Details of cotton varieties released for HDPS (courtesy: Central Institute of Cotton research, Regional Station, Coimbatore).
\r\n\tThe present book intends to provide to the reader a comprehensive overview of the state of art in empathy studies, embracing the different theoretical points of view and illustrating the advanced research such as the application of new technologies to promote perspective-taking. The critical aspects and the future directions of the study on empathy will also be presented.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-612-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-611-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-613-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4c1042dfe15aa9cea6019524c4cbff38",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Sara Ventura",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11443.jpg",keywords:"Theoretical Model, Skill, Perspective Taking, Training Programs, Practical Implications, Advanced Research, Future Directions, Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality, New Trends, Assistive Technology",numberOfDownloads:19,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 1st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 8th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 7th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 26th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 25th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Passionate researcher in the application of new technologies to psychological treatments, neuro-rehabilitation, human behavior, and the evolution of the human-computer interaction. In 2017 Dr. Ventura won a competitive grant (Santiago Grisolia) at the University of Valencia at LABPSITEC group, where she was awarded her Ph.D. degree, supervised by Prof. Rosa Baños at the University of Valencia, and co-directed by Prof. Giuseppe Riva of the Catholic University of Milan.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"227763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura",slug:"sara-ventura",fullName:"Sara Ventura",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/227763/images/system/227763.jpg",biography:"Sara Ventura gained a B.Sc in Psychology at the University of Padua (Italy) in 2013 and an M.Sc. in Ergonomic Psychology at the Catholic University of Milan (Italy) in 2015. In 2016, she carried out a postgraduate training at Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico (Mexico) at the Ciberpsychology lab, working on a rehabilitation protocol for people with acquired brain injury through Virtual Reality. In 2020, Sara gained the Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology at University of Valencia (Spain) working with the LabPsitec group and focusing her research on the study of embodiment and empathy with the support of Virtual Reality. Actually, she is working both with Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna (Italy), and the University of Valencia (Spain) on the fields of embodiment, stroke rehabilitation, empathy and patient care. Her research interests mainly focus on the adoption of new technologies, particularly Virtual/Augmented Reality and Artificial Intelligence for the psycho-social wellbeing with clinical and non-clinical populations, the study of human-computer interaction, and the user experience. She is the author of several scientific papers and various presentations at national and international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Valencia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Valencia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:[{id:"82719",title:"Empathy as a High-Performance Competency",slug:"empathy-as-a-high-performance-competency",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"82888",title:"From Empathy to the Aggression–Compassion Continuum",slug:"from-empathy-to-the-aggression-compassion-continuum",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"191531",title:"Dr.",name:"Neil E.",surname:"Grunberg",slug:"neil-e.-grunberg",fullName:"Neil E. 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If Indian production is juxtaposed against China during 2019/20 marketing year, China accounted for just over 22 percent of total world cotton production, of which 86 percent of that was produced in Xinjiang province (just under 20 percent of the world total). China exports only a small amount of cotton lint, half-of-one-percent of production. Other than some minor exports to North Korea, China is the world’s largest importer of cotton. This provides China with a supply of cotton normally greater than one-third of world use and nearly 40 percent larger than India [1]. This scenario also clearly explains the gap which is existing in India compared to other Countries which could make the country to progress further in the yield front of cotton provided newer technologies and cropping systems are adopted
About 59 per cent of the raw material requirement of the Indian textile industry is met by cotton. It plays a major role in sustaining the livelihood of An estimated 5.8 million cotton farmers’ livelihood is sustained by cultivating cotton. Besides, this crop engages 40–50 million people in one or the other related activities. As seen, the area under cotton in India is also tremendous which is around 13.40 million hectares. Among the 53 species of
Cotton is grown in all the three different agro-ecological zones of India
Majority of the cotton produced in India is derived from nine major cotton growing states and these States fall under three diverse agro-ecological zones.
Northern Zone-Punjab - Haryana and Rajasthan.
Central Zone-Gujarat - Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.
Southern Zone-Telangana - Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
In addition, cotton is also grown in the States of Tamil Nadu and Odisha. Recently, cotton is also being cultivate in small scale in non-traditional States such as Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Tripura, etc. Nevertheless, India is the largest producer cum leading consumer of cotton in the World. It’s very clear now that albeit having higher area under cotton, the productivity of cotton is very low compared to many of the Countries which warrants attention mainly on developing newer genotypes that would yield better on higher management condition. Strategies that could maximize the per unit area yield in cotton would include
Developing ideotypes in cotton that would suit mechanized cultivation starting from sowing to lint collection
Standardized agro-management systems for exploiting more unit area productivity
Robust management procedures to ward off pests, diseases and other nutritional disorders and
Assured price for quality produce
Primarily, the productivity enhancement in any crop depends on the development of suitable genotype and cotton is not an exception. Many of the wild species available in the crops are exploited for transferring the segments (QTLs) that harbor pests and diseases resistance
Another statistical prediction provided by Dr. M. V. Venugopalan of CICR, Nagpur [4] is that the cotton productivity during 2018–2019 would be the lowest despite the fact that almost 90% of the farmers have adopted the state of art BG II hybrids. This had been exclusively due to the increase in cost of cotton cultivation from Rs. 2233/q of seed cotton in 2002–2003 to Rs.4803/q in 2015–2016, mainly due to increase in labour wages and increased use of inputs like fertilizers and pesticides. Considering these facts, primary aim of the plant breeders has to be in designing a genotype that would fit for the given situation.
Moreover, the present day hybrids put forth biomass enormously and are of speed and spread growing in nature. Thus, the ratio of bolls to biomass if worked out would be much lesser. For having a match between the growth, water requirement, duration, yield, per unit and day productivity etc. a system was arrived at by the Central Institute of Cotton Research, Nagpur which is High Density Planting System (HDPS) with early maturing, semi compact genotypes for realizing higher yields with low production costs under rainfed condition primarily. The main tenets of this proposition covers tailoring a genotype suiting to high density planting (more than one lakh plants per hectare), its uniformity in boll development, maturation and bursting, its adoptability to the given condition and efficiency in the nutrient utilization etc.
In the forth coming discussions, let us see about the genetic, agronomic and plant protective interventions that would help in developing a suitable genotype fitting to HDPS.
The term “enhancement” was first used by [5] for defining the transfer of useful genes from exotic or wild types into agronomically acceptable background, preferably a cultivar of choice. This term of enhancement was later [6] rechristened as pre-breeding or developmental breeding to describe the same activity. Thus, having varied terminologies basically refer to the transfer or introgression of genes or gene combinations from unadapted sources, mostly the wild sources into the breeding materials, preferably an adapted background [7]. Normally, genetic enhancement is complementary to that of traditional breeding. However, these activities, as name suggests, form the base of any plant breeding programme where the gene transfer from wild species /related species is targeted. Thus enhanced germplasm can be more readily used in breeding programmes for cultivar development. Thus, pre-breeding qualifies as prior step of sustainable plant breeding which normally starts with identifying a useful character in unadapted or wild genotypes, capturing its genetic diversity and extracting the genes/QTLs that govern these variations for exploitation. Thus pre-bred materials may also be an intermediary with a value addition which could be further exploited.
Normally, wild species are exploited for transferring traits related to the improvement of yield, quality, pests and diseases resistance. In cotton, for altering the plant types, the wild species are not that much useful for the reasons that most of them are perennial with spreading habit. Hence, for breeding an ideal genotype with less/shy branching, zero monopodia, minimalistic bolls with uniform weight, luster, shape and bursting etc. which would also suit mechanized cultivation, exploring the available variability among the germplasm must be the pre-requisite.
Research on HDPS on cotton gained momentum under the leadership of ICAR – Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur in 2010. Shortly thereafter, in 2012, the All India Coordinated Cotton Improvement Project (AICCIP, now AICRP on Cotton) started a separate trial on the evaluation of compact genotypes for HDPS under rainfed and irrigated situation to facilitate the release of compact genotypes suitable for HDPS. Variety CSH 3075 was the first cotton variety released for HDPS in India. [4]. Subsequently, research got momentum and Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU) has also released two varieties
HDPS cotton (CO 17) being cultivated at farmer’s holding.
A high yielding
60 x 10 cm. This culture is found to be fertilizer responsive in all the location. Increasing the spacing results yield loss in almost all the centres indicating its suitability for high density planting. It registered moderate resistance to Bacterial blight and Gray mildew. The overall performance (2012–2015) revealed its superiority in mean seed cotton yield (2807 kg/ha) as against the local check Suraj (normal spacing) (2146 kg/ha). The increase in kapas yield was 30.8% over local check. Besides high seed cotton yield, it possessed higher ginning out turn of 36.6% than zonal check Suraj (34.1%). This culture comes under the medium long staple category with 2.5% span length of 27.1 mm, fiber strength of 21.5 g/tex and micronaire value of 4.3. It can spin up to 30–40’s counts.
Cotton variety CO 17 is a short duration compact plant type with synchronized boll maturity suitable for high density planting system (HDPS) released by the University during 2020. This culture was developed at Department of Cotton, TNAU, Coimbatore from the parental hybridization involving Khandwa 2 and LH 2220 followed by pedigree breeding. It matures in 125–135 days and possesses zero monopodia with short sympodial length and is highly suited for high density planting system. It recorded an average seed cotton yield of 2361 kg/ha which is 18.9% increase over the check variety Suraj (National check entry identified for HDPS). Culture TCH 1819 recorded seed cotton yield of 3427 kg/ha which was 21.7% increase over Suraj and 29.0% increase over MCU 7 under rice fallow condition. It recorded a seed cotton yield of 2051 kg/ha which was 13.8% increase over Suraj under summer irrigated conditions and also recorded 1604 kg/ha of seed cotton yield under winter rainfed which was 20.1% increase over the check Suraj.
It was also evaluated in All India Coordinated Cotton Improvement Project trials for two years during 2016–2017 and 2017–2018 across ten locations. It registered seed cotton yield of 1850 kg/ha which was 37.9% increase over Suraj. Adaptive Research Trials (ARTs) were conducted under three different cotton growing seasons
Considering the descriptors of these two varieties, few features can be noticed in common and they are short intermodal length with lesser distance of boll from main stem, bolls of 4–5 g in weight and lesser plant surface coverage of not exceeding 0.25 m2 ground area and synchronized maturity. Research work undertaken at the Department of Cotton, TNAU during one decade has resulted in identifying these genotypes which could exclusively fit in HDPS. Moreover, research being undertaken in the entire country had resulted in the release of varieties which are meant for HDPS which are detailed (Table 1).
Name | Year | Center/State variety Release | Institution |
---|---|---|---|
F 2383 | 2016 | State | PAU, Faridkot |
CSH 3075 | 2017 | Central | CICR, Sirsa |
Cotton CO 15 (TCH 1705) | 2018 | Central | TNAU, Coimbatore |
F 2381 | 2016 | Central | PAU, Faridkot |
ARBC 19 | 2016 | Central | UAS, Dharwad |
CO 17 | 2020 | State | TNAU, Coimbatore |
RS 2818 | 2020 | Central | SKRAU, Sriganganagar |
ARBC 1601 | 2020 | Central | UAS, Dharwad |
ARBC 1651 | 2020 | Central | UAS, Dharwad |
ARBC 1651 | 2020 | Central | UAS, Dharwad |
DSC 1651 | 2020 | Central | UAS, Dharwad |
Details of cotton varieties released for HDPS (courtesy: Central Institute of Cotton research, Regional Station, Coimbatore).
Majority of the traits that define a genotype fitting for HDPS include shy branching, 10–15 bolls per plant, boll setting nearer to the main stem, boll of 4–5 g in weight, uniform in size and shape, completion of bursting of all bolls in 3–4 days time, medium to superior medium fiber length with appreciable strength, 120 to 125 days of crop duration for fitting into various cropping programmes. These traits have been extensively studied using the available germplasm and prominent crosses have been effected to identify the genotypes that would fit in HDPS. Studies taken at the Department of Cotton by effecting crosses with genotypes fitting with HDPS and heavy yielders have indicated that crosses CO 17 x CO 14 and TCH 1926 x RB 602 showed high
Another study was taken up at the Department of Cotton during 2018–2019 to assess the spectrum of variability realized from differently yielding compact hybrids. Among the 900 observed plants in F2 population, surface covers of 689 plants were recorded as lower than the check (CO 15). The crosses viz., 343–1-1 x CO 14, 343–1-1 x RB 602, TCH 1926 x RAH 1070 and CO 17 x RB 602 were identified as elite combinations as they had more number of individuals whose plant surface was considerably lower than the check (CO 15).
Effect of Okra Leaf Shape in HDPS:
Considering the bigger leaf lamina which is available with CO 17, more pronounced leaf hoppers problem had been observed and breeding research to develop plants with HDPS traits along with okra leaf type had been the tailored programme which was started to function from 2015 to 2016. The okra leaf shape character, on an average in varieties over locations, caused a significant reduction in the incidence of boll rot in comparison with normal leaf cotton [8]. Altering, rather reducing the leaf lamina was significantly associated with an increase in yield, earliness, lint percentage and micronaire value, and a substantial increase in fruiting rate. However, it was also observed that the okra leaf shape had no effect on boll weight and fiber related attributes
At present in the Department of Cotton, work initiated on the development of compact plant type with okra leaf shape suitable for HDPS resulted in two F2 populations viz., TCH 1819 x PBH 115 and TCH 1819 x F 2382. Okra-leaf types of the upland cotton have the potential to be competitive to the normal-leaf types in yield and fiber quality, in addition to its potential resistance to insect pests and drought. In cotton, okra leaf type plants confer resistance/non-preference against insect pests. Form these two F2 populations, a total of 85 single plants were selected for compactness with okra leaf. Reciprocal crosses of above two cross combinations were also made. Forwarding these progenies would help in identifying compact plant types with the okra leaf type.
Prominent feature being considered for HDPS is that the genotype must have occupy an area of <0.25 m2 on the ground and invariably possesses the traits like optimum plant height plant (around 100 cm) with shorter sympodia, shorter intermodal length with lesser distance of boll from main stem. Albeit the fact that HDPS was worked out for rainfed eco system, it fits well in the irrigated scenario also.
In India, though the area under cultivation of cotton is higher, the seed cotton yield per unit area is very low compared to many other cotton growing countries in the world. The primary factors that attribute for this low realized yield besides the non-availability of choices of genotypes is the low plant population density. Various techniques like maintaining suitable plant density, use of optimum dose of fertilizers, growth regulators etc., are being suggested to overcome these constraints in cotton production. The optimum level of cotton productivity would, however, depends on the plant type being grown. The present day cotton genotypes are of long duration (180–200 days), late maturing, tall growing with spreading nature leading to bushy appearance besides with lesser number of bolls compared to the crop canopy. They also require wide spacing for the expression of the crop resulting in the production of netted canopy resulting in various problems in taking up plant protection measures, machine picking, and inefficiency in trapping of solar energy, physiological efficiency and harvest index.
Because of longer duration, these varieties require more number of pickings, as a result, cost of cotton cultivation upsurge especially owing to manual picking which warrants increased labour and fluctuating prices resulting in lesser realistic income. The availability of labour for clean picking is also a serious constraint. At present, in India, entire cotton is picked manually which is labour intensive and is becoming expensive day by day. About 30 per cent of world cotton being produced in Australia, Israel and USA and other developed countries are picked using machines which were sown as per the requirements of the machine. Such picking through machines would result in “Machine maximum, Man minimum” in cultivating cotton which will not only minimize cost of cultivation, but also reduce the dependency on labour. Machine picking esseentially depends on cultivation of cotton genotypes having short stature, earliness, compactness, sympodial growth habit and synchronous boll opening. Under these circumstances, compact cotton genotypes are ideally suited. They offer great scope for reducing not only row width, but also spacing between the plants in a row.
Over the last few decades, many cotton growing countries like China, USA, Australia, Brazil, Uzbekistan and Greece were able to enhance cotton yields by increasing the planting density. The planting geometry, in general adopted varies from 8 to 10 cm distance between plants in a row with the row spacing ranging from 18 to 106 cm, ideal being worked out to 100 cm at our conditions. This planting system is referred as narrow row (NR) if the row-to-row spacing is less than 75 cm and ultra-narrow-row (UNR) if the spacing is less than 45 cm. Currently in India, depending on the local conditions, hybrid cotton is planted at row spacing ranging from 90 to 120 cm and plant spacing ranging from 30 to 90 cm resulting in 15,000 to 25,000 plants/ha. In HDPS, short duration, semi–compact cotton varieties are planted at populations ranging from 1.1 lakh to 2.45 lakh plants/ha by planting at a distance of 45–90 cm between rows depending upon the soil type and growing conditions and 10 cm between plants in a row. It aims to establish around 7–8 plants/m row length. The objective is to limit the boll number to around 10/plant, maximize the number of bolls/unit area and realize high yield in the shortest possible time. If the number of bolls/plant is few, the fruiting window (or flowering period) is short (4–5 weeks) and the plant matures early, producing fibers with good quality.
Ultra narrow row (UNR) cotton production is considered as a potential strategy for reducing production costs by shortening the growing season [9]. By cultivating the genotypes that would fit for UNR, it provides the scope for increasing per unit area of plants
Adoption of HDPS amicable compact and early maturing cotton varieties offer an alternate to sustainable production at decreased production cost under Indian condition. However, availability of more determinate cultivars, more efficient options of weed control and insect pest management (including transgenics), growth regulations to modify morpho frame, planting and harvesting equipments etc., has made high density cotton planting system popular in several countries. The concept on high density cotton planting, more popularly called Ultra Narrow Row (UNR) cotton was initiated by [10] and this concept has been one of the most researched topics during the last 15 years. Availability of early maturing, compact sympodial plant types with more fruiting bodies closer to the main stem is a pre-requisite for successful HDPS.
Theoretically, higher planting density ensures earlier crop canopy cover, higher sunlight interception leading to higher and earlier yields at reduced cost. The obvious advantage of this system is earliness [11] since UNR needs less bolls/plant to achieve the same yield as conventional cotton and the crop does not have to maintain the late formed bolls till maturity. In general, it was observed that lower plant densities produced higher values of growth and yield attributes per plant, but yield per u--nit area was also higher with higher plant densities [12, 13, 14]. Fertilizer and pest management are important consideration for increased yields under high density planting system. Changes in plant density modifies the microclimate and this may alter the incidence of pests and diseases as well [15]. Studies taken up using the genotypes AKH 081,Suraj and NH 615 under HDPS revealed that these entries could yield better at 60 x10 cm spacing under medium depth soils with a planting density of 1.66 lakh plants per hectare on broad bed furrow (BBF) with 125 per cent of recommended fertilizers (75:37.5:37.5 NPK + 2.5 Zn kg/ha) along with a foliar spray of 1% urea and 1% magnesium sulphate at boll development stage [16].
The very purpose of evolving genotypes suitable for HDPS would be achieved only by manipulation of row spacing, plant density and the spatial arrangements of cotton plants for obtaining higher yields. The most commonly tested plant densities range from 5 to 15 plants per sq. m [17] resulting in a population of 50,000 to 150,000 plants per ha. The UNR cotton plants produce less number of bolls per plant than conventional cotton but retain a higher percentage of the total number of good opened bolls per unit area in the first sympodial position and a lower percentage in the second position [18]. The other advantages include better light interception, efficient leaf area development and early canopy closure which shades out the weeds and reduce their competitiveness [19]. The early maturity in soils that do not support excessive vegetative growth [20] can make this system ideal for shallow to medium soils under rainfed condition where conventional late maturity hybrids experience terminal drought.
Cotton growth must be regulated and eventually terminated by chemical means, due to the plants’ intrinsic indeterminate growth habit. Plant growth retardants are natural or synthetic organic compounds that control or modify one or more physiological events in plants. These synthetic compounds are widely used in cotton for reducing plant height. The plant growth retardants affect many physiological functions in plants. The crop growth regulator Mepiquat Chloride (MC) is commonly used in cotton production in China and elsewhere to maximize cotton yield and fiber quality [21, 22]. The application of MC increases leaf thickness, reduces leaf area [23], shortens internodes [24] and decreases plant height [25], and thus results in a more compact plant architecture [26] which had been witnessed in the CO 17 culture as well (Figure 2).
Application of Mepiquat chloride in cotton variety CO 17.
Modification of cotton structure increases the light interception in the middle part of the canopy [27]. In addition, Light Use Efficiency (LUE) of cotton is increased by MC application [28]. Furthermore, cotton canopy structure is affected by population density [29] and practices such as wheat–cotton intercropping [30] which influence the crop light interception and fruit formation, thereby biomass growth and yield.
High population densities increase leaf area index (LAI) but reduces the individual leaf area [29]. Like most species, cotton plant height increases with population density [31]. Field experiments raised with CO 17 wherein cotton plant structure was obviously affected by MC and plant density. As MC could bring in changes in the architecture of the applied plant resulting structural changes, it leads to a challenge in maintaining the cotton plant’s architecture suiting to the mechanized cultivation. Application of MC is essentially responsible for controlling cell elongation and shoot and stem growth [32]. When plant growth retardants are applied to plants, internodes become shorter and leaves become thicker and greener which leads to altered plant morphology and altered assimilate partitioning resulting in reduced plant growth. The response of plants to PGR applications can differ with plant growth stage, rates of application, and environmental conditions during the applications [33]. Cotton producers and researchers have, therefore, used plant growth retardants as a means to manage the balance between vegetative and reproductive growth for efficient cotton production. But research on application of growth retardants in conjunction high density planting will pave way for synchronized maturity of the crop with uniform plant height that may help in harvesting of seed cotton mechanically at large scale level. This research is at its nascent level in India.
Mepiquat Chloride (1,1-dimethyl-piperidinium Chloride), a plant growth regulator is widely used to manage cotton structure, regulate plant development and hasten maturity under high plating densities [34]. Although plant growth regulators have been thoroughly widely tested in cotton in India, specific recommendations regarding their dose and timing for modifying the architecture at high planting densities are yet to be arrived for adoption on a holistic perspective. Reduction in plant height, decrease in height/node ratio, an increase in boll weight and a delay in maturity with the application of growth regulators were observed with non-significant effect on yield. Application of Mepiquat Chloride reduced the leaf area and increased the number of bolls per unit area at high plant density. It also helped in retention of bolls on lower sympodia and increased the synchrony of boll maturation [29].
However, the effect of Mepiquat Chloride on cotton is affected by environmental conditions, particularly temperature [35]. Studies taken up at the Department of Cotton indicated the differential response of cultures and its performance across centres. At Coimbatore, there was a variety dependent response to Mepiquat Chloride application @ 75 g ai/ha in three splits on 45, 60 and 75 DAS in winter irrigated cotton planted at 45 x 15 cm spacing and the effect was more pronounced in CO 17 (Figure 3).
Effect of Mepiquat chloride on cotton varieties.
There was a reduction in plant height, sympodial length and LAI and an enhanced the number of burst boll/sq. m leading to an increase in yield at Coimbatore. Across the cultivars, application of Mepiquat Chloride increased seed cotton yield from 1330 kg/ha to 1530 kg/ha. Interaction effect of cultivars and application of Mepiquat Chloride was significant. Taller cultivars namely TCH 1608 and TCH 1705 (CO 15) benefitted more from the application of Mepiquat Chloride compared to the other cultivars having a compact growth habit. Cultivars with a more indeterminate growth habit responded more positively to Mepiquat Chloride application [36]. There is a need for detailed investigations on this aspect before any recommendations are given.
Arresting the growth of the cotton plant followed by the defoliation of leaves at the physiological maturity stage of the plant would facilitate in harvesting the fully opened bolls through mechanical instruments. As we know that killing and fixation of specimen are required for having cytological observations by employing a mix of acid and alcohol, the two events namely growth arrest and defoliation have to occur for effecting the harvest of bolls in cotton. Thus, cotton defoliation requires the application of certain chemicals to help prepare a cotton crop for harvest. Benefits of proper cotton defoliation include: reduction of the main sources of stain and trash (leaves), increased harvest efficiency, quicker drying of dew, potential for increased boll opening and a reduction of boll rots. As a cotton plant matures, a physiological process takes place which separates the living tissue near the leaf petiole called the abscission zone. A regulated enzyme activity under the influence of plant hormones making the leaf to fall through the creation of abscission zone is the need.
Two types of defoliants, by and large are available. A herbicidal defoliant can be used to cause injury to the leaf, upset the hormone balance resulting in the abscission process and finally the leaf drop. The other one is the application of a hormonal defoliant which increases ethylene synthesis in a plant causing the leaves to fall off. Correct application rates are important, especially with herbicidal defoliants, as over application can cause the leaf to die before the abscission process, resulting in “stuck” leaves. Conversely, when too little defoliant is applied, the abscission process may not begin, resulting in no leaf defoliation.
When applying a defoliant or desiccant or boll opener, many factors must be taken into consideration for successful application. Best results from an application occur when the factors like the type of cotton being grown, its duration, weather/climatic conditions, soil conditions, availability of inorganic fertilizers to the plant, bursting of bolls, water availability to the plants, spacing between the rows and plants, etc. are taken into consideration.
Studies taken up at TNAU utilizing the application of MC and Defoliant indicated that the combination of application of MC 50 g ai/ha at 45 and 65 DAS and Dropp ultra (Thidiazuron and Diuron) @ 200 ml/ha at maturity resulted in 90 per cent defoliation in CO 17 and prepared the crop for harvest by 135 days. This is in the preliminary stage of testing and would be tested in the years to come to arrive at a comprehensive package (Figure 4).
Application of Mepiquat chloride and defoliant in CO 17.
Because of various types of insects that attack the cotton crop, especially from the young seedlings (leaf miner, gall formers etc.) till the crop attains maturity (various borers, weevils etc.), cotton crop receives excessive rounds of pesticides spray. This results in excessive consumption of plant protection products. Many research are being taken up towards developing holistic packages including chemical, physical, biological and IPM techniques to contain these pests. Cotton is under cultivation in 69 countries and the production had exceeded 20 million tones of lint in the recent years where the cultivable area spread on 30–35 million hectares. In spite of improvement attained through chemical control strategies, harvest losses remain very high which dwindles around 30% [37, 38]. Occurrence of varied insects in the cotton system during varied crop growth stages makes it as an experimental model crop for devising plant protection strategies to be practiced under various agronomic conditions.
Albeit very many newer molecules are synthesized and tested to contain the pests, harvest losses remained high. All the pest management strategies aims to keep the pest population below the Economic Threshold Level (ETL) which is normally attained by having a judicious mix of appropriate methodologies. Total pest management is achievable only when the pest prefers a single crop, say cotton and there are no significant alternate hosts available in the vicinity of the crop system. However, the application of IPM principles greatly depends on the concept of an intervention threshold and the limitations of many of the specific non-chemical techniques proposed but the application of IPM modules/principles have the advantage of taking into consideration the full pest complex in a cropping system [37].
Biological control by introducing beneficial arthropods has not been notably successful in all the crop based systems, which is true for cotton also. This is because of the difficulty in identifying and acclimatizing the predators/parasites, developing a bunch of beneficial organisms capable of responding effectively, the nature of the crop grown and the disrupting effects of chemical control measures directed against the remaining pests [39]. More benefit is to be obtained from the active conservation of the indigenous fauna of beneficial organisms. In spite of an increased general environmental awareness, the practice of using insecticides could not be resisted as pests evolve resistance to pesticides and a combinatory approach to contain the pest is the need of the hour.
Suggested strategies were adopted throughout the growing season in Australia. Primary target of reducing the pesticides consumption in cotton ecosystem was brought out by the introduction of Bt gene engineered cotton hybrids which allows the co-existence of natural enemies. However, the least affected species by the Bt toxins, the sucking pests took a prominent place in cotton based production system displacing the vegetative and fruit feeding caterpillars as key pests of Bt cotton [40]. The spatio-temporal dimension of natural population regulatory factors has led to changes in agricultural practices and production systems. In cotton, for example, production systems maintaining a permanent ground cover, are having increasing success. Many a times, farmers leave the crop in the field after harvest of bolls alone, especially for getting a second flush with the onset of rains resulting in enhanced outbreak. Intercropping and trap cropping have been favorable to the maintenance of beneficial arthropod complexes and unfavorable to the growth of pest populations. Thus for having an effective control over the pests, a changed strategy towards a total systems approach, characterized by a movement from a paradigm of pest control field-by-field, through farm-by-farm and agroecosystem-by-agroecosystem, to a landscape by landscape approach is required as reported by [38].
The rich and diverse insect fauna found in cotton harbors more than one thousand species. However, very few are designated as significant potential pests. These pests damage the flowers and fruiting bodies or consumes the leaves or mine the leaves and sucks the juice of the leaves of young plants. Some of them are monophagous species, restricted to the genus
Cultivating cotton by adopting closer spacing with the available cultivars and with those having short branches was conceived and implemented in India since sixties of the 20th century. Visits, exposures, dialogs and discussions could improvise the learning and the team’s visit to Brazil had sown the idea of researching on High Density Planting System (HDPS) and the churned idea was implemented by reorienting research through All India Coordinated Cotton Improvement Project (AICCIP) and through other schemes like Technology Mission of Cotton (TMC) or National Food Security Mission (NFSM) in India [42]. It is reiterated that the success of HDPS at varied locations solely depends on the availability of genotypes, appropriate spacing and nutrition for adopting more plants per hectare to achieve more productivity per unit area and sound pest management criteria. This necessitates the evaluation of available genotypes in varied spacing and nutrition level to the incidence of insect pests. As farmers tend to grow more Bt which are normally of spreading in nature, evaluation of both Bt and not Bt compact genotypes for their suitability to HDPS is the need of the hour. The adoption of HDPS along with better genotype and fertilizer management is a viable approach to break the current stagnation of yield.
More the synthetic fertilizer application, especially nitrogen (N) fertilizer, more the serious insect herbivores occurrence and crop damage from these insects by reducing plant resistance, the concept which has been conceived clearly [43, 44]. Reducing fertilizer applications can reduce the production costs for cotton growers, as well as nitrogen (N) leaching into the soil and contamination of surface and ground water, but altered N fertilization may also affect pests and their natural enemies [45]. Occurrence of insects and their abundance are heavily dependent on the micro climate available in the system which is primarily based on the biomass production by the plants and their nearness (spacing). Hence, it is utmost important to study the pest dynamics under closer spacings as well as increased levels of nitrogen applications.
A study taken up using GSHV-01/1338 and GBHV-164 genotypes among others revealed their ability as promising genotypes of the region suited to high density planting system due to its compact nature [42]. At two levels of closer spacings (60x15 and 45x15 cm) against the normal spacing of 120x45 cm along with two increased level of nitrogen application (i.e. 125 and 150% of RDN), these two genotypes performed better. The studies were carried out in factorial randomized block design
[46] by quoting a field experiment that was conducted to study the mean incidence of major cotton insect pests during two consecutive seasons
[47] reported in a study undertaken during 2015–2016 on High density planting demonstrations (50) which were taken up in farmers’ fields at varied close spacings (75x10 and 90x10cm) with available compact genotypes (Suraj and G.Cot.16) compared to normal spacing (120x45 cm) under Insecticide Resistance Management (IRM) umbrella in rainfed regions of Bharuch district. Aphids, thrips and leafhopper were found above ETL whereas whitefly and mealybug were found below ETL. The mean larval population of pink bollworm was 4.41 and 3.14 larvae/20 green bolls in Suraj and G.Cot.16 spaced at closed spacings respectively. The pink bollworm population was 2.51 and 2.68 larvae/20 green bolls in Bt-IRM and non IRM plots respectively. Suraj variety spaced at 75x10 and 90x10 cm required 4.21 and 3.33 sprays and G.Cot.16 spaced at 75x10 and 90x10 cm required 4.40 and 3.60 sprays against sucking pests and 2.37 and 2.38 and 3.20 and 2.40 sprays against bollworms respectively as against 5.00 and 5.60 sprays against sucking pests and 2.00 and 3.80 sprays against bollworms in Bt-IRM and Bt-Non IRM cotton respectively. These results suggest the need for excessive sprays in ultra closer spacing than the normal closer spacing for both the cultivars. The net return was found higher in G.Cot.16 HDPS at both the spacing (Rs. 22,966 and 17,456/acre) than the Suraj HDPS (Rs. 16,461 and 8235/acre). The net return for Bt-IRM farmers was higher (Rs.21527/acre) than non IRM-Bt farmers (Rs. 17,919/acre). Thus, it has been concluded that HDPS offer viable option to increase productivity especially under rainfed region.
The cotton crop is attacked by 1326 species of insect pests throughout the world, of which about 130 different species of insects and mites found to devour cotton at different stages of crop growth in India. Among the bollworms, pink bollworm assumed major pest status in recent past [48]. The pink bollworm,
Losses caused by pests vary by 10–30% depending on the intrinsic genetic factors and its rigidity in expressing the inherent resistance. Pests are supposed to evolve in a short and strategic cycle to circumvent the problems being arisen and judicious use of insecticides along with physical, biological control methods is the need of the hour. Ignoring pests can lead to complete crop failure. In the overall crop protection program under the National Agricultural Policy, The Government’s IPM is a time-tested, eco-friendly approach, socially acceptable and economically viable that is widely accepted across the country. Appropriate control measures should be taken when insect populations cross the ETL [52].
High density planting which entails closer planting may have every chance of microclimate getting altered due to which the propensity of infectious diseases in cotton may also vary. The high density planting in cotton is a recent phenomena which opened avenues for research in various domains including plant pathology. The plant pathologists have been trying to understand the nexus between the incidence of various cotton diseases and the change in microclimate of the plant coupled with external atmosphere [53, 54].
The life cycle of pathogens is amenable for changes in line with the changes in plant canopy and the microclimate mediated through weather parameters. Space between plants and rows is bound to have a say in the mode of dispersal, the intensity of infection and the production of secondary inoculum of plant pathogens. Cotton, being a commercial crop, is no exception to this phenomena of infection and the high density planting in cotton need to be carefully contemplated taking into account the changed plant geometry and the corresponding incidence of cotton diseases. Despite the research on influence of high density planting in cotton on the incidence of diseases is in the nascent stage, an attempt has been made to take stock of striking developments in the management of important cotton diseases in the succeeding pages.
The major diseases of cotton which are prevalent in most part of the cotton growing countries in the world were reported to inflict a damage ranging from 10 to 30% and it may be more when favorable conditions prevail for the spread of the pathogens which culminates in cotton farmers spending huge cost to keep the biotic stress under control [55].
Fungal diseases are predominant in cotton followed by very few bacterial and viral diseases. The prominent bacterial disease which inflict major damage in cotton crop is bacterial blight, caused by
Plethora of studies were conducted for the management of cotton diseases which reported solitary or combination of management practices to control them. Besides chemical control, significant research work has been carried out on the biological control of cotton diseases [64, 65, 66, 67]. Similarly, there were prominent studies on use of plant extracts [68, 69, 70] and essential oil [71, 72] for the management of cotton diseases. Cultural methods [73] and organic amendments [74] also form part of the strategy to control cotton diseases.
In the recent past, several research studies have documented the efficacy of Endophytic bacteria [75] in suppressing the incidence of cotton diseases. Molecular level studies namely transcriptomic, proteomic and metabolomic studies [76, 77, 78] and studies on gene editing [79] were on the rise for the past two decades. As there are several methods and molecules have been designed for effecting the control of diseases, their role in containing the diseases that occur under HDPS is in infant stage as the genotypes which have been evaluated at Coimbatore were not found to have adequate disease expressions under HDPS.
Soil borne fungal diseases of cotton namely damping off, root rot and wilt have been reported to cause extensive damage in cotton crop. Juxtaposing chemical control with biological method, the latter was found to be effective which is evidenced from the finding of [80, 81, 82] who reported that the combined application of
Among the foliar diseases, Alternaria leaf spot, gray mildew, boll rot, rust, anthracnose and bacterial leaf blight were reported in cotton and they were reported to inflict damage significantly. The chemical fungicides mancozeb (0.3%), propiconazole (0.1%), propineb (0.3%) were found more effective against
Among the biocontrol agents studied,
Among the viral diseases infecting cotton, cotton leaf curl virus and tobacco streak virus are important. The TSV disease was reported to be spread through mechanical means, infected seeds and through thrips species. Parthenium, a widely distributed and symptom less carrier of TSV, plays a major role in perpetuation and spread of the disease [91, 92, 93, 94, 95].
A study carried out by [96] uncovered the application of
Though evolving a suitable ideotype remains the basics of successful adoption of any HDPS, the evolved genotype’s suitability to the various management practices results in its adoptability. Nowadays, many of the farmers are going for Bt cotton and that too under rainfed situations. Considering this as a backdrop, the genotypes under development either through conventional method employing crossing between the selected genotypes and progeny selection or mutation breeding or selection of desirable genotypes from the pre-bred materials or by any of the molecular methods must fit for one or more situations as described below.
Considering the occurrence of weeds in both irrigated and rainfed systems, the HDPS genotype must possess inherent herbicide tolerant/resistant behavior either through inheritance or through infusion using biotechnological tools.
Transplanting of cotton have been identified as one of the viable option for maintaining the sufficient plant population. Preliminary studies taken up at the Department of Cotton also indicated the survival of 15–20 days old seedlings of CO 17 variety upto 25 per cent. However, the growth observed in the transplanted plants was stunted. Studies taken up by [101] indicated that date of sowing, age of seedling for transplanting bears a relationship on the seed cotton yield. Moreover, Bt cotton sown directly or through tray nursery or through polythene nursery of varied duration had varied impact on seed cotton yield. Polythene nursery with 3 weeks old seedlings upon transplanting could result in a yield of 4727 kg/ha. Thus, clear cut studies on the evolved genotype for its suitability to transplanting through any one of the methods are required.
It has been observed that cotton plants raised under dense paired sowing produced the highest seed cotton yield and water use efficiency [102]. Hence, the evolved genotypes need to be tested for its water use efficiency under fertigation studies which is the need of the hour. Preliminary experiments conducted with CO 17 in this regard with varied level of population and varied nutrient levels under drip fertigation revealed that spacing 75 cm × 10 cm spacing coupled with STCR based drip fertigation recorded net return of Rs. 131,302/ha.
Another interesting observation made by [103] was weed density and weed dry matter production were lesser at closer spacing of 30 x 30 and 45 x 30 cm as compared to widely spaced cotton. Though this is to be taken care of, more closer spacing would attract pest and diseases and hence an ideal spacing has to be arrived for evolved genotypes.
The evolved genotype (preferably as a variety) must have an yield advantage and increased per day productivity compared to the
It has to be ascertained, that by all means, the evolved genotype should contain the deregulated gene/QTLs conferring resistance to bollworms or genes that are of native origin which are freely available. This is because that the non Bt cotton variety F 2383 released by Punjab Agricultural University during 2015 for cultivation under HDPS had the susceptibility to boll worms besides smaller boll size [104].
In USA, it took 30 years to achieve 100 per cent mechanization, while it was 45 years in Brazil. Turkey reached 75 per cent mechanization in 15 years and China took 20 years to reach 15 per cent mechanization. However, in India, as seen, harvesting is completely labour oriented and all the activities need to be mechanized [105]. It has been also indicated that the mechanical picking with single row picker under HDPS provided 25–40 per cent yield increase compared to the farmer’s practice. Preliminary studies done in this aspect in the Department of Cotton with CO 17 variety indicated that mechanizing the sowing, spraying, weeding operations alone had resulted in a savings of Rs. 51,000(698 US $).
This gives a clear message that mechanizing cotton cultivation is of essential one and the evolved genotype must fit for mechanized cultivation in India.
We are grateful to the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University for permitting us to write this chapter which would be of immense help to the students and scientists. We are equally committed to IntechOpen for accepting our request to waive off the fees of publication.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Many human diseases, specifically chronic immune-mediated diseases, present differentially in males and females [1]. Differential gene expression and immune system in the human body guided by sex steroid hormones are responsible for the differential physiologic constitution of the two genders [2]. Chronic periodontal disease is an immune-inflammatory disorder affecting teeth and supporting tissues, inducing the destruction of alveolar bone, and ultimately leading to loss of teeth if it remains untreated. As evidence of periodontal infection’s influence on overall chronic inflammatory disease states of human body continues to mount from last two decades, a whole new concept of the status of the oral cavity and its impact on systemic health and disease has evolved. Immense research efforts have been directed toward better understanding of the prevention and control of human periodontal diseases that have been warranted in the recent past [3].
Enhanced understanding regarding the causation mechanisms of human periodontal disease in the recent past and the identification and recognition of the potential significant susceptibility factors, which are a part of the causal chain for initiation and progression of periodontal disease, have led to focused research into specific risk factors for periodontal disease. Greater age [4, 5, 6, 7, 8], male sex [9, 10], bacterial plaque [4, 8], and smoking [8, 11, 12, 13] have been linked with an increased susceptibility to periodontal disease [14].
Epidemiological investigations have explored the role of these risk factors for periodontal disease causation and treatment needs of populations. A risk factor may be anything like environmental exposure, a behavioral aspect, or a constitutional feature which may enhance the chances of occurrence of disease. The term “determinant” is generally used interchangeably with risk factors, but it is more appropriate to limit its usage for the risk factors that cannot be modified, for example, age and sex. Readers are referred to go through many elaborate and exhaustive reviews on these particular aspects to enhance their understanding regarding differential risk and risk factors of periodontal diseases [15]. The current chapter shall provide an update specifically on gender-based differences in oral and periodontal health, underlying mechanisms, differences in patterns and distribution of alveolar bone loss (based on the case study), and potential gender-specific disease protection and management strategies.
Periodontal diseases primarily comprise the two most common oral inflammatory disorders, that is, gingivitis and periodontitis, which are caused by microbes residing in the subgingival dental plaque. To name a few, primary pathogens like
Many investigations have been conducted in diverse areas worldwide. A variable, yet significant prevalence of the periodontal disease has been noted, which amounts to an enormous disease burden in the domain of public health. The National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research refer to periodontal diseases as the leading cause of tooth loss in adults [21]. In 2013, Marcenes et al. ranked periodontitis as the sixth most prevalent condition while estimating the global burden of oral conditions from 1990 to 2010 [22]. Moreover, severe periodontitis is considered as the primary cause of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) s in the age-group of 35- to 59-year-old. Several studies have reported the prevalence of periodontitis in the United States [23, 24]. The overall prevalence of periodontitis was 66% for all seniors 65 years of age or older with males being predominantly affected [25].
Prevalence of the periodontal disease varies in different regions of the world and a higher prevalence and severity of periodontal disease in Asian countries has been reported [26]. The authors looked into the geographic and economic risk factors, oral health distribution and practices in these vast groups of countries to enhance understanding regarding the oral health care needs and formulating health policy decisions [27]. A study from Pakistan revealed that 63.5% of the subjects had Community periodontal index score ≤ 2 while 34.5% had ≥3. Age, gender, occupation, smoking, diabetes, arthritis, cardiovascular disease, kidney disease, stress, medications, and oral hygiene habits of using tooth powder or tooth brushing were significantly associated with periodontal status [28]. Multiple studies to understand the occurrence, prevalence, and all associated factors have been carried out in many states and across the country in India also [29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34]. A systematic review pointed out that due to lack of homogeneous studies, it is difficult to estimate an overall prevalence rate. A nationwide multicentric prevalence studies initiative is needed to obtain the true prevalence rate of periodontal disease in India so that interventions should be provided for the same to maintain the oral health and quality of life of the affected population [29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34].
Generally speaking, periodontal disease is a chronic silent disease, which barely has any symptoms at an early stage. Most patients suffering from chronic periodontal disease seek treatment very late by the time the disease has progressed significantly. Redness or bleeding of gums with or without tooth brushing or flossing or biting into hard food, repeat episodes of gingival inflammation, oral malodor or bad breath, and a persistent metallic taste in the mouth. In progressed disease, gingival recession, resulting in loss of gums exposing the roots of teeth, deep pockets between the teeth and the gums mobile teeth, in the later stages, drifting and flaring of incisors, increased spacing between the teeth, tendency to dig between the teeth, packing of food in between teeth, itchy gums, sensitivity to hot and cold foods. Periodontal disease is generally regarded as painless. Patients generally consider only bleeding without pain from gums with or without brushing as an insignificant sign; however, this may be indicative of ongoing disease activity and progression of chronic periodontitis. Poor oral hygiene, soft sticky deposits, that is, dental plaque and hard mineralized subgingival as well as supragingival calculus are frequent findings of periodontal disease [35].
Periodontitis is a chronic multifactorial disease causing inflammation of the supporting tissues of teeth mediated by the host, which is associated with an imbalance in the existing microbial flora in dental plaque and resulting in a continuous loss of tooth-supporting apparatus [36, 37]. The bacteria in the dental plaque are the essential initiators of the gingival inflammation; however, not all cases suffering from gingivitis progress into periodontitis. This transition is largely determined by the host immune response. Once gingival inflammation is set in, tissue microenvironment changes and causes an alteration in the microbial ecology and also in host response mechanisms against the residing bacteria. This leads to the stimulation of several key molecular and cellular signaling pathways, which ultimately activate host-derived collagenases [matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs)] which are responsible for tissue destruction. Such lytic process cause loss of principal fibers of the periodontal ligament, apical migration of the gingival attachment, and allows apical extension of biofilm and subjacent inflammation along the root surface and further spreads the disease process [36]. It leads to loss of clinical attachment, pocket formation, sometimes gingival recession, and radiographically accompanied bone loss [37, 38]. Gingivitis is a completely reversible disease process and the essential first step to progression to periodontitis, suggests periodontitis can be prevented at its early stage, yet it remains one of the most common causes of tooth loss. Therefore, prevention and early detection of periodontal disease are essential to reduce the damages it implies to the oral and systemic health of the individual.
Alveolar bone loss is a characteristic sign of advanced periodontitis and ongoing bone loss is characteristic of the progression of periodontitis. The prevention of periodontal disease progression and bone loss is a key clinical challenge in periodontal therapy. Bone destruction is an eventual outcome of the host immune and inflammatory response and the dental plaque microbial challenge interplay. However, the underlying mechanism of disruption of the homeostatic balance of bone formation and resorption in favor of bone loss in these clinical situations remains to be understood.
In chronic periodontal disease, many bioactive microbial molecules from dental plaque incite an immunological response from the resident and immune cells present in gingiva and periodontal tissues [39]. This leads to an influx of multiple cytokines that mediate the biochemical pathways of inflammation, for example, PGE2, IL-1, TNF-alpha and RANK-L, etc., which are responsible for osteoclastogenesis, the primary bone-resorbing process. Thus, the pathologic inflammatory process disrupts the fine balance between protective and destructive processes and leads to initiation of osteoclastic activity [40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45]. “Osteoimmunology” is the science which is dealing with the understanding of the intricacies of this immune-mediated bone destruction [46, 47]. The cellular inflammatory infiltrates of periodontal immunity cells such as T cells, B cells, macrophages, and neutrophils are increased within the gingival connective tissue and a concurrent increase in the inflammatory mediators’ production is also evident [48, 49]. RANKL-mediated osteoclastogenesis is the prime mechanism underlying the inflammatory bone resorption in periodontal tissues [43, 50]. Activated T and B lymphocytes in inflamed periodontal tissues are the prime producers of RANKL- [43, 44, 51, 52]. An increase in osteoclast numbers on the alveolar bone crest has been observed in animal studies where antigen-specific lymphocytes are present and which can be suppressed by OPG [51, 53, 54].
Heterogenous populations of gingival fibroblasts are involved in dual actions in the inflammatory process. They are documented to have a protective role to suppress osteoclast formation as they produce OPG in response to LPS and IL-1; however, they may also augment chronic inflammatory processes through IL-6 and IFN production. The known periopathogens
Periodontitis is usually asymptomatic chronic inflammatory condition caused by bacterial aggregation which affects the crest of the alveolar process by reducing the normal height in a vertical and/or a horizontal manner; furthermore, bone loss might be presented in a localized or a generalized form [35]. Bone destruction can be detected using several radiographical techniques that evaluate the quantity of the remaining bone and subsequently estimating the amount of bone loss on a radiograph. Panoramic radiography has a little diagnostic value in the identification of periodontal disease. It is useful to obtain the overall generalized status of bone, rather than very fine or precise details. However, it can be used as a valuable adjunct to conventional diagnostic procedures. It can be recommended as a part of routine dental and periodontal assessment which captures the entire maxilla-mandibular radiographic image on a single film. However, a panoramic radiograph should not be used to replace other intraoral radiographic techniques. Semenoff et al. assessed variations between different dental radiographs for assessment of the interseptal bone crest loss on conventional and digitized periapical, bitewing, and panoramic radiographs. Comparison among them showed that a small reduction in height of the interseptal bone crest observed in panoramic radiographs should be carefully evaluated for overestimation. Moreover, several studies proposed that panoramic radiography might serve as a diagnostic aid in dental health evaluation programs [57].
Periodontal disease may affect the bone, altering its morphologic features in addition to reducing the vertical level of the bone height. An understanding of tissue mechanisms causing these alterations is important for effective diagnosis and effective treatment modalities.
I. Goldman and Cohen 1958 [58]: Classified infrabony defects based on the location and number of osseous walls remaining about the pocket as.
Three osseous walls:
Proximal, buccal, and lingual walls
Buccal, mesial, and distal walls
Lingual, mesial, and distal walls
These trough-like defects are mostly seen in the interdental areas. These may exist as either shallow and wide lesions or deep and narrow ones.
Two osseous walls:
Buccal and lingual walls (crater)
Buccal and proximal walls
Lingual and proximal walls
Two wall infrabony pockets may also occur in the interdental areas. With the buccal and lingual walls intact, but lost proximal wall, the lesion is termed as an intraosseous interproximal crater.
One osseous wall:
Proximal wall (hemiseptum)
Buccal wall
Lingual wall
Generally in these lesions, a proximal wall is present with both buccal and lingual walls’ resorbed.
Combination:
3 walls +2 walls
3 walls +2 walls +1 wall
3 walls +1 wall
2 walls +1 wall
They may be seen in a variety of combination forms and can be located on a single or multiple surface of a tooth (Figure 1).
II. Karn KW et al. 1983 [59]:
When the original topography of the alveolar process is altered by uniform loss of bone from around the teeth and the plan of bone remains perpendicular to the long axis of the tooth: Horizontal bone loss
Deformities created by nonuniform loss of bone are based on the following basic terms:
Crater: A crater is formed as a result of loss of alveolar bone and a portion of the contiguous supporting alveolar bone from only one surface of a tooth. They are identified by the mesial, distal, facial, or lingual tooth surface involved. Craters may be confluent if they occur on adjacent proximal surfaces, and termed as two-surface craters (affecting two tooth surfaces), named with two teeth involved.
Trench: When bone loss as mentioned for crater affects two or three confluent surfaces of the same tooth, it is known as a trench. Trenches can be similarly identified by the tooth surfaces involved (e.g., mesiofacial and mesio-lingual- distal). There are eight possible types of trenches (MF, ML, DF, DL, MFD, MLD, FML, and FDL).
Moat: When bone deformities involves all four surfaces of a tooth. Only the tooth number is necessary to identify it (Figure 2).
Ramp: When both alveolar bone and its supporting bone are lost to the same degree but that the margins of the deformity are at different levels, it is known as Ramp. These are named for the tooth surface aspect from which the greatest bone loss has occurred and the teeth involved.
Plane: It is similar to ramp but the margins of the deformity remain at the same level. It can be considered horizontal bone loss about one tooth or portion of a tooth (Figure 3).
Cratered ramp: If only the most coronal rim of the deformity were considered, it would represent a ramp. However, a crater is presenting apical to the entire extent of the ramp and hence the term “cratered ramp.” It is basically a crater with a portion of its facial and/or lingual wall missing. Cratered ramps are named for the teeth involved, the aspect of the alveolar process from which bone has been lost in the ramp portion and the tooth surfaces involved with the crater (or trench) (Figure 4).
Ramp into A Crater or Trench: Its salient characteristic is that it is a ramp in the coronal aspect, but distinctly a crater or trench in the apical portion (Figure 5).
Furcation invasions: It refers to the involvement of the furcation area of the teeth by any kind of bone loss patterns described above.
III. Prichard JF 1983 [60]: Classified the bone defects as follows:
Intrabony defect: It is surrounded by bony walls on three sides and the root of tooth forming the fourth wall. The walls may be at different levels coronally forming combinations with other defects, but only the “inside” of the defect, the part that is apical to all three bony walls, is “within” bone or intrabony. They are also found in the apical region where the base of the arch is usually wider than the crest.
Hemiseptum: Periodontitis may affect one tooth and destroy septal bone adjacent to that tooth without affecting the contiguous tooth, thus leaving a hemiseptum of interalveolar bone.
Inconsistent margins: Destruction of marginal bone usually creates what Schluger called an inconsistent margin and on the tooth root the marginal defect may expose a furca. Across the interproximal space, the inconsistent margin may be associated with a crater or a hemiseptum.
Crater: A crater is a wide-mouthed cup or bowl-shaped defect in the interalveolar bone, with bone destruction about equal on the roots of the contiguous teeth; the sidewalls of the crater are formed by marginal bone on the vestibular and lingual surfaces.
Furca involvement: In the maxilla, defects in the interalveolar bone may be complicated by exposure of a furca and there may be bone destruction in the interradicular area.
Showing wall defects.
Showing a moat type of bone defect.
Showing a plane type of bone defect.
Showing cratered ramp type of bone defect.
Showing ramp into a crater type of bone defect.
The earlier viewpoint regarding the progression of periodontal disease was that bacterial plaque accumulation universally leads to gingivitis, with subsequent progressive destruction of the supporting tissues of periodontium, with continuous irreversible attachment loss and bone resorption over time. Such conclusions have mostly come from observing cross-sectional populations over long periods of time. Later In order to determine the rate, pattern, and course of bone loss, researchers longitudinally studied subjects with repeated clinical and radiological measurements of patients suffering from periodontitis. Papapanou and coworkers [61] studied over 200 subjects with full-mouth radiographic surveys taken 10 years apart. The findings revealed that the mean annual rate of bone level resorption varied by age. Subjects between the ages of 25 and 65 years exhibited between 0.07 and 0.14 mm/year; whereas subjects over 70 years of age had a significantly higher rate of bone loss (0.28 mm). This particular investigation gave an insight into the trend of alveolar bone loss that it was continuous, slowly progressive, but with a great deal of the variable rate of progression among teeth and subjects. A similar 6-year long study in elderly Chinese subjects also revealed the individual range of bone loss varied dramatically from 0 to 0.53 mm/year [62]. Similar observations had been seen from the previous classically cited study by Löe and coworkers in Sri Lankan tea workers [63], which also reported huge differences in the rate of periodontal destruction among individuals.
Goodson and coworkers [64] challenged the prevalent belief system at that time that oral bone loss proceeded in a gradual fashion. In a series of studies, they examined the individual tooth site for progressive bone loss [65, 66, 67, 68]. Among 22 untreated subjects with existing chronic periodontitis and pockets due to bone loss, only 15 subjects witnessed significantly deeper pockets over a time span of 1 year, whereas the other tooth sites rather showed a gain in attachment and reduction in the existing pocket depths. This investigation provided the evidence that alveolar bone destruction associated with periodontal disease was a dynamic condition and exhibited exacerbations and remissions of the disease activity over a period of time. This led to the emergence of “burst model” for periodontal disease progression pattern which had irregular bouts of the disease activity as opposed to continuous slow bone destruction over time. These classic studies utilized conventional manual probing to measure clinical attachment-levels to identify specific sites exhibiting more than 2 mm of progressive attachment loss and merely 5% of tooth sites exhibited progressive attachment loss. Another study [69] revealed 29% of the tooth sites showing progression over a 6-month period in adult patients previously diagnosed with periodontitis, by utilizing a more sensitive electronic probe to measure attachment loss. Modeling of the data over time showed that 76% of tooth sites lost attachment consistent with linear patterns, 12% of tooth sites showed exacerbations and remissions, and 12% revealed bursts of disease activity. Since then, a lot of periodontal disease progression models have come into being based on diverse studies, for example, Socransky, Goodson 1984 [70]. (1) Continuous Models: Slow and continuous, constantly progressive rate of destruction throughout the duration of the disease. (2) Random or episodic burst model: Short bursts of destruction followed by periods of no destruction, random pattern of disease w.r.t. the tooth sites affected. (3) Asynchronous, multiple burst model: periodontal destruction occurs in bursts, around affected teeth during defined periods of life. The chronology of these bursts of disease is asynchronous for individual teeth or groups of teeth. The natural history and progression patterns of intraoral bone loss are yet not clearly and completely understood at this time [71].
Several studies’ results indicated d that the tooth loss associated with periodontitis was much higher than the number of persons who suffer such tooth loss [72, 73]. Although a large proportion of the population is susceptible to periodontitis, yet a very small segment of the population witnesses severe forms of periodontitis. Such observations about the differential disease susceptibility led to the emergence of the concept of risk factors impacting the periodontal disease expression [74]. A risk factor is defined as an environmental, behavioral, or biologic factor confirmed by temporal sequence, usually in longitudinal studies, which if present, directly increases the likelihood of a disease occurring, and if absent or removed, reduces the probability of the disease event. Risk factors are considered as a part of the causal chain or expose the host to the causal chain. The most salient feature of a risk factor is its temporal presence before the emergence of the disease itself. Risk factors can be both modifiable and non-modifiable. Once a disease occurs, the removal of a risk factor may not result in a cure [75, 76, 77]. Based on whether they can be modified or not and documentation of their strength of association with the consequent disease, these have been classified as different categories as risk factors per se as defined, risk determinants, risk indicators, and risk predictors. Risk indicators are probable or putative risk factors that have been identified in cross-sectional studies but not confirmed through longitudinal studies. Risk predictors/markers, although associated with increased risk for disease, however, have not been clearly known to cause the disease. Risk determinants or background factors are those which are seen to be associated with the disease, but are not modifiable.
The contemporary concept that the rate of progression, age at onset, and severity of periodontal disease in an individual are often determined by systemic risk factors in the host is a recent one, supported by epidemiologic investigations of periodontal disease and the role of an associated multitude of genetic, epigenetic and environmental risk factors.
Epidemiological studies have revealed a higher prevalence of the periodontal disease in elderly people compared to younger age-groups. The evidence demonstrates that both the extent and severity of periodontal disease increase in older individuals. Whether the increased prevalence and the severity in older persons are the outcomes of the lifetime accumulation of local factors such as dental plaque and microbial deposits or an inherent greater chance of susceptibility to periodontal deterioration exists in them remains largely debatable. Aging is associated with an increased incidence of periodontal disease [5, 6]. In a cross-sectional investigation of 1426 individuals aged 25–74 years, age was the most strongly associated risk factor with clinical attachment level with an odds ratio of 1.2 for persons aged 35–44 years and 9.01 for subjects aged 65–74. A stronger association between age and alveolar bone loss was seen in the same body with odds being 2.6 for people aged 35–44 years and 24.08 for age-group 67–74 years. Similar associations were reported in a large military population from the United States (1783 subjects) with an odds ratio of 5.03. Brown et al. reported contradictory findings and found age as not related to attachment loss in older individuals. Ismail et al. found that average attachment loss was greater in older individuals over a period of 28 years, though statistically not significant association, but significant in a multivariate model. Abdellatif and Bart [4] evaluated the relative significance of age and oral hygiene status as determinants of periodontitis and reported the rate of increase of periodontitis with increasing age across all age-groups was much higher for those with poor oral hygiene than those with excellent oral hygiene. They concluded that the effect of the age as a risk factor on periodontal disease progression is minimal when coupled with good oral hygiene [78]. Several studies show that the prevalence and severity of periodontal disease increase with age [79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86]. Papapanou et al. demonstrated that the mean annual rate of bone loss among the initially 70-year-old subjects was 0.28 mm compared to 0.07 on the 25-year-old individuals [86]. The increased severity of periodontal disease and bone loss with age was attributed to the time period, for how long the etiologic factors have been present in contact with the periodontal and is considered to reflect an individual’s cumulative risk contact history [87]. More studies carried out in some of the developed countries show changing patterns of periodontal disease progression. These studies have shown that advanced periodontal destruction and bone loss are seldom seen in individuals under the age of 40 [83, 88]. A similar finding has been observed even in the elderly population. Studies among the elderly have shown that advanced periodontal disease affects only a small fraction of this age-group [82, 88]. However, among those with advanced disease, further breakdown does occur with increasing age [89].
Thus, the increased level of periodontal destruction observed with aging is now considered as the result of cumulative destruction rather than a result of increased rates of destruction. Thus aging is not a risk factor per se [76, 79] but enhances the susceptibility of greater incidence, prevalence, extent, and severity of periodontal disease owing to cumulative damage caused by local and other contributing etiologic factors over a period of time.
Gender has been associated with the diverse occurrence of periodontal disease in population studies and generally, males are known to suffer greater from gum disease than females of comparable age. Males usually exhibit poorer oral hygiene compared to females also. However, when oral hygiene, socioeconomic status, age, is correlated with gender, males are found to be associated with more severe periodontal disease. Females are more hygiene and esthetics conscious and seek dental treatment more often when compared to males. In their life span, there are gingival inflammatory conditions consistent with the physiologic reproductive hormonal fluctuations at different stages, such as puberty, pregnancy, and menopause [78]. Most of the data regarding the effect of female gender on gingival and periodontal tissues come from the clinical manifestations of inflammatory responses during specific periods of reproductive life such as puberty, pregnancy, and menopause, periods of immense alterations of female sex hormones. More gingival inflammatory diseases have been documented in association with sex steroid hormone levels, even without any alteration in the oral hygiene level of the individual. There is recent mounting evidence suggesting alterations in the male periodontium commiserating with androgen level fluctuations, in addition to most studies conducted in premenstrual females [90]. There is largely inconclusive evidence for the role of gender as a discriminating factor, in prevalence, progression, and severity of periodontal disease [3].
Numerous studies reported higher periodontal destruction among males compared to the female population. A high prevalence of periodontal disease of 73.9% was found among Chinese pre-conception women. Self-reported frequent bleeding during tooth brushing and the increased rate of periodontal disease revealed statistically significant association [91, 92]. Shaizu et al. in a systematic review and meta-analyses estimated sex-related differences in the prevalence of periodontitis. They found that sex exhibited a significant association with prevalence, reflecting a 9% difference between males and females (37.4 vs. 28.1%, respectively), although the overall effect of sex in the meta-analysis was comparatively small (d = 0.19; 95% confidence interval, 0.16 and 0.22). They calculated the mean difference in prevalence between males and females to be the same regardless of the severity of disease threshold and after adjustment for other risk factors. They concluded that men appeared at greater risk for destructive periodontal disease than women; however, men do not appear at higher risk for more rapid periodontal destruction than women. Recently, Hass et al. [93] reported almost two-fold higher susceptibility to suffering from periodontitis but similar periodontal status in postmenopausal women not on hormone replacement therapy (HRT) as compared to premenopausal women [94]. The reasons for these sex differences are not clear but can be related to multiple aspects, for example, as a demographic, biological, genetic, or epigenetic [95, 96]. However, the relationship observed between sex and the disease is not apparent and is not considered as strong and consistent [89].
Sex steroid hormone receptors are not uniformly distributed but are found concentrated in certain hormone-sensitive tissues known as target tissues. Preferential accumulation and retention of hormones may occur depending upon the number of cytoplasmic and nuclear receptors that bind to particular hormones within the tissue. Many investigations have reported the preferential localization and retention of sex steroids, for example, estrogens [97, 98], androgens [98] and progestins [99] in periodontal tissues as well [90, 100]. The presence of specific hormonal receptors determines the response and regulates gene expression regarding the specific hormone ligand [101].
There are two kinds of estrogen receptors (a and b) which are genetically distinct forms and have differential distribution and functions [102]. Upon binding to a receptor, the activated receptor-steroid hormone complex binds with specific nuclear sites with a strong affinity. The intracytoplasmic or intranuclear activation step, followed by gene activation and transcription of mRNA finally guides the cellular protein synthesis. All sex steroids have effects on cell membranes and thus affect the second messenger systems in addition to regulation of gene transcription [103]. These activities affect neural transmission [104], modify the transport of calcium ions into cells [105], and stimulate the intracellular concentration of polyamines [106]. The periodontium of humans and animals is equipped with all the necessary enzymatic machinery to metabolize sex steroid hormones by common metabolic pathways and increased metabolic activity has been reported in inflamed periodontal tissues [3, 100, 101, 107, 108].
The majority of scientific investigations have not been able to identify any remarkable differences in periodontopathogenic bacteria between males and females [109, 110, 111]. Kumar et al. (2013) reviewed the effects of gonadal hormones on oral microbiota and documented only a transient alteration in the number and proportions of specific microorganisms during puberty or pregnancy [112]. So, there is not enough support that such minor and transitory relationships can bear a significant effect on susceptibility for periodontal breakdown [113, 114].
Similar to reproductive system vasculature, the blood vessels of gingiva is also responsive to sex steroid hormones. Many scientific investigations have correlated the increased flow of GCF, coinciding with the periods of fluctuation of sex steroid hormones. A comparison of the amount of gingival crevicular fluid in pregnant women versus postpartum controls has revealed approx. 54% elevation in pregnant females [115]. In a few animal studies, exogenous estrogen and/or progesterone administration has shown a significant increase in the amount of crevicular fluid irrespective of the inflammatory status of the status [116, 117, 118]. Both estrogen receptors a and b have effects on blood vascular functions [119].
Several mechanisms have been put forth to explain how the hormone may control the tonicity of the blood vessels by:
Inhibiting the calcium ions through the voltage-sensitive calcium channels [120].
Influencing the sympathetic transmitters [121, 122], or affecting alpha-adrenoceptor number or affinity [123, 124].
Increasing capillary permeability by stimulating the release of various mediators (e.g., adenosine, bradykinin, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, neurotensin, substance P, various prostaglandins, AMP, ADP, ATP, cAMP, guanosine, thymidine, histamine, cytidine, uridine, acetylcholine, isoproterenol, and glycosaminoglycans) [125]. Some evidence regarding nitric oxide-induced vasodilation, re-endothelialization angiogenesis have also been accounted for such alterations through activation of the estrogen receptor-a [119, 126]. However, progesterone has been known to oppose the actions of estrogen, presumably by reducing estrogen receptor numbers, rather than having any individual effects on vasculature [90, 125].
Resident Cells Estrogen is known to regulate periodontal ligament cell proliferation including fibroblasts, keratinocytes, and promote osteoblastic cell differentiation [127, 128].
Several investigators perceived that estrogens increased epithelial keratinization and stimulated proliferation [129, 130]. Trott noticed a reduction in keratinization of the marginal gingival epithelium in postmenopausal women when plasma estrogens levels were declining [131]. Androgens were perceived to stimulate an increase in epithelial cell number [132, 133].
The cellular effects of estrogen on collagen synthesis may largely be organ or site-specific [134]. In contrast to testosterone and progesterone, estrogens appear to be stimulatory in gingival fibroblasts derived from either feline or human drug enlarged gingiva [135]. Mariotti reported increased cell proliferation in fibroblasts derived from clinically healthy human gingiva of premenopausal women, with physiological concentrations of estradiol in vitro. They reported a characteristic estrogen-sensitive cellular subpopulation within the whole parent cell population of fibroblasts from premenopausal women [136]. Estradiol also induces a dose-dependent increase in interleukin-6, interleukin-8, and vascular endothelial growth factor in gingival fibroblasts [137]. In periodontal ligament cells, estrogens caused downregulation of lipopolysaccharide-induced cytokines while enhancing the production of osteoprotegerin [138, 139]. Natoli et al. demonstrated the expression of matrix proteins including collagen, elastin, and fibrillin-1, and their regulators as impacted by estrogen [140].
Sex steroids play a critical for skeletal development and for the maintenance of bone health throughout adult life [141]. The deficiency of estrogen increases osteoclast precursor cells. Estrogen increases osteoprotegerin, upregulates transforming growth factor-beta, an inhibitor of bone resorption that acts directly on osteoclastogenetic cells to decrease activity and increase apoptosis [142, 143, 144].
Specifically, increased T-cell production of tumor necrosis may be mediated by estrogen deficiency via a mechanism dependent upon regulatory cytokines, for example, in vivo bone destruction has been shown to involve interleukin-7, probably through its influence on T-cell development and homeostasis [141, 145].
Straub proposed that sex steroid hormones modulate the immune system via multiple ways: the immune stimulus and antigen-specific immune response; the target cells involved; the microenvironment of the tissue; hormone concentration; the variability of receptor isoforms; and the intracellular metabolism of hormones to either biologically active or inactive forms [146, 147, 148].
Infectious challenge studies have revealed that males produce a significantly higher level of the inflammatory cytokine IL-6 and the acute phase protein LPS-binding protein (LBP) than females, after in vivo endotoxin exposure male-derived macrophages produce higher levels of IL 1b and lower levels of prostaglandin E2 than similarly treated female derived cells on exposure to LPS [147]. Estrogen and progesterone have antagonizing effects on neutrophil chemotaxis [149, 150]. Estrogen has been shown to upregulate nitric oxide synthase expression in neutrophils ex-vivo, with nitric oxide production being the highest [151, 152].
(APCs) regulate Th cell differentiation and Th cell functioning under resting and activated conditions of the immune system in both the gender.IL6pathways regulates the homeostasis of the Th cell network in women, while this homeostasis is regulated by IFNγ pathways in men. Physiological homeostasis between Treg, Th17, and Th9 cells in the resting state in the transition to the activation phase and in the return to the resting state [157].
Contemporary studies about the immune system functions have documented that there exists a differential effect on the activities and regulation of T helper (Th) cytokine pathways, which is affected by aging, but not to the same extent in both genders. Different cytokines regulate the development of immune response in humans at different phases, based on gender, for example, early evolution by the positive inter regulation of IFNγ-IL10 and IL6-IL4 in males, and the negative interrelation of IL6-IL10 in females whereas, the late evolution by the positive inter regulation of IFNγ-IL4 in males and by IL6-IFNγ in females. Alterations in these gender-specific cytokines regulatory pathways during aging could adversely affect the success of the immune response [158].
A small preliminary investigation designed as a hospital based retrospective study of distribution patterns of alveolar bone loss on panoramic X-rays (OPG) of chronic periodontitis patients from North India was planned to draw an insight regarding the differential role of gender in context of periodontal disease. The aim of this study was to conduct an orthopantomograph radiographic screening in order to determine the overall distribution of alveolar bone loss, patterns (horizontal/vertical), and extent (coronal, middle, and apical thirds of the tooth root) in population by digital measurement analysis based on age and gender of the study participants.
Orthopantomographs (OPG X-rays) of a total of 64 patients who visited the Department of Periodontology in the month of February–March, 2020 were recruited from the records, in order to evaluate the interproximal alveolar bone loss and potential explanatory variables including age, gender and number of sites. Panoramic views were obtained using Planmeca 2002 CC Proline with Dimax 3, Panoramic digital X-ray unit (60 KV and 20 mA), 1.2 magnification ratios. The scanned version of OPG X-ray films were analyzed with the help of a publicly available free online image assessment tool viz. Image J. It is a Java-based image processing program developed at the National Institutes of Health and the Laboratory for Optical and Computational Instrumentation (LOCI, University of Wisconsin) [163, 164].
A digital method of estimating alveolar bone height on panoramic radiographs using 3X magnification was employed using constant anatomic landmarks as reference points - CEJ and alveolar crest as shown in Figures 6 and 7. Bone loss was considered when the distance from the CEJ to the alveolar crest exceeded 2 mm. Radiographic images was interpreted by a single calibrated examiner in order to reduce variability in image assessment and recording of data. Distorted, overlapped, unclear images particularly at the maxillary and mandibular anterior region or patients with orthodontic appliances were excluded for evaluation. Bone loss was estimated digitally by measuring the distance between CEJ and alveolar crest at the interproximal areas minus 2 mm (physiologic high of interseptal alveolar crest) at sites with reduced normal level of interseptal bone. The data so collected was put to appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics. Student, s T test and Mann Whitney test was used to intercept the differences in the mean of normal and skewed data parameters for different categories resp. Further, odds ratio was calculated to predict the future bone loss trends for patients with existing periodontal bone loss based on the no. of sites involved in bone loss.
Digital OPG X-ray image.
Method of estimating alveolar bone height on panoramic radiographs using image analysis software.
The collected OPG X-rays were categorized according to age and gender based on the accompanying clinical history recording and it was observed that there were OPGs from 30 females and 34 males and 11 subjects were below 30 years of age and 53 were above 30 years of age (Table 1).
No. of subjects | Category | Frequency | Percent | Valid percent | Cumulative percent |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
64 | Females | 30 | 46.9 | 46.9 | 46.9 |
Males | 34 | 53.1 | 53.1 | 100.0 | |
<=30 years | 11 | 17.2 | 17.2 | 17.2 | |
>30 years | 53 | 82.8 | 82.8 | 100.0 |
Distribution of study participants based on categories.
Table 2 demonstrates the mean age and the distribution of bone loss patterns in total study population based on different defined categories of the bone loss providing mean no. of bone loss sites, along with the observed range in each category. As the study population was chronic periodontitis patients, all radiographic images showed evidence of bone loss at one or more than one site. Overall, 17 sites of bone loss were observed as an average no. of bone loss sites in the total population. Similarly, a mean value of 9.69 and 7.50 was observed for horizontal and vertical kind of bone loss sites in all population. The no. of bone loss sites extended to coronal, middle third and apical third of the root surface revealed a mean score of 3.11, 11.45, and 2.52 per individual, respectively (Table 1).
S. No | Clinical Parameters | No. of subjects | Minimum | Maximum | Mean | Std. Deviation | Median | Inter quartile range |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Age | 64 | 17 | 84 | 41.67 | 11.982 | — | — |
2 | Total No. of sites | 64 | 4 | 29 | 17.03 | 5.768 | — | — |
3 | No. of Sites with horizontal bone Loss | 64 | 0 | 26 | 9.69 | 5.377 | 9.00 | 5–13.75 |
4 | No. of Sites with vertical bone loss | 64 | 0 | 22 | 7.50 | 5.507 | 7.00 | 3.25–10.00 |
5 | Coronal 3rd | 64 | 0 | 18 | 3.11 | 4.303 | 1.00 | 0.00–4.75 |
6 | Middle 3rd | 64 | 0 | 26 | 11.45 | 7.322 | 12.00 | 4.25–17.75 |
7 | Apical 3rd | 64 | 0 | 23 | 2.52 | 4.922 | 0.00 | 0.00–2.00 |
Distribution of study parameters in total study population based on different categories.
Tables 3 and 4 reveals comparative analysis of gender and age based distribution of total no. of bone loss sites in the total study population in current study. According to the gender, there was not observed any statistically significant difference in the total no. of bone loss sites, whereas there existed significant difference in the total no. of bone loss sites as per age.
Sex | Mean | N | Std. deviation | Std. error mean | Sig. (2-tailed) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | 17.03 | 34 | 5.060 | .868 | 0.998 |
F | 17.03 | 30 | 6.568 | 1.199 |
Comparative analysis of gender based distribution of total No. of bone loss sites in study population.
Age-groups | Mean | N | Std. deviation | Std. error mean | Sig. (2-tailed) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
<=30 years | 12.91 | 11 | 6.789 | 2.047 | 0.008** |
>30 years | 17.89 | 53 | 5.206 | 0.715 |
Comparative analysis of age-based distribution of total No. of bone loss sites in study population.
Tables 5 and 6 reveals genderwise distribution of no. of bone loss site based on categories and its comparatives analysis, respectively. None of the categories revealed statistically significant difference in the no. of bone loss sites between males and females. Similarly, Tables 7 and 8 reveals agewise distribution of no. of bone loss site based on categories and its comparatives analysis, respectively. Statistically significant difference in the no. of bone loss sites between males and females in the category of subjects with bone loss extending to middle third of the root, whereas none of the categories revealed statistically significant difference in the no. of bone loss sites between subjects above and below 30 years of age.
Category of patient | No. of patients | Median | Std. deviation | Interquartile range | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | No. of sites with horizontal bone loss | 34 | 9.00 | 5.132 | 5.00 | 13.25 |
No. of sites with vertical bone loss | 34 | 7.50 | 5.710 | 4.00 | 10.00 | |
Coronal 3rd | 34 | 1.00 | 4.351 | 0.00 | 5.00 | |
Middle 3rd | 34 | 12.00 | 6.881 | 6.25 | 16.00 | |
Apical 3rd | 34 | .00 | 4.931 | 0.00 | 2.25 | |
Sex | 34 | 1.00 | 0.000 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
F | No. of sites with horizontal bone loss | 30 | 9.50 | 5.637 | 5.00 | 14.00 |
No. of sites with vertical bone loss | 30 | 6.50 | 5.078 | 3.00 | 10.25 | |
Coronal 3rd | 30 | 1.00 | 4.321 | 0.00 | 4.50 | |
Middle 3rd | 30 | 11.67 | 7.906 | 4.00 | 18.25 | |
Apical 3rd | 30 | 2.43 | 4.994 | 0.00 | 2.50 |
Genderwise distribution of No. of bone loss site based on categories.
No. of sites with horizontal bone loss | No. of sites with vertical bone loss | Coronal 3rd | Middle 3rd | Apical 3rd | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mann-Whitney U | 453.000 | 458.000 | 503.000 | 488.000 | 495.000 |
Wilcoxon W | 1048.000 | 923.000 | 1098.000 | 1083.000 | 960.000 |
Z | −0.769 | −0.702 | −0.100 | −0.297 | −0.230 |
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.442 | 0.483 | 0.920 | 0.767 | 0.818 |
Grouping variable: Sex |
Comparative analysis of genderwise distribution of No. of bone loss site based on categories.
Category of patient | No. of patients | Median | Std. deviation | Interquartile range | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
<=30 years | No. of sites with horizontal bone loss | 11 | 5.00 | 4.657 | 4.00 | 13.00 |
No. of sites with vertical bone loss | 11 | 4.00 | 6.496 | 0.00 | 8.00 | |
Coronal 3rd | 11 | 5.00 | 3.828 | .00 | 7.00 | |
Middle 3rd | 11 | 4.00 | 8.201 | 0.00 | 14.00 | |
Apical 3rd | 11 | 0.00 | 4.771 | 0.00 | 2.00 | |
>30 years | No. of sites with horizontal bone loss | 53 | 10.00 | 5.375 | 6.00 | 14.00 |
No. of sites with vertical bone loss | 53 | 7.00 | 5.170 | 4.00 | 10.00 | |
Coronal 3rd | 53 | 0.00 | 4.383 | 0.00 | 4.00 | |
Middle 3rd | 53 | 13.00 | 6.739 | 8.00 | 18.00 | |
Apical 3rd | 53 | 0.00 | 4.984 | 0.00 | 3.50 |
Agewise distribution of No. of bone loss site based on categories.
No. of sites with horizontal bone loss | No. of sites with vertical bone loss | Coronal 3rd | Middle 3rd | Apical 3rd | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mann-Whitney U | 187.500 | 211.000 | 211.500 | 159.000 | 248.000 |
Wilcoxon W | 253.500 | 277.000 | 1642.500 | 225.000 | 314.000 |
Z | −1.856 | −1.437 | −1.514 | −2.362 | −0.881 |
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) | 0.064 | 0.151 | 0.130 | 0.018* | 0.378 |
a. Grouping variable: Age-groups |
Comparative analysis of agewise distribution of No. of bone loss site based on categories.
Further, a risk estimate analysis based on both age and gender as risk factors was carried out for prediction of future susceptibility of bone loss by calculating Odds ratio s, which revealed age of the individual as a significant risk determinant for the same (Tables 9 and 10).
Total sites 13 | >13 | Count | 26 | 0.559 | 47 | 0.559 |
% within Sex | 76.50% | 70.00% | 73.40% | |||
<=13 | Count | 8 | 9 | 17 | ||
% within Sex | 23.50% | 30.00% | 26.60% | |||
Total | Count | 34 | 30 | 64 | ||
% within Sex | 100.00% | 100.00% | 100.00% | |||
Risk Estimate | ||||||
Value | 95% Confidence interval | |||||
Lower | Upper | |||||
Odds ratio for total sites 13 (>13 / <=13) | 1.393 | 0.458 | 4.237 | |||
For cohort SEX = M | 1.176 | 0.668 | 2.07 | |||
For cohort SEX = F | 0.844 | 0.487 | 1.462 | |||
No. of valid cases | 64 |
Risk estimate of bone loss based on gender as a risk determinant.
Age-groups | Total | Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
>30 years | <=30 years | |||||
Total sites 13 | >13 | Count | 42 | 5 | 47 | 0.021* |
% within age-groups | 79.2% | 45.5% | 73.4% | |||
<=13 | Count | 11 | 6 | 17 | ||
% within age-groups | 20.8% | 54.5% | 26.6% | |||
Total | Count | 53 | 11 | 64 | ||
% within age-groups | 100.0% | 100.0% | 100.0% | |||
Value | 95% Confidence interval | |||||
Lower | Upper | |||||
Odds ratio for total sites 13 (>13/<=13) | 4.582 | 1.176 | 17.849 | |||
For cohort age-groups = > 30 years | 1.381 | 0.959 | 1.989 | |||
For cohort age-groups = <= 30 years | 0.301 | 0.106 | 0.861 | |||
No. of valid cases | 64 |
Risk estimate of bone loss based on age as a risk determinant.
Gender has been implicated as a risk factor for many human diseases particularly rooted in chronic diseases, where disease pathogenesis is impacted significantly by immune mechanisms of the body including periodontal disease [165, 166]. The findings from the present case study revealed the presence of bone loss in all study participants which is indicative of the fact that periodontal bone loss is the hallmark of chronic periodontal disease. On average, 17 sites with bone loss were found to be present across the study population. Horizontal bone loss was more prevalent than the vertical bone loss, which is again in sync with the existing knowledge regarding the periodontal bone loss patterns. Most patients suffered from moderate periodontitis in terms of the severity of bone loss as maximum sites in population revealed bone loss extending up to the middle third of the root surface. With the new 2017 World Workshop on the Classification of Periodontal and Peri-Implant Diseases and Condition as a reference, the majority study population falls under the Stage III periodontitis category based on the residual bone level criteria for categorization [167]. Further, there was observed no statistically significant difference in the total number of bone loss sites based on gender, but there existed a significant difference in the total number of bone loss sites as per age in the study population. A statistically significant difference in the number of bone loss sites between males and females in the category of subjects with bone loss extending to the middle third of the root are also revealed, but neither of the other two categories based on age nor all categories based on gender witnessed any statistically significant differences in terms of the number of bone loss sites varied according to the severity of the bone loss.
Previous literature has also reported that there was no significant sex difference. Gender is inherently a very complex risk factor that may play a role through diverse mechanisms as discussed in earlier sections. Premenopausal women exhibit the lower prevalence of periodontitis as compared with men and on contrary, after menopause, with a weakening estrogen signal, women may show equal or even greater periodontal destruction as compared to age matched men [168]. Wulandari et al. reported no difference in periodontal severity between perimenopausal and postmenopausal women, however, emphasized the role of the bacterial plaque regarding periodontal disease severity in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women in a cross-sectional investigation in 63 subjects, aged 45–59 years, in East Jakarta [169]. Paramashivaiah et al. examined 104 postmenopausal women, age-group ranging from 35 to 60 years, and reported radiographic alveolar bone loss correlated with clinical indicators including attachment loss. Most females had periodontitis and low serum 17-β estradiol and calcium levels [170]. Lee et al. indicated an association between hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and periodontal disease, after adjusting for various potential confounders for periodontal diseases. The authors showed that the HRT+ group was less likely to develop periodontal diseases than the HRT- group upon analysis of 45 and 74 years old menopausal women [171]. Another study by Pizzo et al. in 91 Italian menopausal women (50 ~ 62 years) reported similar periodontal pocket depths between the group who underwent HRT and who did not, but the group without HRT had a higher level of dental plaque [172]. López-Marcos et al. [173] studied in 210 Spanish menopausal women aged 40–58 years that the estrogen patch group showed a reduction in periodontal pocket depth. People with a longer menopausal period and lower bone mass more evidently witnessed the effects of esterogen deficiency [174, 175]. The authors recommend that the studies aimed at a clear delineation of the role of gender as a risk factor should rather be more meticulously designed in terms of studying the role of gender in differential age-groups, larger study samples, and well-designed investigations as females undergo specific periods of hormonal fluctuations according to the stage of their reproductive life cycle.
A study was conducted by Wouters et al. in 1989 in 733 randomly selected dentate individuals aged 20 years and above using periapical radiographs with interproximal intrabony periodontal defect depth and width of at least 5 and 10 mm, respectively, to determine the relationship between the prevalence of interproximal periodontal intrabony defect and age. It was reported that the prevalence increased with age and was higher in men than in women [168]. However, the significantly lower prevalence of interproximal periodontal intrabony defect in women than in men does not support the studies of Nielsen et al. [176], in which no significant sex differences were reported [177]. The present study findings still need to compare with caution as it differed in the X-ray images taken as reference was OPGs of the study subjects. So the differences in study settings, design and tools may also be responsible for the observed heterogeneity in study results.
A higher incidence of bone loss in adult patients (24–30 years old) is a fact, that periodontitis is an age dependent disease the incidence and severity of bone loss and attachment loss increase with age (16) as a result of longer exposure to local factors as age grows older. The present study revealed a nonsignificantly higher prevalence of bone loss among females than males, and the authors attributed these findings to a higher prevalence of aggressive periodontitis among females rather than males [178].
Khateeb et al. carried out an investigation in a total of 190 female patients (mean age, 22.4 ± 2.46 years) and Patients’ age was found to be a good predictor for alveolar bone loss and number of periapical lesions (P ≤ 0.05) [179]. Another study from China revealed that 40–59-year-old patients with chronic periodontitis had severe bone loss. And a lesser degree of alveolar bone loss was seen in males than females [179]. Menopause in females and smoking in both genders may have affected the level of bone loss. Male smokers experienced a greater degree of bone loss (41.67 ± 5.76%) than male non-smokers (32.95 ± 4.31%). A 42.23 ± 6.34% bone loss was found in menopausal females versus 31.35 ± 3.62% in non-menopausal females [180].
Bansal M et al. (2015) [181], in a cross-sectional prevalence study among hospital-based Indian population, assessed the prevalence of the periodontal disease. They stated that healthy periodontium was found in 19 (3.9%) subjects with the highest percentage in the 15–19 years age-groups and after 44 years no person had healthy teeth. Also, advanced stages were more prevalent in older age-groups, deep pockets occurring in 87 (17.90%) subjects that increased as the age advanced up to 45–54. According to them, males were more affected with moderate and severe periodontitis as compared to females. Bokhari et al. (2015) [28], reported that subjects aged 40 years and above were four times more likely to have periodontitis using Community Periodontal Index (CPI) methods. Marya, CM, et al. (2020) [182], in a cross sectional study assessed if there are any gender differences in oral health-related quality of life (OHRQoL) among the elderly population of Haryana. Genderwise, no significant association was found with different parameters of periodontitis. They found a significant association of OHRQoL with the main factor causing periodontal problems, that is, mobile teeth and no comparable difference was observed in the OHRQoL among males and females. They suggested one needs to target the geriatric population as a whole for planning and implementing public oral health strategies.
Despite the extensive evidence from the recent past has recognized gender as an important factor in the regulation of immune responses, sex differences are still very much understudied and poorly understood in scientific research with females being under-represented in clinical disease trials. Specific exploration of sex-specific biomarkers should be considered for both the genders. Studies of multifactorial diseases demonstrate differential susceptibilities between genders encounter confounding variables, such as lifestyle, socioeconomic status, environmental exposures, and genetic polymorphisms. Hence, novel experimental models with gender differences shall be developed to understand disease pathogenesis based on gender [183, 184].
Effie Ioannidou in 2017 developed the methodological and analytical framework with the recognition of sex/gender as important determinants of disease pathogenesis. The authors aimed to present relevant sex biologic evidence to understand the plausibility of the epidemiologic data. In periodontitis pathogenesis, sex dimorphism has been implicated in the disease etiology. With the clear distinction between sex and gender, gender oral health disparities have been explained by socioeconomic factors, cultural attitudes as well as access to preventive and regular care. Economic inequality and hardship for women have resulted in limited access to oral care in some parts of the world. As a result, gender emerged as a complex socioeconomic and behavioral factor influencing oral health outcomes [185].
With the expanding knowledge regarding gender as a risk factor, we must intend to perform specific gender-based periodontal research to find better insight into the mechanisms of disease pathogenesis and mediators, so that specific gender-based tools for periodontal diagnosis, risk assessment, predictive medicine, and disease management strategies can be developed to provide optimized periodontal health care solutions to our patients.
Our current knowledge and understanding of the specific role of gender in the context of periodontal health status remain limited and need further elucidation. The combined effect of sex-specific genetic architecture and the circulating levels of sex steroid hormones may account for variation in risk for chronic periodontitis, with men exhibiting greater susceptibility than women. The preliminary case study presented here revealed age as a significantly associated factor, with the total number of bone loss sites and with the bone loss site extended up to a middle third of tooth root (moderate to severe periodontitis cases), but could not delineate gender, the primary factor being explored as a clear-cut risk factor, owing to the lack of statistical strength and study limitations as the small-sized sample, retrospective study design. This shall not obviate the need to explore this factor as a cause of concern as contemporary models of periodontal pathogenesis; differences in susceptibility, and progression of destructive periodontal disease are attributed to the individual and collective biologic and modifiable risk factors. With this framework of information, gender as a risk factor for periodontal disease needs to decipher in detail its underlying mechanisms by conducting longitudinal well-controlled, designed, and characterized studies. Such investigations to further explore the role of gender in the prevalence, progression, and severity of chronic periodontal disease are warranted in the future so that novel strategies for risk assessment, disease identification, and individualized therapeutic approaches can be developed for optimized patient care based on gender.
The Internet has irrevocably changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing. Consequently, we find it necessary to indicate, unambiguously, our definition of what we consider to be a published scientific work.
",metaTitle:"Prior Publication Policy",metaDescription:"Prior Publication Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/prior-publication-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\\n\\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\\n\\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\\n\\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\\n\\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\\n\\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\\n\\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\\n\\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
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\\n\\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\\n\\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\\n\\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\\n\\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\\n\\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\\n\\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\\n\\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\\n\\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\\n\\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\\n\\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\\n\\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\n\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\n\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\n\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\n\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\n\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\n\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\n\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\n\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\n\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\n\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\n\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\n\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\n\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\n\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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It is an effective strategy in discovering or developing drug molecules with new pharmacological/therapeutic indications. In recent years, many pharmaceutical companies are developing new drugs with the discovery of novel biological targets by applying the drug repositioning strategy in drug discovery and development program. This strategy is highly efficient, time saving, low-cost and minimum risk of failure. It maximizes the therapeutic value of a drug and consequently increases the success rate. Thus, drug repositioning is an effective alternative approach to traditional drug discovery process. Finding new molecular entities (NME) by traditional or de novo approach of drug discovery is a lengthy, time consuming and expensive venture. Drug repositioning utilizes the combined efforts of activity-based or experimental and in silico-based or computational approaches to develop/identify the new uses of drug molecules on a rational basis. It is, therefore, believed to be an emerging strategy where existing medicines, having already been tested safe in humans, are redirected based on a valid target molecule to combat particularly, rare, difficult-to-treat diseases and neglected diseases.",book:{id:"9086",slug:"drug-repurposing-hypothesis-molecular-aspects-and-therapeutic-applications",title:"Drug Repurposing",fullTitle:"Drug Repurposing - Hypothesis, Molecular Aspects and Therapeutic Applications"},signatures:"Mithun Rudrapal, Shubham J. Khairnar and Anil G. 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It is an effective strategy in discovering or developing drug molecules with new pharmacological/therapeutic indications. In recent years, many pharmaceutical companies are developing new drugs with the discovery of novel biological targets by applying the drug repositioning strategy in drug discovery and development program. This strategy is highly efficient, time saving, low-cost and minimum risk of failure. It maximizes the therapeutic value of a drug and consequently increases the success rate. Thus, drug repositioning is an effective alternative approach to traditional drug discovery process. Finding new molecular entities (NME) by traditional or de novo approach of drug discovery is a lengthy, time consuming and expensive venture. Drug repositioning utilizes the combined efforts of activity-based or experimental and in silico-based or computational approaches to develop/identify the new uses of drug molecules on a rational basis. It is, therefore, believed to be an emerging strategy where existing medicines, having already been tested safe in humans, are redirected based on a valid target molecule to combat particularly, rare, difficult-to-treat diseases and neglected diseases.",book:{id:"9086",slug:"drug-repurposing-hypothesis-molecular-aspects-and-therapeutic-applications",title:"Drug Repurposing",fullTitle:"Drug Repurposing - Hypothesis, Molecular Aspects and Therapeutic Applications"},signatures:"Mithun Rudrapal, Shubham J. Khairnar and Anil G. Jadhav",authors:[{id:"314279",title:"Dr.",name:"Mithun",middleName:null,surname:"Rudrapal",slug:"mithun-rudrapal",fullName:"Mithun Rudrapal"}]},{id:"51569",title:"Prothrombin Complex Concentrate, a General Antidote for Oral Anticoagulation",slug:"prothrombin-complex-concentrate-a-general-antidote-for-oral-anticoagulation",totalDownloads:3082,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) is used for the rapid reversal of vitamin K antagonist (VKA) anticoagulation. PCC is also applicable in situations requiring rapid reversal of anticoagulation by non-vitamin K antagonist direct thrombin and factor Xa inhibitor oral anticoagulants (NOACs), thereby making PCC a general antidote for oral anticoagulation. In this chapter, the composition of different PCC brands is reviewed and a negative effect of heparin supplement in some products is recognized. Mode of action of anticoagulation reversal by PCC is explained. Dosage and clinical efficacy, two closely related issues, are discussed and based on reviewed data recommendations are given that may prohibit too low PCC dosing, especially in NOAC anticoagulation. Use of unsuitable laboratory assays has raised needless controversy as to the applicability of PCC to reverse anticoagulation by NOACs, in particular dabigatran. In this chapter, various laboratory assays are evaluated for their applicability in monitoring reversal of anticoagulation.",book:{id:"5173",slug:"anticoagulation-therapy",title:"Anticoagulation Therapy",fullTitle:"Anticoagulation Therapy"},signatures:"Herm Jan M. Brinkman",authors:[{id:"180438",title:"Dr.",name:"Herm Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Brinkman",slug:"herm-jan-brinkman",fullName:"Herm Jan Brinkman"}]},{id:"53881",title:"A Review of Intravenous Lidocaine Infusion Therapy for Paediatric Acute and Chronic Pain Management",slug:"a-review-of-intravenous-lidocaine-infusion-therapy-for-paediatric-acute-and-chronic-pain-management",totalDownloads:3040,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Pediatric acute and chronic pain experiences involve the interaction of physiological, psychological, behavioural, developmental, pharmacological and situational factors. In the acute perioperative pain setting preventative multimodal analgesia is required to provide comfort and minimise the potential for “wind-up” and central sensitisation. When pain is recurrent, ongoing or chronic some children embark on a downward spiral of decreased physical, psychological and social functioning. The multidisciplinary team management approach is a well-established standard of care for children with complex chronic pain. Intravenous lidocaine has peripheral and central mediated analgesic, anti-inflammatory and anti-hyperalgesic properties. Intravenous lidocaine infusion therapy (IVLT) has been shown to be effective in the management of acute and chronic pain in adults. This chapter will present the rational for IVLT in pediatric pain management with emphasis on preventative multimodal therapy in acute pain and the multidisciplinary treatment approach in chronic pain. Large multi-centre randomised controlled trials are required to provide the evidence-base to confirm that IVLT is indeed an effective and safe treatment option in acute preventative multimodal analgesia and as an adjunct in the multidisciplinary care of chronic pain in the pediatric population.",book:{id:"5525",slug:"pain-relief-from-analgesics-to-alternative-therapies",title:"Pain Relief",fullTitle:"Pain Relief - From Analgesics to Alternative Therapies"},signatures:"Gillian R. 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Metformin is contraindicated in severe chronic diseases (hepatic, renal, and cardiac failure) or acute complications of diabetes (ketoacidosis and hyperosmolar state). Metformin is considered by all international guidelines the first-line treatment in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) together with medical, nutritional therapy. It is one of the most prescribed molecules worldwide. Furthermore, metformin can also be prescribed for other diseases like polycystic ovary syndrome or prediabetes (impaired glucose tolerance/fasting hyperglycemia). Recent studies have shown positive results concerning the use of metformin for cardiovascular or neuroprotective effects; also, several scientific papers are suggesting an antitumor or antiaging effect of metformin. Having such an excellent efficiency in practice, thus predicting its sustainability on the pharmaceutical market, research is directed toward characterizing metformin action on bacteria genera in the gut. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. 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He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7656",title:"Fuzzy Logic",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7656.jpg",slug:"fuzzy-logic",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",hash:"54f092d4ffe0abf5e4172a80025019bc",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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