in Nigeria: Problems and challenges." XXXIII IAHS. World congress on Housing Transforming Housing Environments through the Design September 27-30, Pretoria South Africa; 2005.'},{id:"B23",body:'Abiodun J.O. The Provision of Housing and Urban Environmental Problems in Nigerian. Urban and Regional Planning Problems in Nigeria. University of Ife Press Ltd; 1985. p. 174-191.'},{id:"B24",body:'Aribigbola, A. Conceptual Issues in Housing and Housing Provision in Nigeria. Effective Housing in the 21st Century Nigeria. The Environmental Forum FUTA; 2000, p. 1-8.'},{id:"B25",body:'Federal Government of Nigeria. Government White Paper on the Report of the Presidential Committee on Urban Development and Housing, Lagos, Government Printing Press; 2002.'},{id:"B26",body:'Aina, T. Housing and Health in Olaleye-Iponri, a Low-income Settlement in Lagos, Nigeria; 1990, p. 56-88.'},{id:"B27",body:'Olotuah, A.O. The challenge of housing in Nigeria. In Effective Housing in the 21st Century Nigeria, Akure:The Environmental Forum, Federal University of Technology; 2000, p. 16-21.'},{id:"B28",body:'Ibem, E. O., Anosike, M. N., and Azuh, D. E. Challenges in Public Housing Provision in the Post-Independence Era in Nigeria. Journal of Human Sciences; 2011, 8(2), p. 421-443.'},{id:"B29",body:'Ogu, V. I., and Ogbuozobe, J. E. Housing Policy in Nigeria: Towards Enablement of Private Housing Development. Habitat International; 2001, 25(4), p. 473-492.'},{id:"B30",body:'Muoghalu, L. N. The urban poor and Accessibility to public Housing in Nigeria. Poverty in Nigeria, A Multi-Dimensional Perspective. The Urban Poor in Nigeria:Evans Brothers Publishers Ltd, Ibadan; 1987, p. 161-171.'},{id:"B31",body:'Atolagbe, A.M.O. Affordable Shelter for the Urban Low-Income Classes in Nigeria: Local Resources Strategies. In Amole Bayo (ed.). The House in Nigeria, Conference Proceedings, Obafemi Awolowo University (O.A.U.) Ile-Ife, Nigeria; 1997, p. 274-279.'},{id:"B32",body:'Jiboye, A. A Critique of Official Housing Policy in Nigeria” The House in Nigeria, Bayo Amole (Ed.), Proceedings of the National Symposium, Obafemi Awolowo University (O.A.U.) Ile – Ife 23 – 24 July. 1997, p. 284-288.'},{id:"B33",body:'Olatubara, C.O. and Fatoye, E.O. “Residential satisfaction in public Estates in Lagos State, Nigeria”. Journal of Nigerian Institute of Town Planners; 2006, 1(19), p. 103-124.'},{id:"B34",body:'Ndubueze, O. J. Urban housing affordability and housing policy dilemmas in Nigeria (Doctoral dissertation, University of Birmingham); 2009.'},{id:"B35",body:'Agbola, T. The housing construction process in Nigeria: Implications for urban growth and development. Cities; 1988, 5(2), p. 184-192.'},{id:"B36",body:'Ikejiofor, U. The God that Failed: A Critique of Public Housing in Nigeria, 1975-1995. Habitat International; 1999, 23(2), p. 177-188.'},{id:"B37",body:'Collier, P., and Venables, A. J. Housing and urbanization in Africa: Unleashing a Formal Market Process. Policy Research Working Paper 6871; 2014.'},{id:"B38",body:'Ezeanah, U. The Delivery of Quality Housing in Benin City: The Influence of Formal and Informal Institutions, an unpublished PhD Thesis in the Department of Urban Studies and Planning, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom; 2018.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Uyi Ezeanah",address:"ezeanahu@gmail.com;, ezeanahu@unijos.edu.ng",affiliation:'
University of Jos, Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria
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1. Introduction
Cotton is a globally and economically important fiber, oil, and protein source. It belongs to the family Malvaceae and genus Gossypium with more than 50 species, but only four domesticated species produce spinnable fiber. Of these, G. hirsutum and G. barbadense are allopolyploids that originated in the United States. The remaining two species are diploids (G. herbaceum and G. arboreum) from Africa and/or Asia [1]. Genus Gossypium consists of one tetraploid (AD) and eight diploid genome groups (A – G and K). It is believed that the allotetraploid, upland cotton, G. hirsutum(AtAtDtDt; ~2.5 Gb) is most likely evolved from the diploid A-genome ancestor, G. arboreum (A2A2; ~1.8 Gb) or G. herbaceum (A1A1; ~1.6 Gb), and the diploid D-genome progenitor, G. raimondii (D5D5; ~900 Mb) [1, 2, 3]. According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS), the acreage, yield, and production projections for the year 2021–2022 across the world and the United States are ~32 and ~4 million hectares, ~810 and ~950 kilograms per hectare, and ~120 and ~18 million 480-lb bales, respectively [4]. However, the United Nations (UN) projected that the global population would surpass the mark of 10 billion by 2050 [5]. Therefore, to meet the clothing needs of a constantly expanding population, the yield or production must be increased by developing or employing better cotton crop improvement strategies.
The percent composition of cotton fibers includes cellulose (94%), waxes (0.6%), pectin (0.9%), proteins (1.3%), minerals (1.2%), organic acids (0.8%), sugars (0.3%), and miscellaneous (0.9%) substances [6, 7, 8]. Cellulose is a homopolymer containing repeated units of β-(1→4)-D-anhydroglycopyranose. Polymerization and crystallinity of these units impart strength to the fiber [6, 7, 8]. Cotton fibers are chemically composed of five layers: (i) cuticle, (ii) primary wall, (iii) winding (transition) layer, (iv) secondary wall, and (v) lumen. The outermost layer of the cotton fiber is the cuticle, and it is composed of waxes (cutin and suberin), pectins, proteins, sugars, ash, and other substances. The primary wall and winding layer comprise amorphous cellulose, hemicelluloses, esterified and non-esterified pectins, proteins, and metal ions. The secondary cell wall (SCW) is made of crystallinity cellulose. Finally, the innermost layer is the lumen, and it comprises proteins, malic, citric, and other organic acids [6, 7, 8]. Mature cotton fibers are cellulose-rich with a thicker secondary wall and smaller lumen, while immature fibers are low in cellulose content with a thin wall and a large lumen. Based on the length, the mature cotton fibers can be classified as lint (long) and fuzz (short) fiber [9]. The unicellular cotton fibers emerge from the ovule surface immediately after flowering (days post-anthesis, DPA). The temporal progression of fiber development occurs in approximately 50 days, and it can be divided into four overlapping phases based on morphological features: (i) initiation (0–4 DPA), (ii) elongation (3–21 DPA), (iii) SCW formation and thickening (15–40 DPA), and (iv) maturation (38–52 DPA) [10]. However, genotype and environmental interactions affect the duration of phases and the rate of progression. Moreover, an array of transcripts expressed at these phases vary substantially. Thus, enabling us to study these differences in gene expression (GE).
The term transcriptome is referred to as a repertoire of RNA types found in a cell or a tissue or an organism at a given period or a collection point or a location or a specific treatment or a developmental phase or an environmental condition or a physiological state [11, 12]. The transcriptome is dynamic, and it tends to respond to subtle changes in environment or experimental condition or treatment [11, 12]. The earlier GE or transcript analysis methods such as in situ hybridization (ISH), northern blot, Quantitative reverse transcription PCR (RT-qPCR), microarrays, serial gene expression analysis (SAGE), and expressed sequence tags (EST) analysis primarily focused on a single gene or a group of genes, while RNA-Seq or whole transcriptome sequencing (WTS) technique aimed at studying a wide range of transcripts [11, 13]. WTS is a contemporary and more promising strategy that has been widely used in studying the similarity or variability of GE, depending on the objective of the study. Although microarrays is an inexpensive and user-friendly method with a decent throughput, the fundamental limitation is the requirement of prior knowledge for immobilizing a probe set on the chip. RNA-Seq has largely replaced microarrays as the predominant method for quantifying GE due to its significant advantages in providing a more comprehensive overview of the transcriptome [14, 15]. RNA-Seq can be used to study differential expressed genes (DEGs), a dynamic range of transcripts including, novel transcripts, alternative splice variants (ASVs), novel isoforms, and gene fusions, non-coding RNA (ncRNA), and single nucleotide variants (SNVs) from a complex landscape of transcripts collected from a sample [11, 15].
RNA-Seq is also the method of choice because of its throughput, ease, and portability in using hypothesis-free experimental designs. RNA-Seq has been widely used in profiling the transcriptomes of diverse crop species, including cotton [3] and its fiber [16]. In cotton, RNA-Seq based differential gene expression (DGE) for fiber-related genes among diverse species [17, 18, 19], genotypes [20, 21], and in various biotic [22, 23] and abiotic [24, 25] stresses have been reported. The inherent variation in the biochemical composition of the cotton fiber, and the temporal and spatial GE in fiber development phases, offers broad scope for analyzing the fiber transcriptome using RNA-Seq. Combining biochemical, molecular, and microscopic approaches to analyze cotton fiber showed that the significantly enriched genes were associated with the cytoskeleton, cell wall, cellulose biosynthesis, carbohydrate, and energy metabolism during fiber development [26, 27]. Since the fiber transcriptome has been reported [28], various transcriptome-based studies reported in cotton have shown the differential expression (DE) of several genes among different phases of fiber development [26]. Further, RNA-Seq enabled researchers to investigate a comprehensive set of genes involved in fiber yield and quality [20, 29, 30]. This chapter reviews the basic RNA-Seq analysis pipeline and tools currently being used in Section 2 below. Also, a few RNA-Seq studies primarily aimed at fiber quality attributes such as fiber length, strength, development, initiation, elongation, and color are discussed in Section 3. However, fiber single-cell transcriptome analysis is beyond the scope of this chapter.
2. RNA-seq analysis pipeline
RNA-Seq is a complex subject with several aspects to be considered. A few key factors include experimental design, sequencing, and data analysis. This section provides an overview of the experimental design and primarily focuses on the basic pipeline of RNA-Seq analysis.
2.1 Experimental design
The time, effort, and cost of RNA-Seq analysis primarily rely on the experimental design [31]. A single sample on a short-read (Illumina) and long-read (PacBio SMRT/Oxford Nanopore) sequencing including RNA-Seq are offered as low as $100 [32]. However, the sequencing costs vary with the experimental design (control vs. treatment; normal vs. condition; early vs. late collection time point; and the number of samples vs. the number of replicates), throughput (30 vs.100 million reads), NGS platform (Illumina vs. PacBio), sequencing time (today vs. a year later), and setup (academic vs. commercial). In addition, there are several factors one needs to consider before RNA-Sequencing that include the size of the genome (e.g., ~2.5 Gb), the number of genes (e.g., ~50,000), gene density (e.g., 20 genes/1 Mb), the targeted coverage (1X vs. 10X), sequencing chemistry (short-read vs. long-read), the read type (single-end vs. paired-end), the library type (stranded vs. non-stranded), the number of reads (e.g., >30 million) per sample, and the number of samples per lane (1 vs. 12) [11]. It is ideal for including six biological/technical replicates per sample in any experiment [33]. However, in most cases, a minimum of three replicates are used to draw statistically significant conclusions [11].
Different variations in RNA-Seq methodology are available, and they are primarily based on coding (e.g., mRNA-Seq) and non-coding regions (e.g., small RNA-Seq). Besides total RNA-Seq, targeted RNA-Seq, digital gene expression (DGE)-Seq, and single-cell RNA-Seq (scRNA-Seq) are widely used [11], but only mRNA-Seq is highlighted in this chapter as it represents the coding portion of the genome. A typical short-read-based RNA-Seq experiment generally starts by selecting a population of cells or tissue, then extracting total RNA, enrichment of mRNA, fragmenting mRNA, converting fragments into cDNAs, adding adapters to cDNAs, creating a library, sequencing (Illumina), and data analysis [11]. The detailed RNA-Seq methodology has been reviewed earlier [15, 34, 35, 36], and it is beyond the scope of this chapter.
2.2 Read processing and quality check
After collecting the raw read data from an NGS platform, we must consider several metrics. The most important statistic is Phred quality (numeric) scores calculated at each position or base within the read. Phred score indicates the probability of base calling at each position is likely accurate. In addition, the Phred score is the mean value calculated at each position for all reads in that sample. For instance, in a read library of 100 bases, the Phred score is the mean value calculated across each sample within the reads between positions 0 and 100. Therefore, a higher Phred score value is expected at each position in a read and across all reads in a sample as an indicator of quality data. The second quality metric to consider is the adapter content, the percent of sequences containing the adapter. It is often detected in silico by checking for the adapter contamination at each read position and across all reads in a sample. Sometimes, adapter contamination is seen towards the end of the read. Especially when the sequencing fragment (cDNA) is too short, the DNA polymerase continues to sequence until the end of the fragment and into the opposite adapter. Another quality metric to consider is GC content, in which we expect to see a single peak with a smooth progression without multiple peaks. The presence of multiple peaks in GC content represents the possible contamination during the library preparation.
RNA-Seq is primarily performed in core laboratories or offered as a charge per service. However, it is obvious to find traces of ribosomal RNA from humans or other species, if contaminated during the sample handling and processing. Before analysis, we can eliminate such contamination issues by comparing query sequences against the reference databases such as DeconSeq [37] and PrinSeq [38]. Some efficient algorithms like FASTQC [39] will take a random subset of the reads from each sample and map them to various possible contaminant datasets to determine the quality. A clean RNA-Seq data should have the vast majority of reads (80–90%) from the organism being sequenced, and the remaining reads (10–20%) can be from related species owing to their homology. Also, the genomic origin of the reads is determined by their exonic proportion. In mRNA-Sequencing, ~80% of the reads must have exonic regions, and the remaining (~20%) can be intronic or intergenic regions. Before performing the alignment, raw reads collected are preprocessed for filtering low-quality reads and removing non-biological sequences such as adapter sequences, barcodes, and indexes using trimming tools such as Cutadapt [40], TrimGalore [41], Scythe [42], Trimmomatic [43], HTStream [44], and BBduk [45]. The popular tools for quality checking of raw reads before and after trimming include iSeqQC [46], MultiQC [47], NGS QC [48], FASTQC [39], and FASTX-Toolkit [49].
2.3 Read alignment
The alignment approaches available for both short and long reads for alignment and quantification are: (i) traditional reference-based splice-aware alignment, and (ii) pseudo alignment. The reads are mapped directly to the reference genome in reference-based alignment without ignoring the splice junctions across the exons. For instance, pre-mRNA contains exons and introns, but the processed mRNA joins the spliced-out exons. So, it is inevitable to find some short reads that intersect these exon-exon junctions that do not map directly back to the reference genome. The selected aligner must be aware of such spliced products and junctions. It is important to realize that if our goal is to discover novel isoforms, we must consider exon-exon junctions. These methods typically run-on clusters because they require a large amount of memory or central processing unit (CPU) time. There are several read-alignment tools available for both short and long reads. The popular reference-based read alignment tools are PuffAligner [50], STAR [51], HISAT2 [52], HTSeq [53], TopHat2 [54], and Bowtie2 [55].
The other relatively advanced approach in RNA-Seq is pseudo alignment. In which, the mapper joins reads together based on their compatibility with the transcripts and not based on precise alignment, as its primary goal is to quantify the transcript expression. The main idea of pseudo alignment is to ignore the location of mapped reads and to consider only the aligned reads. Computationally, pseudo alignment is more efficient, faster, less memory intensive, and a better prediction tool than reference-based alignment. However, a transcriptome or a transcript repertoire related to an organism of our interest is used as a reference in pseudo alignment. A splice-aware aligner is not required here, as reads are mapped to a reference transcriptome but not the genome. The popular pseudo alignment tools such as Salmon [56], Kallisto [57], and Sailfish [58] are currently being used. A few tools available for checking the alignment quality are QC3 [59], QoRTs [60], Qualimap [61], RseQC [62], and RNA-SeQC [63]. Further, %GC, base quality, and mapping efficiency of aligned reads are assessed along with distribution of read count, insert size, and depth to detect sample bias resulting from library preparation.
2.4 Transcript abundance estimation and quantification
In a standard RNA-Seq pipeline, read quantification is performed after filtering low-quality reads, aligning them to an annotated genome or the transcriptome to identify their genomic origin. The standard alignment and counting methods mainly relied on base-to-base alignment or by mapping to an annotated or unannotated genome. The major limitation of standard tools is that genes often have multi-mapped reads. As a result, the algorithms such as STAR [51], HTSeq [53], and Tophat2 [54] underestimate gene expression (GE), thus resulting in false negatives. In contrast, the Cufflinks [64] overestimates GE and results in many false positives (FPs). Most transcriptome-based tools avoid base-to-base alignment of the reads, thus reducing the computational time and costs. Also, transcriptome-based tools provide quantification estimates much faster and more accurately at the transcript level. Less memory intensive tools such as Salmon [56], Kallisto [57], and Sailfish [58] are used for transcript quantification and abundance estimation with minor differences. For instance, Salmon first quantifies pseudo-counts, then quasi-mapping, and finally estimates transcript abundance. The pseudo-counts obtained can be used to find the differential gene or isoform-level expression. A few tools available for transcript abundance estimation and quantification are StringTie [65], STAR [51], tximport [66], DESeq2 [67], and Cufflinks [64].
The most straightforward approach for quantifying GE by RNA-Seq is to count the reads that align with each gene. The gene-level quantification approaches such as HTSeq commonly utilize annotated information, where gene models correspond to the structure of transcripts. Raw read counts are usually affected by transcript length and the total number of reads. For instance, the longer transcripts have higher read counts at the same expression level. Thus, the raw read counts are normalized to compare expression levels between samples. The reads per kilobase (kb) of the exon per million mapped reads (RPKM) are used to normalize the single-end read data for sequencing depth and gene length differences. While fragments per kb of transcript per million reads mapped (FPKM) is used to normalize the paired-end read data for differences in sequencing depth and gene length. In contrast to RPKM and FPKM, transcripts per million reads (TPM) is used to normalize the differences in gene length first and library size later [68]. Therefore, correcting gene length within the same gene across samples is avoided. However, it is required to precisely rank the GE levels within the sample to accurately report longer genes with relatively more reads at the same expression level.
2.5 Finding differentially expressed genes
Normalized read count data is taken in differential expression (DE) analysis, and statistical analysis is performed to identify quantitative changes in GE levels between experimental groups. For instance, statistical testing determines whether the observed differences in read counts are significant compared to natural random variation. Often the selection of the analysis tool depends on the experimental design and availability. We can use DE analysis tools for pair-wise or multiple comparisons between or among the samples. When the same GE contribution is observed in several samples, their average value is taken as the eventual GE level. Testing for DE across thousands of genes requires correction for multiple comparisons. The two common ways in statistics for correction are Bonferroni correction and false discovery rate (FDR). FDR is the most widely adopted approach in RNA-Seq as it operates on the whole population and aims to keep the false positive rate below the acceptable threshold (<5%). The upregulated or downregulated DEGs are typically represented using volcano plots or MA plots. Top-ranked significant (p-value < 0.05; Log2 Fold Change, Log2FC > 1.00; and FDR < 0.05) DEGs are usually shown as heatmaps. The average linkage method is used to compute the hierarchical clustering, whereas the euclidean algorithm computes the closeness or distance between rows and columns. Dimensionality reduction on expression data is obtained to eliminate outliers and batch effects. Principal component analysis (PCA) is most commonly used as it reduces the complexity of expression data by showing relationships among samples or replicates as clusters in two-dimensional space.
Even though different tools such as Glimma [69], Ballgown [70], EBSeq [71], limma [72], voom [73], DESeq2 [67], edgeR [74], and baySeq [75] are available for DE analysis, DESeq2 and edgeR were most widely used. DESeq2 normalizes the gene read counts by library size and composition to avoid sampling bias and batch effects. In addition, it models gene read counts with the negative binomial distribution and uses hierarchical modeling to stabilize the gene variance. Further, it uses the Benjamini-Hochberg (BH) statistic to calculate the false discovery rate. Although DESeq2 and edgeR rely on the negative binomial distribution assumption, they differ in the test statistic. For example, DESeq2 depends on the Wald test, and edgeR relies on the quasi-likelihood F-test. Also, the distribution assumption of Bayesian approaches, baySeq, and EBSeq is the negative binomial model. While limma, voom, limma+voom tools use a normal linear model. The test statistic used for these tools is empirical Bayes moderated t-statistic. In comparison, Ballgown uses a nested linear model and parametric F-test. In addition, quality control on expression data is determined using tools such as iSeqQC [46], DEGreport [76], NOISeq [77], and EDASeq [78] for detecting the sample heterogeneity, outliers, and cross-sample contamination. These tools mostly rely on statistical approaches such as correlation analysis and dimensionality reduction.
2.6 Functional annotation
After finding DEGs or gene clusters, assigning a function is commonly employed. These genes or gene sets are screened to see whether they are enriched in a particular pathway, localized to a specific cell location, or have a specific function. Based on these features, the DEGs are classified into Biological Process (BP), Cellular Component (CC), and Molecular Function (MF) [79]. In gene ontology (GO) analysis, initially, an individual or a set of DEGs are assigned with functions or GO terms, and then the enrichment analysis is performed on gene sets. Finally, filters lowly expressed genes to reduce the number of hypotheses to be tested. For instance, given a set of DEGs that are upregulated among samples under a particular condition, an enrichment analysis will find GO terms that are overrepresented or underrepresented using functional annotations for that gene set. For example, we can use the goana and camera functions in the limma Bioconductor package to find the most enriched GO terms on the gene sets and enrichment analysis. A few routinely used functional annotation and enrichment tools include: Panther [80], FoldGO [81], DAVID [82], ReviGO [83], and AmiGO [84].
2.7 Enrichment and pathway analysis
The three methods used to assess the gene sets or pathways are enrichment-based, pathway topology-based, and combined. The enrichment-based approaches, over-representation (ORA) and functional class scoring (FCS) analysis/gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) are widely used. At the same time, pathway topology tools help us understand GE as a set in a coordinated network [85]. While the combined approach utilizes the features of both enrichment-based and pathway topology approaches.
A typical ORA pipeline includes DE analysis to find the number of DEGs and their reference genes associated with each pathway. ORA is simple and robust in identifying a few significant genes or gene-sets, i.e., it relies on a portion of the data. As the background assumption is based on low-input, independent genes or gene sets in a pathway are treated as separate entities, and the interaction among the genes or gene clusters are ignored, it may result in many false positives. The GSEA is more accurate than ORA as the entire list of genes is considered. A typical GSEA first enriches significant genes and gene sets based on their P-values, rank order, and weighted scoring, and then identifies independent pathways. However, GSEA also ignores the interaction between the gene sets or pathways. A few widely used pathway tools are Cytoscape [86], BioCyc [87], and EcoCyc [88]. Pathway topology is developed to mimic the biological perspective as, in reality, genes work in a coordinated or regulated environment in the form of networks or pathways. The idea is to perturb a pathway and thus leverage the topology to study the effect on a single gene or gene set. Pathway topology analysis predicts the gene function, gene position, fold change, and interactions among genes. It relies on more data and is computationally intensive, and it is currently limited to signaling pathways alone. A few integrated tools such as iDEP [89], ingenuity pathway analysis [90], and ipathway guide [91] are gaining more attention recently with the availability of cloud-based and data science tools in RNA-Seq analysis. We can visualize the up-regulated and down-regulated genes on a Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway using the Pathview package [92] and KEGG mapper [93]. Protein-protein interactions (PPIs) and their enrichment among up-regulated or down-regulated genes can be retrieved using the STRING database [94].
Most transcriptome analysis studies include a combination of tools discussed above based on the objective or biological question under investigation. In general, the upstream analysis includes read processing and alignment, while the downstream analysis includes quantification, annotation, enrichment, and pathway assignment. A few recent RNA-Seq studies in identifying DEGs associated with fiber quality and its characteristics are discussed in the next section.
3. Transcriptome analysis in cotton for finding fiber related genes and pathways
3.1 Transcriptome analysis for fiber quality
Several attributes that determine fiber quality include fiber length (mm), strength (cN/tex), development: initiation and elongation (%), uniformity (%), and micronaire (μg/inch). Fiber strength and length are important in deciding the spinning and yarn quality [95]. In addition, the micronaire value reflects the fiber fineness and maturity, which influences its processing and dyeing [96]. We reviewed a few recent RNA-Seq studies in identifying DEGs associated with fiber quality attributes below (Table 1).
S. No
Significant DEGs (~5) identified
Associated function/pathway
Citation
1
ABC transporter G family member 10 (Gh_A01G0397); Protein DETOXIFICATION 19 (Gh_A01G0453); RING-H2 finger protein (Gh_A09G2087); Probable ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme 24 (Gh_A10G0253); and Aquaporin TIP1-1 (Gh_D04G1049)
In an integrated study, a high-density mapping has been used to identify 36 stable and 18 novel quantitative trait locus (QTLs) associated with fiber quality in the CCR170 RIL hybrid generated from sGK156 and 901-001 varieties of G. hirsutum. Their RNA-Seq analysis included these two parental types and two RILs (MBZ70-053 and MBZ70-236) to identify 24,941 unique and 473 DEGs associated with pectin and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis and plant hormone signaling. Their bioinformatics analysis included Trimmomatic for trimming reads, HISAT2 for read alignment, StringTie for quantification of genes, DESeq2 for differential gene expression, BLASTX program and GO tools for gene set enrichment, and KAAS for pathway analysis [99]. In a different transcriptome-based study, a high yielding cotton cultivar Jimian 5 and a high fiber quality G. thurberi introgression line, DH962 have been used to identify 780 DEGs linked with fiber quality at 10 DPA [97]. Also, their study integrated DEGs from transcriptome data and QTLs from phenotypic data to identify 31 genes associated with nine QTLs. Further, their study included Bowtie and TopHat tools for aligning clean reads to the reference genome, Cufflinks for transcript prediction, DESeq for DEGs, OmicShare tools for functional annotation, and Cotton Functional Genomics Database for finding pathways associated with the significantly enriched DEGs [97].
In a different study, RNA-Seq analysis has been performed on data obtained from different TM-1 tissues from NCBI to identify genes controlling fiber quality. Results showed that 91 genes had been expressed at different fiber developmental stages (5, 10, 20, and 25 DPA). Functional annotation of these genes using GO analysis revealed that most of the genes have been involved in binding and enzymatic activity [98]. Further, their study revealed 11 candidate genes for fiber quality linked with the genomic locations of chromosomes, A07 and A13, by combining the genome-wide association data (GWAS) with publicly available RNA-Seq datasets [98]. A transcriptome study has been conducted between two recombinant inbred lines, L1 and L2, with a varied fiber quality, to underline the differences in gene expression (GE) during fiber development stages and identify the genes responsible for the fiber quality in upland cotton (G. hirsutum) [100]. Their RNA-Seq analysis utilized Trimmomatic, Bowtie, TopHat2, Cufflinks, and DESeq2 tools to find over 1000 DEGs between L1 and L2 at 15, 20, 25, and 30 DPA. Among these, 363 DEGs colocalized within the fiber strength QTL. Further, DEGs have been annotated, and pathways were assigned by STEM, BLASTX, KOBAS, WGCNA, and Cytoscape tools. In addition, their co-expression network analysis revealed five modules closely associated with fiber-development stages. The significantly enriched genes belonged to leucine-rich repeat (LRR) receptor-like protein kinase, Rho GTPase-activating protein, bHLH transcription factor (TF), TPX2 protein, and actin-1 protein classes [100]. In a separate study, by integrating fine-mapping data with RNA-Seq, four DEGs linked with a QTL responsible for fiber quality traits have been identified in G. hirsutum RIL118 and Yumian 1 lines [30]. Their analysis included Bowtie and TopHat for mapping reads to the reference genome, HTSeq for transcript abundance estimation, DEGSeq for finding DEGs, KEGG, and KOBAS for gene enrichment analysis and finding KEGG pathways [30].
3.2 Transcriptome analysis for fiber length
The cotton fiber length and other attributes such as strength, elongation, and evenness determine the spinning or yarn quality. However, the cotton fiber length varies from one variety to the other and generally ranges between 0.9 and 1.6 inches. Longer fibers are preferred over shorter ones in the textile industry due to their uniformity, fineness, and strength. However, the fiber length is determined by the underlying molecular mechanisms, including gene expression and regulation. Recent RNA-Seq studies related to fiber length attribute are presented below (Table 2).
S. No
Significant DEGs (~5) identified
Associated function/pathway
Citation
1
Homeobox protein knotted-1-like (Gh_D12G244300); Cellulose synthase A catalytic subunit 4 (Gh_A07G229300 and Gh_A08G054700); Transcription factor MYB46 (Gh_A13G243300); and Cellulose synthase A catalytic subunit 8 (Gh_D05G155000)
4-coumarate—CoA ligase-like 7 (Gh_D03G1318); DNA ligase 1 (Gh_D03G1330); Protein UPSTREAM OF FLC (Gh_D03G1331); E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase 1 (Gh_D03G1332); and Protein CHUP1 (Gh_D03G1337)
Integrated transcriptome and genotyping study aimed at deciphering molecular mechanisms associated with cotton fiber length identified 2662 significant DEGs that belonged to energy metabolism during fiber initiation and auxin signaling pathway during fiber elongation by utilizing ovule and fiber samples collected at −3, 0, 5, and 10 DPA from two contrasting RILs (MBZ70-053 and MBZ70-236) of G. hirsutum hybrid, CCRI70 [104]. Their pipeline included Trimmomatic for trimming adapters from raw reads, HISAT2 for aligning clean reads to the reference genome, StringTie2 for quantifying genes, DESeq2 for finding DEGs, BLASTX and GO tools for functional annotation, and KAAS, WGCNA, and Cytoscape for gene set enrichment and pathway analysis [104]. A study conducted in Upland cotton investigated the role of class II KNOX protein (GhKNL1) in fiber development, which primarily acts as a transcription repressor in regulating SCW formation. The comparative transcriptome profiling of two transgenic cotton varieties (silenced and dominant repression for GhKNL1 gene) and a genetic standard (TM-1). The GhKNL1 silenced variety showed improved fiber length and thickened SCW, whereas the dominant repression for GhKNL1s showed shortened fiber length and thinner SCW. Furthermore, it has been reported that GhKNL1 could bind to promoters to facilitate cellulose synthesis and SCW development, thus affecting the cotton fiber length [101].
In a study conducted to evaluate Germin-like proteins (GLPs) in regulating cotton fiber development, the RNA-Seq analysis between the wild type and RNAi line for GbGLP1 (YZ-1) gene with an overexpression promoter revealed that higher expression levels of GhGLP1 lead to shortened fibers. Their RNA-Seq analysis identified 566 DEGs in the RNAi lines, while most of them belonged to genes and TFs involved in SCW biosynthesis. Also, comparative transcriptome screening of thirty long and short fiber varieties of cotton revealed that the GhGLP1 promotes fiber elongation by delaying the SCW thickening. Moreover, the YZ-1 knockdown line for the GhGLP1 gene resulted in improved fiber length and retarded SCW thickening, thus suggesting its negative role in fiber elongation [105]. A separate study combined GWAS and linkage mapping identified a sucrose synthesis-like gene linked with a significant QTL on chromosome D03 that affects fiber length in Upland cotton [102]. Their RNA-Seq and qRT-PCR results consistently showed elevated expression levels of eleven candidate genes related to fiber length in G. hirsutum, including the sucrose synthesis gene at -5 DPA to 20 DPA with increments of five. In addition, their study included Bowtie2 for mapping clean reads to the reference genome and cufflinks for obtaining GE levels for analyzing the publicly available data [102].
Comparative transcriptome analysis between G. hirsutum CSB25 line developed for fiber elongation and genetic standard, TM-1 has been performed to evaluate fiber traits. Their data analysis included Tophat2 for aligning clean reads to the reference genome, HTSeq to estimate GE, EdgeR for finding DEGs, GAGE and REVIGO for GO enrichment, and KEGG tools for finding gene sets and pathways. They identified 1872 DEGs in their study, and most of them belonged to cytoskeleton and cell wall metabolism. In addition, their investigation revealed that most of the genes were enriched in plant hormone signaling, phenylpropanoid, amino acid, sucrose, and starch biosynthesis [103].
3.3 Transcriptome analysis for fiber strength
There is a huge demand for stronger cotton fiber in the global textile industry. Individual fiber strength determines the yarn strength. However, fiber strength is often measured as bundle fiber strength (BFS), i.e., grams per tex (g/tex), where ‘g’ is the breaking force, and tex (g/km) is the fineness. BFS is usually not an accurate measure for yarn strength because of the variability in fiber properties and interaction between the fibers. The fiber strength of Upland cotton has been improved considerably through molecular breeding approaches. However, efforts on gene expression and regulation of fiber strength during its development are limited, and a few such studies are discussed here (Table 3).
S. No
Significant DEGs (~5) identified
Associated function/pathway
Citation
1
Pentatricopeptide repeat-containing protein (CotAD_13630 and CotAD_22605); methyl-sterol monooxygenase 1-1-like protein (CotAD_19764); homeobox-leucine zipper protein HAT22-like (CotAD_36040); and Phospholipase (CotAD_36045)
Using comparative fiber transcriptome analysis between G. mustelinum introgression line (IL9) and its recurrent parent (PD94042), over 250 significantly enriched DEGs associated with the fiber strength QTL have been identified at 17 and 21 DPA. Among which, 52 DEGs have been identified as candidate genes and two DEGs associated fiber strength QTL regions. Their GO enrichment and KEGG analysis showed that most of these DEGs belonged to the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites and metabolic pathways [106]. An RNA-Seq analysis study aimed to understand the molecular mechanism underlying the fiber development and quality included a CSL line (SL7) and G. hirsutum line (L22) to identify 70 significantly enriched DEGs associated with plant hormone transduction pathways. Their findings indicated that the introgressed chromosomal segment of SL7 plays a crucial role in expressing a transcription factor that contributes to the fiber strength [109]. A study that screened publicly available transcriptomic data for bHLH transcription factors found that GhbHLH18 is coexpressed with most lignin biosynthesis genes [107]. Furthermore, they suggested that GhbHLH18 is preferentially expressed during the early fiber elongation and is negatively regulates fiber strength and length by binding to the E-box of its promoter and enhancing peroxidase-mediated (GhPER8) lignin biosynthesis [107].
Transcriptome analysis in chromosome segment substitution lines (CSSLs) revealed 71 significant DEGs associated with fiber strength among four lines, CCRI45, MBI7561, MBI7747, and MBI7285, collected at 15, 20, 25, and 28 DPA [110]. They suggested the possible roles of these genes in cell wall biogenesis, SCW deposition, and cotton fiber strength. Their analysis further identified 16 DEGs consistently found in the introgressed segments from the G. barbadense chromosomes across all possible comparisons. Their data analysis included NGS QC Toolkit for trimming and filtering raw reads, TopHat for aligning clean reads to the reference genome, HTSeq for quantifying expression levels, GFOLD for DEGs, and BLAST2GO for functional annotation and protein class assignment [110]. Comparative transcriptome analysis of two contrasting near-isogenic lines (NILs) of G. hirsutum, MD90ne, and MD52ne for fiber strength at 15 and 20 DPA revealed over 1000 significant DEGs [108]. In addition, the fiber elongation and cell wall integrity genes have been enriched in ethylene and receptor-like kinases (RLKs) signaling pathways. In data processing, they utilized Sickle, GSNAP, Bedtools, EdgeR, and AgriGO tools for trimming, mapping, annotation, differential gene expression, and enrichment analysis, respectively [108]. Further, they compared the RNA-Seq data with previously published microarray data [111].
3.4 Transcriptome analysis for fiber development
Cotton fibers are natural, unicellular outgrowths that emerge from the epidermis of the ovules. The differentiation and developmental phases (initiation, elongation, SCW synthesis, and maturation) of the cotton fiber determine the other attributes such as fiber length and strength. The variation in GE at different developmental stages of cotton fiber can be assessed using RNA-Seq. A few RNA-Seq studies related to fiber development are discussed below (Table 4).
Zinc finger protein 5 (Gh_A03G1255); Histone deacetylase 1 (Gh_D05G0849); UBX domain-containing protein 1 (Gh_D02G2408); Zinc finger protein 10 (Gh_D01G1033); and Protein indeterminate-domain 5 (Gh_A01G2114)
Comparative transcriptome analyses of three fiber developmental stages with non-fiber tissues (leaf, root, stigma, and anther) identified 1205, 1135, and 937 significantly upregulated, and 124, 179, and 213 downregulated DEGs at 7, 14, and 26 DPA, respectively in G. hirsutum during fiber development. Moreover, the identified DEGs have been enriched in functional and metabolic pathways, including signal transduction, catalytic activity, and carbohydrate metabolism [26]. Their pipeline included cutadapt for collecting quality reads, TopHat2 for aligning clean reads to the reference genome, StringTie for assembling mapped reads into transcripts, HTSeq for quantification of GE, DeSeq for finding DEGs, and GOseq R and KOBAS for finding protein classes and pathways [26]. A study aimed to understand the genes and complex networks associated with cotton fiber development and its domestication utilized G. hirsutum and screened transcriptomes collected at 5, 10, 15, and 20 DPA to reveal convergence and divergence in duplicated and homoeologous coexpression networks. Their analysis included GSNAP for mapping, PolyCat for homoeolog-specific expression, HTseq for read count data, DEseq2 for finding DEGs, and weighted gene coexpression network analysis (WGCNA) for coexpression data to corroborate the idea of widespread gene usage in cotton fibers, subgenome-specific expression bias, and similarities and differences in coexpression modules within the subgenomes of a polyploid [114].
In a study aimed at screening publicly available datasets for myeloblastosis (MYB) like TFs and finding their role in fiber development, a research group has identified 36 R2R3-MYBs highly expressed at 20 DPA in Upland cotton suggested them as potential SCW synthesis regulators [115]. Comparative transcriptome analysis of G. arboreum, G. hirsutum, and transgenic line revealed that the GhTCP4 TF plays an essential role in activating SCW genes by interacting with cis-elements in the promoter region. In contrast, GhHOX3 regulates TCP gene expression, thus promoting fiber cell elongation [116]. A comprehensive genome-wide analysis of G. arboreum, G. raimondii, and G. hirsutum from publicly available data revealed 196, 195, and 386 C2H2-like zinc finger genes, respectively. Also, the phylogenetic analysis of C2H2-like zinc finger proteins identified seven subgroups with similar exon-intron and protein motif compositions. Further, the differential expression (DE) pattern of 16 C2H2-like zinc finger genes identified in RNA-Seq data has been validated with RT-qPCR analysis in Ligon-lintless-1 (Li1) mutant and TM-1 at 0, 5, 8, and 10 DPA and suggested the role of these transcription factors in biochemical and physiological functions during cotton fiber development [112]. In another study, comparative transcriptome analysis of phytochrome A1 gene (PHYA1) RNAi line and its parent Coker 312 using RNA-Seq to study the GE profiles of 10 DPA fibers identified 142 DEGs that play an essential role in fiber development. Their pipeline included Trimmomatic for trimming low-quality reads, ArrayStar for aligning clean reads to the reference genome, DeSeq2 for finding DEGs, Blast2GO and InterProScan for functional annotation, and KEGG database for functional protein classes and pathways [113].
3.5 Transcriptome analysis for fiber initiation and elongation
Cotton fibers are single and elongated cells derived from epidermis of seed as external outgrowths. Therefore, cotton fibers are ideal for studying cell developmental stages such as differentiation and elongation. Further, the initiation step is critical in the fiber development process because it is the stage where the cell fate is determined or committed to developing into a fiber. Therefore, fiber initiation and elongation are ideal stages for undertaking RNA-Seq analysis to understand early fiber development, and a few such studies are discussed here (Table 5).
S. No
Significant DEGs (~5) identified
Associated function/pathway
Citation
1
Myb-related proteins: Myb 16 (Gh_A01G187100); Myb 306 (Gh_D04G053900); Myb 330 (Gh_A13G137700); Myb 16 (Gh_A05G373500); and Transcription factor WER (Gh_A05G364100)
Transcriptome analysis for fiber Initiation and elongation.
A recent study combined the Laser-capture microdissection (LCM) technology with RNA-Seq to understand the cotton cell types during the fiber developmental shifts. LCM can differentiate the epidermal cells from the fiber, while RNA-Seq can identify the subtle differences between these cell types [29]. Their results suggested that the fiber cell initiation in cotton can be triggered by phytohormones and MYB-like transcription factors, cell cycle arrest, ribosome biosynthesis, and homoeolog expression bias of cell cycle and ribosome biosynthetic genes [29]. A recent omics-based study conducted in the ovules collected immediately after anthesis in upland cotton showed DE of several MYB-like TFs and early fiber development genes associated with biosynthesis and signaling of phytohormones, indole-3-acetic acid, cytokinins, gibberellic acid, jasmonic acid, and brassinosteroids [27]. Another RNA-Seq study has been conducted to understand effect of temperature on fuzz fiber initiation in a thermo-sensitive variety of G. barbadense, L7009 subjected temperature stress at 4 DPA to identify 43,826 DEGs. Of these, 189, 9667, 240, and 901 DEGs belonged to plant hormone signal transduction, fiber development, fuzz fiber initiation, and transcription factors, respectively. Also, they reported that high temperatures could induce fiber development, fiber quality, and fuzz initiation. Further, the significantly enriched DEGs belonged to stress response, asparagine, and cell wall biosynthesis. However, the fuzz initiation can be inhibited by low-temperature treatment in L7009. Furthermore, they reported the 4 DPA stage as the most susceptible stage to temperature stress during the fuzz initiation [117].
A genome-wide transcriptome profiling of fiber-bearing ovules of G. arboreum at an increment of 0.5 from -0.5 DPA till 3.0 DPA has been investigated to understand the molecular basis for fiber initiation. A total of 12,049 DEGs and 1049 DE transcription factors have been detected from the analyses. Most identified DEGs belonged to the ribosome and amino acid biosynthesis and carbon metabolism. A few significantly enriched DEGs belonged to fatty acid degradation and flavonoid biosynthesis. Further, during fiber initiation, the significantly induced DE transcription factors belonged to the trihelix family, referred to as GaGTs, and often found on 12 of 13 chromosomes in G. arboreum [119]. In a study aimed at screening the transcriptome profiles for finding variations in fiber initiation and elongation among diverse fiber types of G. hirsutum, for example, long-staple cotton (LSC), short-staple cotton (SSC), long fiber group (LFG), and short-fiber group (SFG) to identify twelve genes in fiber development; among these, glycosyl hydrolase, Pectin lyase-like superfamily protein (PER64), and Pectin lyase (PL) were down-regulated in fiber elongation [118]. Their pipeline included Trimmomatic for filtering low-quality reads, TopHat2 for aligning clean reads to the reference genome, StringTie for assembling mapped reads into transcripts, HTSeq for quantification of GE, DeSeq for finding DEGs, GO for functional annotation, and KEGG for finding protein classes and pathways [118].
3.6 Transcriptome analysis for fiber color
Most cotton (G. hirsutum) fibers produced worldwide are white, despite the lint and fiber of tetraploid cotton (G. barbadense), exhibiting various colors including red, blue, green, and several shades of brown. The fiber color trait in cotton is genetically inherited, resulting from pigments blended with cellulose. Generally, the yields of colored cotton are typically lower, and the fiber is shorter and weaker but softer when compared with white cotton. However, the fiber qualities such as fiber length, strength, and color have been improved in hybrids between G. barbadense and G. hirsutum. More recently, colored cotton fiber has gained importance due to its unique and desirable characteristics and emerged as an eco-friendly dye-free textile material. A few recent RNA-Seq studies focussed on fiber color-related genes are presented below (Table 6). Using multi-omic approaches (metabolome and RNA-Seq analysis), the biochemical and regulatory roles of genes involved in light-induced green color formation in cotton have been reported [120]. Their study compared early initiation (15 DPA) and late accumulated (45 DPA) metabolites under different lighting conditions and identified 236 differential metabolites. Among which, 20% of metabolites belonged to the phenylpropanoid pathway. Their RNA-Seq analysis included gene set enrichment and KEGG pathway analysis to identify genes and regulatory networks linked with light-induced fiber color formation. These networks are highly correlated with the corresponding phenylpropanoid metabolites [120].
Another study compared transcriptomes and metabolomes of Green Colored Fiber (GCF) accession and its near-isogenic line, White Colored Fiber (WCF) at 12, 18, and 24 DPA, to identify 2047 non-redundant metabolites enriched in eighty pathways, including biosynthesis of phenylpropanoid, wax, cutin, and suberin [121]. Their metabolome analysis identified higher levels of metabolites (sinapaldehyde) linked with the phenylpropanoid pathway in the GCF line compared with the WCF phenotype. Moreover, the metabolites identified in their study overlapped with the transcriptome analysis showing significant up-regulation of the genes responsible for the biosynthesis of select metabolites. The WGCNA analysis on DEGs identified between GCF and WCF has shown 16 gene modules co-expressed with fiber color at selected time points. At a visually different fiber color stage between GCF and WCF, the blue module at 24 DPA was of prime importance due to the upregulation of 56 hub and two homoeologous Gh4CL4 genes that have a potential role in green pigment biosynthesis [121]. A study aimed at understanding the gene expression and regulation of the pigment biosynthesis generated RNAi lines for the chalcone flavanone isomerase gene in the brown-colored fiber (BCF) line [122]. In addition, they compared the transcriptome profiles of BCF with its transgenic fiber phenotypes, white and green, to identify 13 significantly enriched DEGs in flavonoid and phenylpropanoid pathways [122].
4. Conclusions
In conclusion, comprehensive phenotyping, genotyping, and transcriptome approaches coupled with integrated bioinformatics pipelines have considerably improved our understanding of genes associated with fiber quality and yield traits. However, besides the genes related to the fiber quality characteristics discussed in this chapter, fiber uniformity, fineness, and micronaire attributes must also be considered in cotton germplasm improvement programs. Further, functional annotation, enrichment, and gene network analyses tools will continue to evolve with better features to visualize subtle changes in gene expression associated with biological pathways. Furthermore, to better understand complex traits (e.g., fiber quality and yield) and polyploid plant genomes (e.g., Upland cotton), more advanced computational pipelines need to be developed to integrate multi-omic and multi-dimensional phenotypic data. Moreover, fiber cell is a single elongated structure that serves as an ideal model for single-cell genomics. Thereby, dissecting the complexity associated with the initial input mRNA quantity in single-cell RNA-Seq will aid in screening thousands of samples per sequencing run. Therefore, the bulk RNA-Seq data generated by such voluminous efforts demands lightweight data science tools that utilize less memory footprint.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge Ms. Padma S. Ragam for reviewing this book chapter. Also, the authors would like to thank anonymous reviewers and editors for their efforts in improving this book chapter. Finally, the authors acknowledge the funding support by the Capacity Building grant #2020-38821-31103 from the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"Gossypium, species, gene, expression, sequencing, fiber, transcriptome, and RNA-Seq",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81433.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81433.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81433",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81433",totalDownloads:13,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"March 18th 2022",dateReviewed:"March 21st 2022",datePrePublished:"May 5th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 21st 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The cotton crop is economically important and primarily grown for its fiber. Although the genus Gossypium consists of over 50 species, only four domesticated species produce spinnable fiber. However, the genes determine the molecular phenotype of fiber, and variation in their expression primarily contributes to associated phenotypic changes. Transcriptome analyses can elucidate the similarity or variation in gene expression (GE) among organisms at a given time or a circumstance. Even though several algorithms are available for analyzing such high-throughput data generated from RNA Sequencing (RNA-Seq), a reliable pipeline that includes a combination of tools such as an aligner for read mapping, an assembler for quantitating full-length transcripts, a differential gene expression (DGE) package for identifying differences in the transcripts across the samples, a gene ontology tool for assigning function, and enrichment and pathway mapping tools for finding interrelationships between genes based on their associated functions are needed. Therefore, this chapter first introduces the cotton crop, fiber phenotype, transcriptome, then discusses the basic RNA-Seq pipeline and later emphasizes various transcriptome analyses studies focused on genes associated with fiber quality and its attributes.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81433",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81433",signatures:"Shalini P. Etukuri, Varsha C. Anche, Mirzakamol S. Ayubov, Lloyd T. Walker and Venkateswara R. Sripathi",book:{id:"11362",type:"book",title:"Cotton",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Cotton",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11362.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-709-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-708-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-710-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. RNA-seq analysis pipeline",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Experimental design",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Read processing and quality check",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Read alignment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Transcript abundance estimation and quantification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5 Finding differentially expressed genes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.6 Functional annotation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.7 Enrichment and pathway analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"3. Transcriptome analysis in cotton for finding fiber related genes and pathways",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.1 Transcriptome analysis for fiber quality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.2 Transcriptome analysis for fiber length",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.3 Transcriptome analysis for fiber strength",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.4 Transcriptome analysis for fiber development",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.5 Transcriptome analysis for fiber initiation and elongation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.6 Transcriptome analysis for fiber color",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Wendel JF, Grover CE. Taxonomy and evolution of the cotton genus, Gossypium. Cotton. 2015;57:25-44'},{id:"B2",body:'Hendrix B, Stewart JM. Estimation of the nuclear DNA content of Gossypium species. 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Plant Science. 2019;286:7-16'},{id:"B108",body:'Islam MS, Fang DD, Thyssen GN, Delhom CD, Liu Y, Kim HJ. Comparative fiber property and transcriptome analyses reveal key genes potentially related to high fiber strength in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) line MD52ne. BMC Plant Biology. 2016;16(1):1-9'},{id:"B109",body:'Song Z, Chen Y, Zhang C, Zhang J, Huo X, Gao Y, et al. RNA-Seq reveals hormone-regulated synthesis of non-cellulose polysaccharides associated with fiber strength in a single-chromosomal-fragment-substituted upland cotton line. The Crop Journal. 2020;8(2):273-286'},{id:"B110",body:'Lu Q , Shi Y, Xiao X, Li P, Gong J, Gong W, et al. Transcriptome analysis suggests that chromosome introgression fragments from sea island cotton (Gossypium barbadense) increase fiber strength in upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics. 2017;7(10):3469-3479'},{id:"B111",body:'Hinchliffe DJ, Meredith WR, Yeater KM, Kim HJ, Woodward AW, Chen ZJ, et al. 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G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics. 2020;10(8):2879-2892'},{id:"B115",body:'Huang J, Guo Y, Sun Q , Zeng W, Li J, Li X, et al. Genome-wide identification of R2R3-MYB transcription factors regulating secondary cell wall thickening in cotton fiber development. Plant and Cell Physiology. 2019;60(3):687-701'},{id:"B116",body:'Cao JF, Zhao B, Huang CC, Chen ZW, Zhao T, Liu HR, et al. The miR319-targeted GhTCP4 promotes the transition from cell elongation to wall thickening in cotton fiber. Molecular Plant. 2020;13(7):1063-1077'},{id:"B117",body:'Cheng G, Zhang L, Wei H, Wang H, Lu J, Yu S. Transcriptome analysis reveals a gene expression pattern associated with fuzz fiber initiation induced by high temperature in Gossypium barbadense. Genes. 2020;11(9):1066'},{id:"B118",body:'Qin Y, Sun H, Hao P, Wang H, Wang C, Ma L, et al. Transcriptome analysis reveals differences in the mechanisms of fiber initiation and elongation between long-and short-fiber cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) lines. 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Center for Molecular Biology, Alabama A&M University, USA
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Varsha C. Anche",address:null,affiliation:'
Center for Molecular Biology, Alabama A&M University, USA
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Center for Molecular Biology, Alabama A&M University, USA
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Venkateswara R. Sripathi",address:"v.sripathi@aamu.edu",affiliation:'
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Our journals are currently in their launching issue. They will be applied to all relevant indexes as soon as they are eligible. These include (but are not limited to): Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, MEDLINE, Database of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), Google Scholar and Inspec.
\n\n
IntechOpen books are indexed by the following abstracting and indexing services:
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BKCI is a part of Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) and the world’s leading citation index with multidisciplinary content from the top tier international and regional journals, conference proceedings, and books. The Book Citation Index includes over 104,500 editorially selected books, with 10,000 new books added each year. Containing more than 53.2 million cited references, coverage dates back from 2005 to present. The Book Citation Index is multidisciplinary, covering disciplines across the sciences, social sciences, and arts & humanities.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, BIOSIS Previews research database provides researchers with the most current sources of life sciences information, including journals, conferences, patents, books, review articles, and more. Researchers can also access multidisciplinary coverage via specialized indexing such as MeSH disease terms, CAS registry numbers, Sequence Databank Numbers and Major Concepts.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, Zoological Record is the world’s oldest continuing database of animal biology. It is considered the world’s leading taxonomic reference, and with coverage back to 1864, has long acted as the world’s unofficial register of animal names. The broad scope of coverage ranges from biodiversity and the environment to taxonomy and veterinary sciences.
Provides a simple way to search broadly for scholarly literature. Includes peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, abstracts and articles, from academic publishers, professsional societies, preprint repositories, universities and other scholarly organizations. Google Scholar sorts articles by weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the article has been cited in other scholarly literature, so that the most relevant results are returned on the first page.
Microsoft Academic is a project exploring how to assist human conducting scientific research by leveraging machine’s cognitive power in memory, computation, sensing, attention, and endurance. Re-launched in 2016, the tool features an entirely new data structure and search engine using semantic search technologies. The Academic Knowledge API offers information retrieval from the underlying database using REST endpoints for advanced research purposes.
The national library of the United Kingdom includes 150 million manuscripts, maps, newspapers, magazines, prints and drawings, music scores, and patents. Online catalogues, information and exhibitions can be found on its website. The library operates the world's largest document delivery service, providing millions of items a year to national and international customers.
The digital NSK portal is the central gathering place for the digital collections of the National and University Library (NSK) in Croatia. It was established in 2016 to provide access to the Library’s digital and digitized material collections regardless of storage location. The digital NSK portal enables a unified search of digitized material from the NSK Special Collections - books, visual material, maps and music material. From the end of 2019, all thematic portals are available independently: Digital Books, Digitized Manuscripts, Digitized Visual Materials, Digital Music Materials and Digitized Cartographic Materials (established in 2017). Currently available only in Croatian.
The official DOI (digital object identifier) link registration agency for scholarly and professional publications. Crossref operates a cross-publisher citation linking system that allows a researcher to click on a reference citation on one publisher’s platform and link directly to the cited content on another publisher’s platform, subject to the target publisher’s access control practices. This citation-linking network covers millions of articles and other content items from several hundred scholarly and professional publishers.
Dimensions is a next-generation linked research information system that makes it easier to find and access the most relevant information, analyze the academic and broader outcomes of research, and gather insights to inform future strategy. Dimensions delivers an array of search and discovery, analytical, and research management tools, all in a single platform. Developed in collaboration with over 100 leading research organizations around the world, it brings together over 128 million publications, grants, policy, data and metrics for the first time, enabling users to explore over 4 billion connections between them.
The primary aim of DOAB (Directory of Open Access Books) is to increase discoverability of Open Access books. Metadata will be harvestable in order to maximize dissemination, visibility and impact. Aggregators can integrate the records in their commercial services and libraries can integrate the directory into their online catalogues, helping scholars and students to discover the books.
OAPEN is dedicated to open access, peer-reviewed books. OAPEN operates two platforms, the OAPEN Library (www.oapen.org), a central repository for hosting and disseminating OA books, and the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB, www.doabooks.org), a discovery service for OA books.
OpenAIRE aims at promoting and implementing the directives of the European Commission (EC) and the European Research Council on the promotion and funding of science and research. OpenAIRE supports the Open Access Mandate and the Open Research Data Pilot developed as part of the Horizon 2020 projects.
An integrated information service combining reference databases, subscription management, online journals, books and linking services. Widely used by libraries, schools, government institutions, medical institutions, corporations and others.
SFX® link resolver gives patrons and librarians a wealth of features that optimize management of and access to resources. It provides patrons with a direct route to electronic full-text records through OpenURL linking, delivers alternative links for further resource discovery, access to journals, and more. Released in 2001 as the first OpenURL resolver, SFX is continuously enhanced to support the newest industry developments and meet the evolving needs of customers. The records include a mix of scholarly material – primarily articles and e-books – but also conference proceedings, newspaper articles, and more.
A non-profit, membership, computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world's information and reducing information costs. More than 41,555 libraries in 112 countries and territories around the world use OCLC services to locate, acquire, catalogue, lend and preserve library materials.
The world’s largest collection of open access research papers. CORE's mission is to aggregate all open access research outputs from repositories and journals worldwide and make them available to the public. In this way CORE facilitates free unrestricted access to research for all.
Since 2002, Research4Life has provided researchers at more than 10,500 institutions in over 125 lower and middle-income countries with free or low-cost online access to up 151,000 leading journals and books in the fields of health, agriculture, environment, applied sciences and legal information. There are five programs through which users can access content: Research for Health (Hinari), Research in Agriculture (AGORA), Research in the Environment (OARE), Research for Development and Innovation (ARDI) and Research for Global Justice (GOALI).
Perlego is a digital online library focusing on the delivery of academic, professional and non-fiction eBooks. It is a subscription-based service that offers users unlimited access to these texts for the duration of their subscription, however IntechOpen content integrated on the platform will always be available for free. They have been billed as “the Spotify for Textbooks” by the Evening Standard. Perlego is based in London but is available to users worldwide.
MyScienceWork provides a suite of data-driven solutions for research institutions, scientific publishers and private-sector R&D companies. MyScienceWork's comprehensive database includes more than 90 million scientific publications and 12 million patents.
CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) is a key national information construction project under the lead of Tsinghua University, and supported by PRC Ministry of Education, PRC Ministry of Science, Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of China and PRC General Administration of Press and Publication. CNKI has built a comprehensive China Integrated Knowledge Resources System, including journals, doctoral dissertations, masters' theses, proceedings, newspapers, yearbooks, statistical yearbooks, ebooks, patents, standards and so on. CNKI keeps integrating new contents and developing new products in 2 aspects: full-text academic resources, software on digitization and knowledge management. Began with academic journals, CNKI has become the largest and mostly-used academic online library in China.
As one of the largest digital content platform in China,independently developed by CNPIEC, CNPeReading positions herself as “One Platform,Vast Content, Global Services”. Through their new cooperation model and service philosophy, CNPeReading provides integrated promotion and marketing solutionsfor upstream publishers, one-stop, triune, recommendation, online reading and management servicesfor downstream institutions & libraries.
ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education, provides access to education literature to support the use of educational research and information to improve practice in learning, teaching, educational decision-making, and research. The ERIC website is available to the public for searching more than one million citations going back to 1966.
The ACM Digital Library is a research, discovery and networking platform containing: The Full-Text Collection of all ACM publications, including journals, conference proceedings, technical magazines, newsletters and books. A collection of curated and hosted full-text publications from select publishers.
BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine) is one of the world's most voluminous search sengines especially for academic web resources, e.g. journal articles, preprints, digital collections, images / videos or research data. BASE facilitates effective and targeted searches and retrieves high quality, academically relevant results. Other than search engines like Google or Bing BASE searches the deep web as well. The sources which are included in BASE are intellectually selected (by people from the BASE team) and reviewed. That's why data garbage and spam do not occur.
Zentralblatt MATH (zbMATH) is the world’s most comprehensive and longest-running abstracting and reviewing service in pure and applied mathematics. It is edited by the European Mathematical Society (EMS), the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and FIZ Karlsruhe. zbMATH provides easy access to bibliographic data, reviews and abstracts from all areas of pure mathematics as well as applications, in particular to natural sciences, computer science, economics and engineering. It also covers history and philosophy of mathematics and university education. All entries are classified according to the Mathematics Subject Classification Scheme (MSC 2020) and are equipped with keywords in order to characterize their particular content.
IDEAS is the largest bibliographic database dedicated to Economics and available freely on the Internet. Based on RePEc, it indexes over 3,100,000 items of research, including over 2,900,000 that can be downloaded in full text. RePEc (Research Papers in Economics) is a large volunteer effort to enhance the free dissemination of research in Economics which includes bibliographic metadata from over 2,000 participating archives, including all the major publishers and research outlets. IDEAS is just one of several services that use RePEc data.
As the authoritative source for chemical names, structures and CAS Registry Numbers®, the CAS substance collection, CAS REGISTRY®, serves as a universal standard for chemists worldwide. Covering advances in chemistry and related sciences over the last 150 years, the CAS content collection empowers researchers, business leaders, and information professionals around the world with immediate access to the reliable information they need to fuel innovation.
BKCI is a part of Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) and the world’s leading citation index with multidisciplinary content from the top tier international and regional journals, conference proceedings, and books. The Book Citation Index includes over 104,500 editorially selected books, with 10,000 new books added each year. Containing more than 53.2 million cited references, coverage dates back from 2005 to present. The Book Citation Index is multidisciplinary, covering disciplines across the sciences, social sciences, and arts & humanities.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, BIOSIS Previews research database provides researchers with the most current sources of life sciences information, including journals, conferences, patents, books, review articles, and more. Researchers can also access multidisciplinary coverage via specialized indexing such as MeSH disease terms, CAS registry numbers, Sequence Databank Numbers and Major Concepts.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, Zoological Record is the world’s oldest continuing database of animal biology. It is considered the world’s leading taxonomic reference, and with coverage back to 1864, has long acted as the world’s unofficial register of animal names. The broad scope of coverage ranges from biodiversity and the environment to taxonomy and veterinary sciences.
Provides a simple way to search broadly for scholarly literature. Includes peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, abstracts and articles, from academic publishers, professsional societies, preprint repositories, universities and other scholarly organizations. Google Scholar sorts articles by weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the article has been cited in other scholarly literature, so that the most relevant results are returned on the first page.
Microsoft Academic is a project exploring how to assist human conducting scientific research by leveraging machine’s cognitive power in memory, computation, sensing, attention, and endurance. Re-launched in 2016, the tool features an entirely new data structure and search engine using semantic search technologies. The Academic Knowledge API offers information retrieval from the underlying database using REST endpoints for advanced research purposes.
The national library of the United Kingdom includes 150 million manuscripts, maps, newspapers, magazines, prints and drawings, music scores, and patents. Online catalogues, information and exhibitions can be found on its website. The library operates the world's largest document delivery service, providing millions of items a year to national and international customers.
The digital NSK portal is the central gathering place for the digital collections of the National and University Library (NSK) in Croatia. It was established in 2016 to provide access to the Library’s digital and digitized material collections regardless of storage location. The digital NSK portal enables a unified search of digitized material from the NSK Special Collections - books, visual material, maps and music material. From the end of 2019, all thematic portals are available independently: Digital Books, Digitized Manuscripts, Digitized Visual Materials, Digital Music Materials and Digitized Cartographic Materials (established in 2017). Currently available only in Croatian.
The official DOI (digital object identifier) link registration agency for scholarly and professional publications. Crossref operates a cross-publisher citation linking system that allows a researcher to click on a reference citation on one publisher’s platform and link directly to the cited content on another publisher’s platform, subject to the target publisher’s access control practices. This citation-linking network covers millions of articles and other content items from several hundred scholarly and professional publishers.
Dimensions is a next-generation linked research information system that makes it easier to find and access the most relevant information, analyze the academic and broader outcomes of research, and gather insights to inform future strategy. Dimensions delivers an array of search and discovery, analytical, and research management tools, all in a single platform. Developed in collaboration with over 100 leading research organizations around the world, it brings together over 128 million publications, grants, policy, data and metrics for the first time, enabling users to explore over 4 billion connections between them.
The primary aim of DOAB (Directory of Open Access Books) is to increase discoverability of Open Access books. Metadata will be harvestable in order to maximize dissemination, visibility and impact. Aggregators can integrate the records in their commercial services and libraries can integrate the directory into their online catalogues, helping scholars and students to discover the books.
OAPEN is dedicated to open access, peer-reviewed books. OAPEN operates two platforms, the OAPEN Library (www.oapen.org), a central repository for hosting and disseminating OA books, and the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB, www.doabooks.org), a discovery service for OA books.
OpenAIRE aims at promoting and implementing the directives of the European Commission (EC) and the European Research Council on the promotion and funding of science and research. OpenAIRE supports the Open Access Mandate and the Open Research Data Pilot developed as part of the Horizon 2020 projects.
An integrated information service combining reference databases, subscription management, online journals, books and linking services. Widely used by libraries, schools, government institutions, medical institutions, corporations and others.
SFX® link resolver gives patrons and librarians a wealth of features that optimize management of and access to resources. It provides patrons with a direct route to electronic full-text records through OpenURL linking, delivers alternative links for further resource discovery, access to journals, and more. Released in 2001 as the first OpenURL resolver, SFX is continuously enhanced to support the newest industry developments and meet the evolving needs of customers. The records include a mix of scholarly material – primarily articles and e-books – but also conference proceedings, newspaper articles, and more.
A non-profit, membership, computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world's information and reducing information costs. More than 41,555 libraries in 112 countries and territories around the world use OCLC services to locate, acquire, catalogue, lend and preserve library materials.
The world’s largest collection of open access research papers. CORE's mission is to aggregate all open access research outputs from repositories and journals worldwide and make them available to the public. In this way CORE facilitates free unrestricted access to research for all.
Since 2002, Research4Life has provided researchers at more than 10,500 institutions in over 125 lower and middle-income countries with free or low-cost online access to up 151,000 leading journals and books in the fields of health, agriculture, environment, applied sciences and legal information. There are five programs through which users can access content: Research for Health (Hinari), Research in Agriculture (AGORA), Research in the Environment (OARE), Research for Development and Innovation (ARDI) and Research for Global Justice (GOALI).
Perlego is a digital online library focusing on the delivery of academic, professional and non-fiction eBooks. It is a subscription-based service that offers users unlimited access to these texts for the duration of their subscription, however IntechOpen content integrated on the platform will always be available for free. They have been billed as “the Spotify for Textbooks” by the Evening Standard. Perlego is based in London but is available to users worldwide.
MyScienceWork provides a suite of data-driven solutions for research institutions, scientific publishers and private-sector R&D companies. MyScienceWork's comprehensive database includes more than 90 million scientific publications and 12 million patents.
CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) is a key national information construction project under the lead of Tsinghua University, and supported by PRC Ministry of Education, PRC Ministry of Science, Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of China and PRC General Administration of Press and Publication. CNKI has built a comprehensive China Integrated Knowledge Resources System, including journals, doctoral dissertations, masters' theses, proceedings, newspapers, yearbooks, statistical yearbooks, ebooks, patents, standards and so on. CNKI keeps integrating new contents and developing new products in 2 aspects: full-text academic resources, software on digitization and knowledge management. Began with academic journals, CNKI has become the largest and mostly-used academic online library in China.
As one of the largest digital content platform in China,independently developed by CNPIEC, CNPeReading positions herself as “One Platform,Vast Content, Global Services”. Through their new cooperation model and service philosophy, CNPeReading provides integrated promotion and marketing solutionsfor upstream publishers, one-stop, triune, recommendation, online reading and management servicesfor downstream institutions & libraries.
ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education, provides access to education literature to support the use of educational research and information to improve practice in learning, teaching, educational decision-making, and research. The ERIC website is available to the public for searching more than one million citations going back to 1966.
The ACM Digital Library is a research, discovery and networking platform containing: The Full-Text Collection of all ACM publications, including journals, conference proceedings, technical magazines, newsletters and books. A collection of curated and hosted full-text publications from select publishers.
BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine) is one of the world's most voluminous search sengines especially for academic web resources, e.g. journal articles, preprints, digital collections, images / videos or research data. BASE facilitates effective and targeted searches and retrieves high quality, academically relevant results. Other than search engines like Google or Bing BASE searches the deep web as well. The sources which are included in BASE are intellectually selected (by people from the BASE team) and reviewed. That's why data garbage and spam do not occur.
Zentralblatt MATH (zbMATH) is the world’s most comprehensive and longest-running abstracting and reviewing service in pure and applied mathematics. It is edited by the European Mathematical Society (EMS), the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and FIZ Karlsruhe. zbMATH provides easy access to bibliographic data, reviews and abstracts from all areas of pure mathematics as well as applications, in particular to natural sciences, computer science, economics and engineering. It also covers history and philosophy of mathematics and university education. All entries are classified according to the Mathematics Subject Classification Scheme (MSC 2020) and are equipped with keywords in order to characterize their particular content.
IDEAS is the largest bibliographic database dedicated to Economics and available freely on the Internet. Based on RePEc, it indexes over 3,100,000 items of research, including over 2,900,000 that can be downloaded in full text. RePEc (Research Papers in Economics) is a large volunteer effort to enhance the free dissemination of research in Economics which includes bibliographic metadata from over 2,000 participating archives, including all the major publishers and research outlets. IDEAS is just one of several services that use RePEc data.
As the authoritative source for chemical names, structures and CAS Registry Numbers®, the CAS substance collection, CAS REGISTRY®, serves as a universal standard for chemists worldwide. Covering advances in chemistry and related sciences over the last 150 years, the CAS content collection empowers researchers, business leaders, and information professionals around the world with immediate access to the reliable information they need to fuel innovation.
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\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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