Four major types of clay minerals relevant to hydraulic fracturing.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Medically, death is defined as the irreversible cessation of all vital functions especially as indicated by permanent stoppage of the heart, respiration, and brain activity.
The focus on end-of-life ethical dilemmas are not mainly centered on the moment of death but rather in the process of death, the interval of time that encompasses the lifetime from the diagnosis of a disease that will irreversibly end, in a relatively short period of time, in the death of the person.
To understand the ethical problems of end of life, the discussion about the topic of this chapter reviewed the precepts of a medical procedure and the bioethical principles that professionals should refer to in case of confusion or conflict.
Although, currently very much in vogue, the end-of-life ethical dilemmas can be traced back to ancient Greece and Rome. Physicians and medical procedures about the end-of-life were a theme of opinion and cogitation and subjected to a code of conduct.
In those ancient civilizations, the apprehension which was initially centered on the metaphysics of moment of death shifted progressively to the quality and consequence of how one lived his life, in other words, there ought to be a nexus between the precepts that guided an individual life and his death.
In the western world, throughout the ages, the ethics of end-of-life was connected to the ideas the societies had about the philosophy of life.
With the evolution of science and technology the epicenter of the debate shifted from philosophy to the consequences of the inventions of technoscience. The innovations of devices that can replace the organs in failure, thus prolonging (dysthanasia) or shortening (euthanasia) of death process and medical procedures like withdrawing and withholding life-sustaining treatments, as well as the mechanisms and consequences of new and potent drugs, became the center of the controversy.
The arguments have considered the role of various sectors of the societies, from scientific to philosophical, including the religious perspectives and the best ways to overcome or at least mitigate the suffering that result from the dialectics of technoscience – the living will or health advanced directives.
The concluding remark of this manuscript is a tentative to explain the reason for the existence of dilemmas.
A medical procedure is not, merely, an interaction between the physician and the patient. In this intercommunication, there is also a third party involved, who may or may not be physically involved. On the other side, the outcome of this talk is also dependent on many interrelated vectors, where each one has an important and specific role [1].
For a better perception of the involved elements and circumstances let us consider them individually:
The importance of the third party in this relation is depicted with some examples: The third element can be the family, a financing partner or even the public opinion. Any one of them can influence the medical procedure.
It is well acknowledged the influence of the family in the principle of autonomy when the patient has no cognitive capacity and has no living will.
Other examples are the restrictions that the insurances companies impose on financial limits of a medical procedures. So, the outcome of a medical act, on ethical grounds, is dependent on the limits of the insurance card. Naturally, in most countries with a national health service, at least partially, this is not a major problem.
The fallout of the interaction between the physician and the patient depends also on cognitive, emotional, and cultural capacities, the communication skill, and the medical knowledge of the physician.
Another important vector to be considered in the outcome of the interaction between the patient and the physician is the venue, since the quality and approach of the medical procedure is different if it takes place at home, in a hospital or by the roadside. It is accepted, without any hesitation, that devices required in life sustaining treatments are not disposable at home or in a roadside procedure. Even in a hospital, the equipment’s in a university or a central hospital are different and consequently the expected ethical principles will have to take into consideration the venue where the procedure takes place.
Other relevant vector that ought to be taken in consideration is, if the medical procedure is an urgency, emergency or just a routine medical procedure.
In the context of time, if the medical procedure is an emergency, no one expects the physician to ask and wait for informed consent. In these situations, the principle of autonomy, which clearly is determinant is a normal medical procedure, is considered a presumed consent.
And finally, a medical procedure is not a single act but a summing of diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis.
The diagnosis does not seem to significantly influence the topic in question.
However, the treatment and the prognosis are of utmost importance.
In a medical procedure, the prognosis is a fundamental and decisive component in treatment verdict. The treatment is expected to be proportional to the expected prognosis. In intensive medicine, a good example is the shifting from cure to care when the prognosis is unfavorable. The maintenance of treatment procedures or treatment stubbornness, despite the irreversibility of clinical situation leads to a setting of dysthanasia.
There are various factors that can impair and influence the prognostication, and all of them should be taught about while considering a patient’s ultimate prognosis.
In general terms, there are other factors that should be taken in consideration in any medical intervention, namely:
The importance of the cultural background in some bioethical principles: the principle of autonomy is determinant in Anglo-Saxon countries, while in Latin countries of South Europe, the principle of Beneficence has a clear ascendency.
The communications skills are also, progressively, becoming more important in a globalized world, since in more developed countries, more and more migrants, living within their borders, speak different languages or, at least, are not fluent enough in the local language to express their symptoms.
The end-of-life has been a matter of reflection since the dawn of humanity. In the primitive settlements of mankind, the concerns were regarding the moment of death. As the process of civilization advanced to a high state of culture, in the Western world, since the time of Greco-Roman antiquity, the debate was mainly centered on the philosopher’s concept of life.
The quality of life was valued much more than the extension of life at the cost of suffering; from this perspective, treatment stubbornness was not accepted,
The knowledge of the physicians was not based on science but rather on empirical experience of its practitioners, and, as such he was considered as a craftsman and not a specially designed technician. As a result, the quality of life had a primacy over the stretching of life with suffering.
In this regard, Plato’s opinion is clear when he states that in terminal stages “
Thus, the ethical concerns with death can be traced somewhere between the fourth and fifth century BC.
In the Medieval Europe, with the Christianization of the Roman empire, the sanctity turned to be the
In Renaissance and Illuminism, the new knowledge in Medicine led the great Master of Philosophy like Thomas Moore and Francis Bacon to introduce the discussion of euthanasia in cases where medical science had nothing more to offer. In Modern times, from the mid-twentieth century to the present day, the technological advances in sustaining the organ failures and pharmacological improvements and discovery of new drugs that can back up the biochemistry of the human body made exceptional advances in overcoming the organ failure.
On the other side, state-of-the art surgery techniques, and the control of tissue rejection through new immunological drugs turned the organ transplant into a reality: the scenario that was now perfect for the conquest of senescence, renewed the debates in ethical dilemmas such as dysthanasia (from Greek making death difficult) wherein, the withholding and withdrawing life-sustaining treatments are the daily bread of intensive care units. Euthanasia, legalized in few countries is a subject of discussion, while ethical concerns about topics like drugs double effects and induced coma also deserve a reflection.
The discussion about the ethical dilemmas about end of life care in terminal diseases have been a subject of concern in all the civilizations, although written documents about the entanglement of the opinion makers, the philosophers and thinkers of the societies, are more easily traced in Western civilizations. Later, with the involvement of the church, the priests had a say regarding the end-of-life and finally with the evolution of medical knowledge the clinicians, had progressively a scientific ascendant regarding the dilemmas about treating terminal illness.
The delaying of the process of death with lengthening of the suffering is, now-a-days at the center of end-of-life ethical debates: the non-acceptance of suffering which can windup with the treatment limitation, at the request of the patient or as a decision of medical team, or as a request of euthanasia, also known as a merciful death, at the request of patient.
In the democratic societies, the decision itself has been subject of discussion. Who should be responsible for decision? The epistemic authority of those who have the knowledge. Or the moral authority of the patient, the family, the surrogate, or a judge in the name of state?
In a nearby future this is a debate that will continue to focus the attention of the modern societies.
As described previously, in a medical procedure, the treatment is a consequence of diagnosis and should also take into consideration the expected prognosis. Moreover, the treatment strategy is not linear, that is, it can suffer abrupt changes mainly in intensive medicine where life sustaining treatments are involved: they may shift from maintenance of vital functions to palliative care.
As far as life sustaining treatments are concerned, there is a study in the USA, that revealed that in a five years interval of time, deaths in two intensive care units in a period of one year that resulted after withholding or withdrawing these treatments increased, in the same period, from 51 to 90% [3].
A French study involving 43 ICU’s revealed that 52% of patients died after they had their treatment withdrawn or withheld [4].
Despite various meetings to standardize the criteria regarding the withdrawal or withholding of end-of-life treatments, cultural and religious barriers have made it difficult to have a uniform code of conduct. However, there is a consensus regarding the guidelines relevant to general principles of treatment renouncement, which can be summarized as: [5].
The treatment renouncement should result when the treatments have no longer any medical indication or do not offer any well-being to the patient
The withholding of future treatment is morally and legally equivalent to the withdrawal of treatment
A mindset, whose only aim is to hasten death, is morally and legally condemnable.
Any treatment can be withdrawn or withheld
The withdrawal or withholding of life sustaining treatments is a medical procedure
In case of any deterrence to withhold life sustaining treatment, the withdrawal of the treatment already prescribed with the same objective should be reconsidered.
The decision of treatment renouncement deserves some reflections and considerations.
These decisions are seldom an urgent decision and, as such, it should not be a hasty and sudden verdict. As far as possible, it should be a consequence of a broad consensus. Any doubt, from any staff member, should be respected and the reason for the apprehension analyzed in minutia.
Ethically, the withdrawal and withholding of treatment are identical attitudes, although, for some clinicians, it is more admissible to withhold than to withdraw treatment.
The treatment renouncement is considered, by some, as passive euthanasia. It is extremely important to realize that the intent of treatment renouncement is to withdraw or withhold an undesired treatment that can lead to the death of the patient, but not to induce the death of the patient. The distinction between dysthanasia and euthanasia is that in the latter there is an intention to administer a drug or a poison with the sole purpose to hasten or cause death.
On ethical reasoning, in intentions and acts, there is a clear divergence between treatment renouncement and an attitude whose main and sole purpose is to cause death.
The treatment renouncement decision has been a seat of disagreeing between the Anglo- Saxon and Central and Southern European countries.
For the former countries (particularly the United States) the decisions, after the due explanations, rests entirely on the patient, while in European countries, particularly those in Southern Europe, the physicians are accountable for the decision. In ethical rationale, so far as the authorship of decision is concerned there is a confrontation between the two principles: autonomy from the Anglo-Saxon and beneficence from the Mediterranean Europe side.
In my opinion, considering that the treatment renouncement is a medical procedure, the responsibility should be on the physician, after all the necessary information is provided to the family.
Is it morally acceptable, that the epistemic knowledge being on the physician side, the decision should rest on the patient or family part? Moreover, when any one of them (patient or family) are extremely fragile, weak and exhausted?
It is be retained and emphasized that treatment limitation is not synonymous with ceasing of any form of treatment. It is a shift from cure to care as the primary goal of providing health services.
In medicine, end-of-life care is made up of two constituents: the process of death and the moment of death.
The process of death is a stage wherein an individual has been diagnosed with an infirmity, that by the existing biomarkers death will be a natural outcome in a rather short interval of time.
The physicians, with the technological equipment’s and procedures at their disposition, can lengthen or hasten the process of death.
On the other hand, it is impossible to portray the moment of death. It is a moment of irreversibility that belongs to the sphere of the unknown.
In this context, the word dysthanasia that emanates from Greek –
Although conceptually slightly different, treatment stubbornness, therapeutic doggedness, or medical futility have been used as synonymous. In dysthanasia, the attention is focused on the process of death, while in its synonymous, the point of convergence on persistency of cure-oriented treatment decisions, whose consequence may drag out the process of death.
In a context of a medical act, dysthanasia should be perceived as an approach where there is an excessive treatment in relation to the clinical condition and its expected outcome. From the perspective of a medical procedure and in the light of deontological precepts, treatment should consider the expected prognosis, as highlighted previously.
A basic rationale for dysthanasia can be a treatment that presents no beneficial odd for the patient.
For some time, dysthanasia was considered, in a broadest sense, futile care that does not benefits the patient. However, the term futile raised some polemic, since, futile, refers to anything that is unable or ineffective of bringing forth any useful result. Nonetheless, there are treatments that can cause some effect on patients’ biological parameters without any beneficial good. This evidence highlights the argument that the effects and the benefits are different facts. The prolongation of life without any cognitive capacity and confined to an intensive care bed cannot, in my opinion, be considered the aim of Medicine. I am fully aware that this is a value judgment, and, as such, it is intrinsically difficult to reach a consensus.
The cause effect correlation, to be unequivocal, should be clearly defined and reproducible. The dispute around treatment stubbornness has been focused around difficulty in deciding what should be considered a medical futility and who should be responsible for this decision.
Regarding the definition, there is a distinction between quantitative and qualitative futility. The previous (quantitative) futility is based on statistical premises – a treatment is futile when the last 100 cases of a certain medical treatment for a distinct medical situation have been unsuccessful. On the other side, qualitative futility is related to a treatment that maintains a patient unconscious or does not withdraw his total dependency in relation to intensive care measures.
Summarizing, should the definition be mathematical or clinical?
Mathematics is a science of certainties while medicine (clinical) is a science of probabilities.
Can there be a minimum common denominator among this epistemic ambivalence?
Another worrisome dispute is related to the decision-making: who should have the ultimate say about the futility of a treatment: someone who has the scientific knowledge about the treatment and its effect (epistemic authority) or one, or his surrogate, who is the subject of treatment (moral authority)?
In this dispute I sign up the point of view of Theodore Brown. In his statement:
“
From all the consideration, previously exposed, it seems obvious that an act of dysthanasia or treatment stubbornness can be considered as an act of medical malpractice. How can this demeanor by the physicians be explained?
In my opinion, a feasible and rational justification for dysthanasia can be met, on one side, at the light of philosophical underpinnings and, on the other side, as a safeguard against a complaint of substandard medical practice [7].
Philosophically, dysthanasia can be explained, among others, by the phenomenology of knowledge. Edgar Morin, the French sociologist, noted that “
On the other side, the good or bad application of technique can be understood by the dialectic. Ethically, every man of science, in this case the physicians, serves two gods: the first god is that of ethics of knowledge – everything should be sacrificed to safe the thirstiness for knowledge. The second god is that of civic and human ethics. In dysthanasia prevails the first one.
Axiology, the philosophical study of value, can also be of relevance in explaining the treatment stubbornness. Since the Hippocratic oath, life is considered as a supreme value. By opposition, death has no value or is a non-value. If this rationale is righteous and undistorted, then treatment stubbornness can be justified.
Finally, a foundation for treatment stubbornness can be explained at the light of hope and escape. For Ernst Bloch, the German philosopher, hope is the most human of all emotions and the denial of anguish [9].
The physicians, particularly those dealing with severe cases, know from their experience, that there is, however small, a probability that the process of death may not be irreversible. Dysthanasia can find an underlying rationale in this hope or in other existential attitudes like escape or absurd rebellion.
As pointed out previously, an argument for treatment stubbornness can rest in a reaction to an accusation of medical malpractice − defensive medicine. Currently, doctors are afraid of malpractice lawsuits; a physician response, entirely or to a certain extent, is based on medical procedures to evade any blame rather than to help the patient in his illness.
Defensive medicine can be positive or negative. In the first setting unnecessary procedures are carried out by the doctors to safeguard himself against any complaint. In the second case, he abstains, from procedures and patients, to protect himself from the same recrimination.
In brief, in defensive medicine, the procedures result not from his innate values and beliefs, but from self-protection against accusation of misconduct in the advent of a detrimental outcome [7].
Perhaps, the most disputed end-of-life dilemma in the Western contemporary societies, is around euthanasia. However, its debate can be traced to the Renaissance and Age of Enlightenment, as mentioned earlier.
There are multifold descriptions of Euthanasia. In a medical understanding, it is an intentional act to end a life, to relief pain and suffering. The death is brought about by a doctor, family member or friend through a lethal injection and is at the request of the patient who suffers an incurable disease manifested through unrelievable psychic or physical pain.
The word comes Greek “eu” (goodly or well) and “Thanatos” (death). It has referred as “assisted death” or “friendly death”.
In this definition, in my opinion, the most inclusive, there are two premises – unrelievable pain and incurable disease − that need an added analysis and clarification.
Besides dissecting this definition, many a times the expression passive euthanasia is used to describe withholding of some medical procedures or treatments, which was already addressed in a previous section (Withdrawing and withholding life-sustaining treatments) that will need further consideration.
Unrelievable pain.
The state-of-the art in pharmacology has presented the medical science with drugs that can control entirely the pain. The main obstacle with the use of one or more pain killers lies with its side effects when there is a need to increase progressively the dose or upgrade the drugs. The most frightening side effect is the respiratory arrest.
In short, the drug outcome can result in a double effect. Reliving the pain but with a significant odd of causing death. Is it morally acceptable?
Besides the relief of pain, the terminal sedation has also been questioned.
This reflection and discussion will be done in next section.
Incurable diseases.
In Medicine, in a classic definition “incurable” implies an illness without cure that will lead, in a short span of time, to death. In natural history, some diseases, when untreated, end up with the failure of the organ and, ultimately, in the death of the patient. The organ failure can be a consequence of an acute condition or an end-stage chronic situation. With modern technological achievements, many organs can be temporarily or permanently substituted by devices or transplants.
In my point of view, illnesses resulting from an end-stage chronic organ failure cannot be strictly defined as incurable in the sense that the outcome will be, unquestionably, the death of the patient, since the devices that substitute the failing organs can do their function.
The question in debate is whether there is any limitation to the use of these devices.
The permanent use of mechanical devices should consider the prognosis, the quality of life from the perspective of the patient and, first and foremost, the patient autonomy.
As previously stated, the treatment should be proportional to the expected prognosis.
It is accepted by some medical associations and by the Catholic Church, that “the use of extraordinary means to maintain life should be discontinued in an unrecoverable situation of a nearby, certainly fatal, prognosis and when the persistence of such treatments will not bring any benefit to the patient” [10].
Let us consider a situation of a patient with a chronic end stage disease but in full possession of his cognitive abilities who refuses any mechanical device to maintain his life. Should his will be denied because the withdrawal of the mechanical device will be considered by the physician or society an act of euthanasia? If, the alternative to a failing organ was its transplant, could the patient be forced to accept it?
Can a society or a physician impose their will? Is the informed consent a mere rhetoric?
By refusing the mechanical device the patient is rejecting to live permanently with a mechanical device. He is not asking to be killed, although he knows that the consequence of his wish will be his death.
In my opinion, the removal of a device that does nor suppress the evolution of the illness, instead prolongs the process of death cannot be considered an act of euthanasia.
To recognize the restrain of science and technology is an act of matureness. To comply with the patient request is to respect the principle of autonomy, which, according to Kant is the only principle of morality.
It is my view, that many disputes and polemics in relation to end-of-life ethical dilemmas have its outset in the premise that the refusal of dysthanasia is an act of passive euthanasia. The objection of treatment stubbornness is act of good medical praxis and meets the
All medicines used in a treatment may cause unwanted symptoms. They are also called “adverse effects” or “adverse reactions”. Side effects happen when a treatment causes a problem because it does more than treat the target issue. Side effects can range from mild to life-threatening conditions.
In end stage diseases, when symptoms like pain or breathlessness are a source of great suffering of the patient, the physician is compelled to prescribe powerful analgesics or sedatives and these medicines may cause an undesired double effect.
In case of an analgesic, besides alleviating the pain, they may depress the respiratory center and cause a respiratory arrest and ultimately the death of the patient.
A major doubt, at the light of ethical principles, is whether the double effect of a drug is acceptable or not?
The principle or doctrine of double effect, often abbreviated as DDE, is a set of ethical criteria which Christian philosophers, like Thomas Aquinas’ in his work
In his assessment, this set of criteria is justifiable if the following are true:
The nature of the act is itself good, or at least morally neutral.
The agent intends the good effect and does not intend the bad effect either to do good or as the end in itself.
The good effect outweighs the bad effect, in circumstances sufficiently grave to justify causing the bad effect, and the agent exercises due diligence to minimize the harm.
Resuming, the DDE is based on the idea that there is, morally, a pertinent difference between an “intended” outcome of an act and one that is foreseen by the actor but not deliberately planned to achieve his motive.
This doctrine has been criticized by the consequentialist, like John Stuart Mill, advocate of the utilitarian version of consequentialism. He argues that our moral analysis should ignore matters of motivation, which appeals to a distinction between intended and unintended consequences. In his opinion the scrutiny of motives will reveal a man’s character, but utilitarianism does not judge character, only the rightness or wrongness of actions [12]. Thus, he concludes that the DDE should be rejected.
Analyzing and reflecting the DDE at the light of ethical principles, namely of beneficence and nonmaleficence, it is clear that there is a clash between the duty to suppress harm or suffering (do good) and, perhaps, the oldest of codes of conduct that reminds the physician that his main attitude towards the patient should be not to harm him (
In my opinion, even in common jurisprudence there a clear distinction between intention and motive. The intention is the basic element for making a person liable for the crime, which is commonly contrasted with motive. While intention means the purpose of doing something, motive determines the reason for committing an act.
If, there is no other way to suppress the suffering of the patient, than the prescription of an analgesic, should take in consideration the minimal dose to achieve the effect.
In this situation, it is my point of view that the procedure is morally acceptable even knowing that it might be a cause of respiratory arrest and death.
Terminal sedation, sometimes considered as an act of euthanasia, is a procedure wherein a patient is prescribed with a drug to induce sleep or unconsciousness until death occurs as result of the primary disease, while maintaining all other palliative medications. A typical example is a respiratory failure in end stage pulmonary fibrosis. In this stage, the breathlessness induces a suffering that a patient cannot tolerate. The only procedure is to sedate with a minimum effective dose that will induce the patient to lose his cognitive capacities but will preserve his organic functions. The drug prescribed has a short biological half-life. If, for any reason, the medication is brought to a standstill, the patient recovers in no time from his unconsciousness. Thus, this is not an irreversible procedure. Can this practice be considered as euthanasia? In my judgment it does not seems judicious to consider terminal sedation as an act of euthanasia.
Is there any special reason to include religious perspectives in a document on end-of-life ethical dilemmas? In other words, is there any space for religious overview in a field based in a scientific knowledge?
From my point of view there is every reason to entail religious perspectives in a reflection and discussion of end-of-life ethical dilemmas.
First and foremost, I will enumerate the arguments to entail religion in this discussion and in in a second section how the major religions overview these dilemmas.
It is evident that a human being has biological and cognitive functions. In an instance of biological suffering the response should come entirely from medicine, a science based on knowledge; however, in cognitive discomfort, the psyche also has a say.
According to Pew Research Center, 2015 in 2020, 98,1% of world population will be adherent of a religion, with Christianity with 31,2 and Islam with 24,1% occupying the first and second places, respectively (Figure 1).
World population 2015 by religion. Source: Pew research center.
These numbers display, in my opinion, that the religiosity of people cannot and should not be forsaken when analyzing the end-of-life ethical questions. On the other side, even unbelievers, atheists and agnostics can have spiritual concerns, a need in the human psyche to understand the ultimate meaning of our existence and values in life. Spirituality is intricately linked to religion. It is difficult to imagine someone professing a religion and not being spiritual, while the inverse is possible; it is not imperious for spirituality to be coupled to religion.
In mid-nineties, a new term, spiritual intelligence, was introduced by some philosophers, psychologists, and developmental theorists [13]. Spiritual intelligence relies on the concept of spirituality as being distinct from religiosity - existential intelligence. It is, therefore, reasonable to accept that in human suffering religion or spirituality and medicine are bound to intersect. To understand the concepts of ethics linked to the end-of-life dilemmas it is fundamental to question “Why?” Get to the bottom to understand the things.
Another good reason to include religious perspective is the historical contribution that Catholic Church thinkers have given to the analysis and discussions of important topics on end-of-life ethical dilemmas.
In the previous section, we had a brief reference to saint Thomas Aquinas on his
Almost seven centuries later, in 1957, Pope Pious XII in a speech addressed to anesthesiologists, accepted the proposition of double effects of drugs based on principle of liceity of prescription [14].
Another important doctrine in end-of-life ethics, about the difference between ordinary and extraordinary means, was developed by three Spanish Dominican friars (Francisco de Vitória, Domingo de Soto and Domingo Báñez) in the seventeenth century [15].
Other thinking’s of Catholic Church, namely regarding treatment stubbornness, were expressed in catholic Catechism and encyclicals (
In the subset of this theme I will make a reference to the most practiced religions and their stand regarding end-of-life ethical dilemmas − treatment stubbornness, euthanasia, drugs double effects, and nutrition and hydration.
According to the Catholic Catechism
Regarding euthanasia the catechism says that an act or omission which, of itself or by intention, causes death in order to eliminate suffering constitutes a murder gravely contrary to the dignity of the human person and to the respect due to the living God, his Creator.
The position of Catholic Church in relation to nutrition and hydration through artificial means was clarified by Pope John Paul II when he stated that its administration, even when provided by artificial means represents a natural means of preserving life, not a medical act. According to him, its use should be considered ordinary and proportionate. However, he added
The GOC rejects death resulting from human decisions and condemns as unethical any medical procedure that does not commit to the prolongation of life.
According to the bioethics committee of the Greek Church, withholding or withdrawing of treatment including artificial nutrition is not allowed since there is a possibility of a medical mistake, an unforeseen outcome or even a miracle. Euthanasia is not allowed, and pain relief medication prescription is allowed only in doses that are certain not to depress the respiratory center [19].
In Protestant churches euthanasia is accepted.
According to the Jewish law, euthanasia is not allowed. A significant divergence regarding Western medical and Jewish ethics, resides in withdrawing and withholding treatments, since in Jewish law, treatments may be withheld while withdrawal is not allowed, considering that this deed may be a factual cause of patient death.
Artificial nutrition and hydration are considered as a form of primary care, and, as such, must be provided.
Treatment for the palliation of pain can be prescribed without fear of an eventual respiratory compromise [19].
In Islamic principle, life-sustaining treatments can be withheld or withdrawn in terminally ill patients, while euthanasia is proscribed. The withdrawal of nutrition is considered an unlawful act; however, no reference is made in case the nourishment is through artificial methods. Mitigation of pain is admitted even if death is hastened, provided it was not the physician intention [19].
From a Buddhist ethics perspective, there is no moral obligation to preserve life at all costs (rejection of dysthanasia). The respect for life forbids killing of living things (euthanasia is outlawed). Artificial nutrition and hydration are not imperative, since they may avert the individual from securing the next stage of his life, the rebirth.
The use of pain killers and the principle of double effect is accepted [19].
In Hinduism there is no single central authority to enforce submission to Hinduism. When making concrete end-of-life decisions, their attitudes are flexible; this includes the individual circumstantial background to which religious analysis and arguments can be added.
Most Chinese do not consider Confucianism a religion but rather a philosophical system. Unlike the West, in China, cultural and social relations sustain the basis for moral judgment. Thus, it is the family who is responsible for decision making.
There is a difference in religious and philosophical Taoism in regard to the end-of-life: in the former case (religious Taoism), one should accede longevity and immortality, while for the latter (philosophical Taoism) death should be perceived with peace of mind and detachment, and, as such, artificial measures that confront the natural course should not be attempted [20].
The controversies about the end-of-life ethical dilemmas can be traced to ancient Greece and Rome. In that distant past, it was mainly focused in the treatment stubbornness. However, it is with the development of knowledge and research in lifesaving drugs and technologies, that the debates medialize on various fields, the main point of convergence being euthanasia and dysthanasia.
In a nearby future, with an increase in average life expectancy and innovations in medical technoscience it seems little probable that there will be a decrease in these disputes. Anyhow, a realistic hope in the reduction of the controversies should have its mainstay based in prevention. Hence, an objective of all those who have a leading position in the society should be to curtail the disposition towards this confrontation.
How to downsize this problem?
The struggle to curtail has evolved through the years and there has been no consensus for an acceptable agreement. Starting with the denomination of the dilemmas, passing to the definition itself and ending with the parties involved, an acceptable accordance is far from being a reality.
For example, so far as the denomination of futility is concerned there have been various suggestions to shift for a different terminology like non-beneficial treatment, medically inappropriate, medically inadvisable or not medically indicated, among others, but each one with some drawbacks.
In any dispute of end-of-life dilemmas, there is an involvement of three parties, the patient, the family, and the team of physicians and the institution that provides the health care.
In my opinion, the solution to ease this challenging problem will be met, at least partially, by the unveiling of the living will. Henceforth, in this demanding issue, every effort should be directed to engage all the involved parties in supporting and diffusing the living will.
In the western societies there have been a progressive acceptance and legislation of the living will. The main reason for its broad recognition and approval is the affirmation of the principle of autonomy, through the informed consent, in the Anglo-Saxon countries.
Other arguments for its recommendations are religious creeds (no acceptance of blood transfusions by Adventists cult) and those who reject resuscitation maneuvers fearing a bed quality of life that could result from this procedure.
On the other side, in the eastern countries, or societies where there is a predominance of principle of beneficence and family-oriented decision-making, the living will have hardly made any inroad in this matter.
The living will or advanced directive specifies what types of medical treatment are desired by a person in circumstances in which he is no longer able to express informed consent.
A living will can be very explicit and precise or very general. The most frequent statement in a living will, appeals that if the patient suffers an incurable, irreversible illness or condition, and the attending physician decides that the condition is terminal, life-sustaining measures, that would serve only to prolong dying, be withheld or discontinued. More explicit living wills may include details regarding an individual’s desire for measures such as pain relief, antibiotics, hydration, feeding, and the use of ventilators, blood products, or cardiopulmonary resuscitation.
The intrinsic objective of living will has two main intents: give the concerned person a control regarding his health in an end-of-life setting and take a burden and distress off the shoulders of his family and thus avoid the self-condemnation complex that sometimes curtails a painful decision. Moreover, the living will elude the discords which may arise among family members about the prescription or withholding of specific treatments.
In this circumstance, it is expected that the author of the will is mature enough to interiorize his illness, the natural process of the disease and his own death.
The decision to draft a living will is not a sprint against time; it must be a follow-up of various steps that entails the acceptance of the illness by the patient, the treatment limitation and the evolution of the disease till the death. For all these discernments required, the living will should not, a priori, be addressed in acute settings.
It should be retained that the living will can be revoked or changed as often as the person wishes. However, he should notify all parties who were informed of the living will.
It is desirable, but not indispensable, for the patient to discuss with his physician his apprehensions, fears, and values. No one, better than his physician, to explain him the natural history of his illness, the prognoses, the technical means, and their limits.
Not under any condition, can the physician use his knowledge to shape or imprint the decision in a negative way.
In brief, the living will have, typically, two parts:
On the one hand is named the person who will be answerable to fulfill with treatment orientations and care in the end-of-life. The attorney should be someone in proximity and trustworthy to the person and with awareness of his line of rationale. The attorney, one or more, can be a family member or a close friend. In case of more than one attorney it should be overtly established if the resolution should be collective or individual and how to decide in a case of a stalemate.
On the other hand, there should be clearly stated what diagnostic methods and treatments should be authorized and those that are to be refused.
The living will is not an alchemy for all the dilemmas related to end-of-life ethics, but it is, beyond any doubt, a good means to obviate many scenarios of anguishing treatment decision making and provide the patient a dignified death.
What can be the role of the physician in the patient’s living will?
The living will that is considered in this text is the one dealing with chronic diseases in their advanced stages. In this setting the physician should consider the timing of the discussion, nature of the illness, quality of life, the end-of-life care, and prognosis.
The dialog should take place not in a specific visit of the patient but through the various follow-up assignments. The physician should explain in a clear and accessible conversation the natural history of the illness with its effect on his quality of life, the end-of-life care that he may eventually need and the treatments options that he may require in the acute exacerbations.
This conversation can be handled by the primary care physician or the specialist consultant who has been following the patient. In my opinion, the consultant physician, with all his experience, will be in a better position to clear the doubts and eagerness of the vulnerable patient.
The feelings and attitudes towards the end-of-life depend on the sociocultural environments of the societies.
In some settings, the family can refuse home nursing the household or allow the treatment limitation and bring back home the family member. This posture can take place for various reasons: spiritual and psychological unpreparedness for the death of their beloved, not knowing how many days would ensue till the patient’s death or the physical, familiar and financial concerns that would imply to take care of the patient at home.
The role of the hospital should be focused mainly in preventive measures that should be aimed to remind the physicians, through codes of conduct, to clarify the patient and the family of the evolution of the illness, and, at the proper moment to consider, not enforce, the living will.
In case of disagreement between the family and the physician, the back-office team involving a representative of ethics committee, a psychologist, and an eventual patient religious representative, can have good chances of solving the struggle.
In Medicine, bioethics is a field of study concerned with the ethics and philosophical implications of certain medical procedures, technologies, and treatments; in this case, the end-of-life ethical dilemmas, are directly or indirectly related to those presumptions.
The main interrogation is to know why these procedures raise so many doubts and uncertainties?
As previously outlined, in the words of French sociologist Edgar Morin, the great bestowal of knowledge left by the twentieth century was the awareness of the limits of knowledge. And he endowed that the major conviction is that uncertainties are unable to be dismissed not only in action but in knowledge.
For this scholar, the knowledge is imbued by three principles of uncertainties:
The brain, the psychic, and the epistemological uncertainties.
In the pursuit of medicine, despite of countless progress in the fields of physiopathology and technical advances that evaluates and modifies the natural history of numerous clinical ailments, the skepticism and the unpredictability can overshadow the result.
In short, the science and its execution entail the uncertainty and sometimes the conflict. This unpredictability leads, from time to time, to question the procedures, the consequences, and the results.
Hence the dilemmas.
The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.
Thanks to Pew Research Center for no objection in using their source of investigation.
Clay minerals interactions with fluids have gained attention in the petroleum industry because of their presence in source rocks, reservoir rocks and seal rocks in petroleum systems. In conventional reservoirs, interactions between clay minerals and fluids have been studied in relation to wellbore integrity and fines migration during production. The inception of enhanced oil and gas recovery, hydraulic fracturing and carbon storage technologies, highlighted knowledge gaps in terms of interactions between clays and fluids injected into the subsurface. Research efforts are focused to understand the impact of clay-fluid reactions geochemistry on shale geomechanics, and deciphering the mechanisms that drive these interactions in order to optimise various technologies adopted by the industry.
In retrospect, studies on interactions between clay minerals and formation fluids have been going on in the petroleum industry well before introduction of the advanced technologies alluded to above. These studies were mainly focused on the relationship between clay minerals interactions with formation fluids during formation, migration and deposition of hydrocarbons. For example, Drits et al. [1] studied clay mineral-fluid interactions in order to gain insight into transformation processes in clay minerals during generation and migration of hydrocarbons.
This review seeks to present a concise overview of published studies on interactions between clay minerals and various fluids in the subsurface with particular emphasis on hydraulic fracturing fluids. Reaction mechanisms as well as geochemical and geomechanical impacts are assessed.
Trends of research on interactions between formation clay minerals and fluids over the years have largely been determined by the exigencies of the petroleum industry. The drive for this is the need for in-depth understanding of reactions in order to characterise reservoirs and cap rocks, as close as possible to
Schematics of typical clay fluid interaction research topics and outcomes relevant to hydraulic fracturing of shale formations.
The focus of researchers in the 1940s and 1950s, during worldwide oil and gas exploration, was to investigate the origins of petroleum. Reactions between clays and subsurface fluids were studied extensively. At that time, the major concern was assessment of quality of organic source rocks and the mechanisms involved in generation of oil and gas. In this regard, researchers such as Weaver [2, 3] and Sarkissian [4] recognised that analyses of clay rocks (shales) could be used to track the generation and migration of petroleum in source rocks. Weaver [2] noted that expandable clays are capable of withholding their pore water to greater depths. He therefore inferred that waters in expandable clays at greater depths were responsible for transporting hydrocarbons to reservoir rocks. This inference was premised on and supported by earlier studies where over 20,000 samples from major petroleum producing basins in the US showed strong statistical correlation between expandable clay minerals and hydrocarbon production. Similar to Weaver [2], Sarkissian [4] also studied petroleum deposits in the USSR and reported that clay minerals in argillaceous rocks were significant in the formation and deposition of petroleum resources. Premising on earlier works alluded to above, other researchers also used clay rock analyses to determine the hydrocarbon emplacement and migration times and for petroleum system analysis [1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Some of these works are summarised below.
Hamilton [5] used K-Ar dating to assess the formation of illite relative to the timing of generation and migration of hydrocarbons. Considerable correlation was found to exist between these two events. He reported that, in most cases, the timing of the expulsion of hydrocarbons was the same time authigenic illite formation ceased. He concluded that the link between clay-fluid interaction and petroleum generation and migration was therefore established, thus presence of authigenic illite could be used as an indicator of petroleum formation and migration.
Kelly [7] used mineralisation history present in fractures to reconstruct the migration history of hydrocarbons to their current reservoir and found that most petroleum migration paths showed preponderance of illite and clay mineral precipitates. He concluded that illite and other clay mineral precipitates can be used as an indication of petroleum migration pathway.
Jiang [6] examined clay minerals from the oil and gas perspective and drew a lot of parallels between various types of clays, their structural and geochemical transformations as a function of formation and transport of hydrocarbons. Jiang’s work is different from earlier works in the sense that he investigates comprehensively the transformations that take place from deposition of rock to when petroleum is formed and expunged.
Adverse economic impact posed by swelling clays during drilling and completion caused intensification in studies of clay-fluid interactions with the aim of understanding the problem and solving it in the shortest possible time. Research was thus aimed at understanding the mechanisms that drive clay swelling during interactions with engineered muds. The conditions of clay swelling and accompanying complications were studied thoroughly with abundant literature to that effect [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16].
Van Oort et al. [14] undertook an overview of the mechanisms guiding clay-fluid interactions. Their work identified the mechanisms by which various engineered drilling fluids suppress adverse reactions of clay minerals with water based fluids during drilling and completions. In concluding, the authors simplified their work by categorising drilling fluids into five groups based on the mechanism by which they stabilise clays in shale formations during drilling.
Shukla et al. [17] conducted a review of earlier works on clay mineral swelling in unconventional reservoir systems. They concentrated on the various conditions under which clays swell and the types of clay swelling. They also identified various clay stabilisers and gave a brief on how these work.
At inception of shale gas, tight sands and other unconventional petroleum systems development, enhanced hydrocarbon recovery techniques were at advanced stage. The need to fine-tune these technologies to the needs of unconventional reservoir systems spurred another era of research focussed on clay-fluid interactions in unconventional petroleum systems. One of the earliest works in this area was conducted by Zhou et al. [15] who premised their research on the fact that injected fluids caused formation damage due to clay swelling. They identified two types of swelling due to these interactions; crystalline swelling and osmotic swelling, the later posing significant adverse effects on reservoir quality. Alalli et al. [18] also noted that injected fluids caused disequilibrium in formation which leads to dissolution and precipitation of minerals in an attempt to return to equilibrium state. Dissolution and precipitation patterns were thus examined in order to identify their impact on reservoir quality. Dissolution of minerals, they noted, enhanced the porosity and permeability of formation by creating additional pore volume and linking previously unconnected pores; whereas precipitation of new minerals had adverse impact on reservoir quality due to the occlusion of flow paths, due to mineral growth within the existing pore space.
Buller et al. [19] analysed the Haynesville shale play in East Texas to understand what factors were responsible for efficiency of hydraulic fracturing in this formation. Their work concluded that, in high clay content zones, the efficiency of the fracturing was low due to massive proppant embedment and migration of fines. They postulated that post fracturing diagenetic events could also be initiated due to clay minerals interaction with fracturing fluids.
A similar effort was undertaken by Radonjic et al. [20] in their research focused on Caney shale. They sought to draw the link between mineralogical composition and microstructure of Caney shale to mechanical responses in order to delineate formations suitable for fracturing as well as predict mechanical responses of these formations.
Recent surge in research on interaction between clay minerals and CO2 in the subsurface is due to the advent of the concept of CO2 capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS). The CCUS technology may also incorporates enhanced hydrocarbon recovery when CO2 injection is done in depleted oil and gas reservoirs. The importance of clay-fluid reactions is seen in the fact that most target storage reservoirs and accompanying seal formations have high clay mineral contents. In addition, reactions that cause immobilisation of CO2 and the ability of caprock to withstand pressures resulting from CO2 plume beneath are directly related to the amounts and types of clay minerals in the formation [21, 22]. Many studies have thus been conducted to investigate clay-fluid interaction in the context of understanding their implications on combined enhanced hydrocarbon recovery and CO2 storage projects [23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29].
Olabode and Radonjic [27] studied the reaction between CO2-Brine and caprock formation to assess the impact of mineral precipitation patterns on caprock integrity at elevated temperature and pressure conditions. They concluded that, precipitation of minerals could cause the sealing of micro-pores in caprocks thus enhancing their ability store CO2 within the subsurface. Hui Du et al. [30] also studied the sealing properties of caprock at nano and micro-scale with the premise that the durability of the caprock is directly affected by the nanostructures and microstructure of these rocks.
Clay minerals are a product of rock weathering, and form from decomposition of feldspar minerals in hard rocks such as granite. They are commonly described as soil particles with sizes below 2 μm, often labelled as nature’s nanoparticles. In terms of chemical composition, clays belong to a group of minerals called alumino-silicates. The alumino-silicates are composed of complex arrangement of atoms to form diverse structural configurations with the basic components being silicon, aluminium and oxygen. Silicon and aluminium atoms bond with oxygen to form silicon tetrahedral sheets and aluminium octahedral sheets respectively. These sheets are subsequently bonded by sharing common oxygen atoms, though the oxygen atoms at the edges of both sheets are left unpaired. These unpaired oxygen atoms at the edges of the sheets impose negative charges on clay mineral surfaces rendering them water sensitive and highly reactive to cations [31, 32].
Another factor contributing to high negative charges in clay minerals is the isomorphic cationic substitution within the sandwiched tetrahedral and octahedral sheets, which leads to imposition of excess negative charges on clay mineral surfaces [33]. The mechanism described above contributes to higher levels of clay sensitivity to water-based engineered fluids in subsurface.
Hughes [34] was one of the earliest researchers to attempt classification of clay minerals relative in the petroleum industry. This classification was done a few years after commercialization of X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) technology, which was hitherto used by petroleum companies as a method of studying clay minerals. Hughes [34] classified clay minerals into: Kaolinite, Smectite, Illite and Chlorite groups as shown on Table 1. He also indicated other classes which are mainly mixed layers of the four groups of clays. Descriptions by Hughes [34] are captured below:
Kaolinite is composed of one silicate tetrahedral and aluminium octahedral thus a 1:1 clay mineral. This structure makes kaolinite relatively stable due to its low surface area and adsorption capacity.
Smectites are composed of two silicate tetrahedrals bonded with one aluminium octahedral thus a 2:1 clay mineral. Smectites have a very high rate of expansion and/or shrinkage and are by far the most problematic clay minerals during drilling and production especially with water-base engineered fluids. This behaviour is attributable to the large surface area and high cation exchange capacities of smectites consequently leading to high adsorption capacity.
Illite is composed of tetrahedral and octahedral plates arranged in a 2:1 format just like smectites. They however have lower adsorption capacities than smectites but higher than kaolinites.
Chlorites consist of Brucite layers alternating with three-sheet pyrophyllite type layers. Though Chlorite may occur as macroscopic or microscopic crystal, they often occur as mixtures with other minerals in the microscopic state.
Clay Type | Chemical Formulae | Surface Area (m2/gm) | CEC (meq/100 g) | Configuration |
---|---|---|---|---|
Kaolinite | Al4[Si4O10](OH)8 | 20 | 3–15 | 1:1 |
Illite | (K1–1.5Al4[Si7–6.5Al1–1.5O20](OH)4) | 100 | 15–40 | 2:1 Non-Expandable |
Smectite | (0.5Ca, Na)0.7(Al, Mg, Fe)4[(Si, Al)8O20]•nH2O | 700 | 80–100 | 2:1 Expandable |
Chlorite | (Mg, Al, Fe)12[(Si, Al)8O20](OH)16 | 100 | 15–40 | 2:1 Non Expandable |
Four major types of clay minerals relevant to hydraulic fracturing.
Clay minerals are unique in a number of properties they exhibit; however, the following attributes of clay minerals have significant impacts on their interactions with fluids and are briefly captured below.
Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is defined as the amount of positive ion substitution that takes place per unit weight of dry rock [35] and is expressed in meq/100 g (milliequivalents per one hundred grams) of dry rock. Substitution of ions in minerals is the product of interfacial electrochemical interactions. Some of the most common cations exchanged are calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), potassium (K+), sodium (Na+) and ammonium (NH4+). CEC controls contribution of clay minerals and clay-bound water to electrical conductivity of rocks as well as the wettability characteristics of clay minerals during clay-fluid interactions.
Researchers developed various methods of measuring CEC over the years with more accurate methods still being developed. Some of the earlier methods have been exhaustively discussed in literature [36, 37, 38, 39, 40]. The most common methods currently used for CEC determination include: wet chemistry method; multiple salinity method and membrane potential method. These are however not without their limitations.
Bush and Jenkins [40] developed a method based on the use of the wet chemistry method in which several samples were investigated and a plot of best fit generated. The main challenge with their method is that, some minerals are capable of adsorbing water in humid environments though they have no CEC. Bush and Jenkins [40] proposed their method as a supplementary method for the wet chemistry method rather than a replacement.
Cheng and Heidari, [41, 42] introduced a new theoretical model of measuring CEC based on energy balance between chemical potential and electric potential energy. This involved the combined analysis of data collected from XRD (X-Ray Diffraction), NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) and nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherm measurements with direct evaluation of CEC based on ammonium acetate method and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) measurements used in cross-validation of the results. They however alluded to the fact that their method was yet to be developed for complex rock composition.
Clay swelling results mainly from fluid intake into the inter-layered structure of clay minerals. Electrochemical interactions between clay minerals and fluids are central to the swelling of clays. The type, quantity and charge of cations in the interlayer zones of clay are the main driving forces in the swelling process. Clay swelling and formation damage during enhanced oil recovery have also been discussed extensively [43, 44].
Two main types of swelling mechanisms have been identified in clay minerals which include crystalline swelling and osmotic swelling [45, 46]. During crystalline or surface hydration mechanism, the water molecules are adsorbed on the crystal surfaces with hydrogen bonding holding the water molecules to oxygen atoms exposed from the crystal surface. Subsequent layers of water molecules align to form a quasi-crystalline structure between unit layers, which results in an increased c-spacing. This type of swelling is common to all types of clay minerals, although to a different degree. In osmotic swelling mechanism, the concentration of cations between unit layers in clay minerals is higher than that in the surrounding water, water is therefore osmotically drawn between the unit layers and the c-spacing is increased. Osmotic swelling mechanism causes a larger swelling relative to the crystalline swelling but only a few clay minerals, such as sodium montmorillonite, swell in this manner [47].
Hydraulic fracturing entails high rate injection of pressurised fracturing fluids into low permeability formations often targeted at specific horizontal sections of a wellbore in order to induce failure, consequently fracturing rock formation and creating a fracture network that can provide permeability in otherwise almost-impermeable rocks. Studies have shown that the fractures induced by hydraulic fracturing fluids are formed normal to the direction of minimum horizontal stress in the horizontal section of the wellbore. Horizontal wells are normally drilled in trajectories parallel to the minimum horizontal stress in a given reservoir. However, branch-like networks of micro-fractures are formed in all directions, resulting in a hydraulic connectivity that provides permeability form otherwise impermeable shale matrix. The majority of fractures are kept open by proppants which are transported by the injected fluid into the formation. Proppants ensure that fractures remain open thus enhancing the contact area between reservoir and wellbore which consequently serve as a conduit for hydrocarbon recovery, from otherwise low permeability shales [48, 49].
Hydraulic fracturing entails lots of activities, thus, research is fine-tuned on investigating and understanding certain key issues about hydraulic fracturing. For example, Rikards et al. [50] indicated that one of the biggest problems in hydraulic fracturing has to do with ability to find balance between proppant-quality and proppant-transport efficiency. They intimated that high density proppants pose proppant transport challenges whilst low density proppants present issues of strength of the proppants. Also, the importance of fluid viscosity in terms of providing sufficient fracture width to enable transport and proper placement of proppants is another issue in hydraulic fracturing highlighted by Montgomery et al. [51].
Since inception of the concept of hydraulic fracturing, a lot of fluids have been developed and experimented as possible suites for various formation types and even geographical locations. These are discussed below.
Water-based fracturing fluids are the most common hydraulic fracturing fluids in use today. This is due to their low cost, availability and their ability to transport proppants in place to maintain fracture conductivity. Though water-based hydraulic fluids have several advantages over other types of fracturing fluids, they are more susceptible to causing formation damage due to hydration of clays which may lead to lower recovery rates for hydrocarbons. Ribeiro and Sharma [52] contend that water-based fracturing in unconventional wells, most of which contain substantial clay mineral component, presents significant challenges. One of the most effective ways of dealing with this drawback, thus, has been to use energised water-based fracturing fluids in which the fracturing fluid is energised with CO2 or N2. This significantly reduces the amount of water needed for fracturing and thus improves the fracturing job in water-sensitive formations. Some water-based fracturing fluid types are discussed below.
Slickwater fracturing fluids are primarily composed of water, sand proppants and other chemicals to deal with friction, corrosion, clay swelling and other adverse reactions due to injection of fluids into the subsurface. These fluids are characterised by lower viscosities and the ability to generate complex fractures which generally reach deeper into target formations. The drawback with this type of water-based fracturing fluid is its poor proppant transport capacity. This is often compensated for with higher pumping rates in order to maintain optimal velocities that prevent settling of proppants.
Linear fracturing fluids were developed as a solution to the poor proppant carrying capacity of slickwater fluids. This was achieved by increasing the viscosity of fracturing fluid through addition of polymers in the fluids. These polymers are capable of turning the aqueous solutions into viscous gels capable of transporting proppants effectively but may also adversely affect the permeability of low permeability formations by forming filter cakes on the walls of fractures. Linear fracturing fluids are good in controlling fluid loss in low permeability formations but prone to higher fluid losses in high permeability formations.
Cross-linked fluids were developed to obtain increased viscosity and performance of gelled polymers without necessarily increasing the concentration of polymers. To develop these fluids, Aluminium, Borate, Titanium and Zirconium compounds may be used to crosslink hydrated polymers in order to increase the viscosity of resulting fluid. The main advantage of these fluids is the reversibility of crosslinks based on pH adjustments. This enables better clean up and consequently improved permeability following fracturing treatment. Borate crosslinked fracturing fluids have been reported to show rheological stability, good clean-up and low fluid loss up to temperatures of over 300°F.
In viscoelastic surfactant gel fluids, increased viscosity and elasticity is obtained by adding surfactants and inorganic salts into water-based fracturing fluids to create ordered structures. These fluids exhibit very high zero-shear viscosity and are capable of transporting proppants with lower loading and without the comparable viscosity requirements of conventional fluids [53].
Oil-based fracturing fluids are used mostly where a formation is water-sensitive perhaps due to the presence of large quantities of expandable clay minerals. Oil-based fracturing fluids have been found to better preserve fracture conductivity [54, 55] as well as provide better performance in terms of proppant transport due to the generally higher viscosity and lower specific gravity. In their work on wells located in Bakhilov and North Khokhryakov fields in Western Siberia, Russian Federation, Cikes et al. [54] studied the responses from wells after treatment with oil-based fracturing fluids in a depleted oil reservoir. These wells were initially fractured with water-based fracturing fluids but the treatment failed and did not yield significant improvements in the productivity especially for the long term. Following fracturing with oil-based fracturing fluids, over ten-fold production improvement was witnessed relative to pre-fracturing productivity.
Another advantage of oil-based fracturing fluids as noted by Hlidek et al. [56] is that they are easier to clean-up and can be re-used. Hlidek et al. [56] compared the cost of using water-based fracturing fluids to oil-based fracturing fluids in the Montney (Canada) unconventional gas development. Based on their comprehensive analysis, they concluded that the cost of using oil-based fluids was lower in the long term since all the load oil could be recovered within 4 to 8 weeks and could be reused in fracturing. The main disadvantage of oil based fracturing fluids however, is environmental damage when not properly disposed of.
To enhance the efficiency and recovery of oil-based fracturing fluids, CO2 has been employed in energising these fluids. Energising oil-based fluids significantly reduces the amount of fluid required to fracture a specific formation as well as aids in fluid recovery following the fracturing process [57, 58]. Vezza et al. [58] studied the impact of energised oil-based fracturing fluid in Morrow Formation in Southern Oklahoma where they used gelled diesel/CO2 as fracturing fluid. Their results indicated an overall increase in production rate and predicted long-term stability of the wells. Gupta et al. [57] also reported improvements in well productivity and stability after using energised gelled hydrocarbons in fracturing treatments. In their study, they compared the use of conventional gelled fluids to CO2 energised gelled fluids in formations in Canada. Their conclusions were that: The use of energised gelled hydrocarbon fracturing fluids led to improved production relative to conventional gelled hydrocarbon fluids.
Gas fracturing involves the injection of gas at high pressures into the subsurface in order to create fractures within targeted reservoir locations. Nitrogen gas is the most employed gas for fracturing purposes, due to its obvious advantages of availability, its inert nature and of course, cost [59]. The main limitation of gas fracturing is the depth it can be used as a fracturing fluid since it has a low density and thus is restricted to reservoirs of less than 5000 feet deep [60]. Recent advancements in ultra-light weight proppants [50, 61] provides positive prospects that may counter the depth limitation of gas fracturing to some extent.
Another type of fracturing fluid is a foam-based fracturing fluid which is generated from the combination of two phases of liquid and gas as well as addition of surfactant to ensure stability [51]. The main advantages of this type of fracturing fluid is its efficiency in water-sensitive areas and its relatively better proppant carrying capacity compared to water-based fracturing fluids [62]. High cost and risk of flammability are the main disadvantages of foam-based fracturing fluids.
Consideration of the use of CO2 as a fracturing fluid was mooted due to problems encountered with water-based fracturing fluids in terms of permeability damage. Liquid CO2 is considered an alternative to water-based fracturing fluids because it causes minimal formation damage plus clean-up is easily achieved. Lower viscosity, miscibility of CO2 with hydrocarbons, ease of displacing methane from organic matter and the ease of recovery of CO2 enables it to create extensive and complex fractures at lower breakdown pressures [63, 64]. However, high pumping rates needed to enhance proppant carrying capacity of CO2 makes CO2-based fracturing fluids relatively expensive. Additionally CO2 is not readily available at all sites. The future applications may change if CO2 can be sequestered.
Imbibition describes the displacement of immiscible fluids from within the formation matrix. In the context of this topic, the fluid within the formation matrix is hydrocarbon and brine, whereas the invading fluid is the hydraulic fracturing fluid, mostly water. The displacement described above occurs at times where the fracturing fluid comes into contact with the formation face creating disequilibrium. In order to gain equilibrium, fracturing fluid is drawn into the matrix spontaneously, without the application of any form of pressure. This phenomenon is known as spontaneous imbibition. Handy [65] defined it as the process in which a fluid is displaced by another fluid within a porous medium due to the effect of capillary forces alone. Other researchers like Bear [66], Bennion et al. [67], Hoffman [68] and Dutta [69] have also interrogated the mechanisms of hydration imbibition.
Imbibition of water into shale matrix has been identified as the major water retention mechanism when using water-based hydraulic fracturing fluids [70, 71]. Research into the controlling factors of imbibition of water in fracturing fluid into formation matrix revealed it to be the function of several parameters which are briefly discussed in the following:
Fluid and rock properties have been identified as determinants of the amount and rates of imbibition. Ma et al. [72] reported that when water displaces oil and gas within the formation, the rate of imbibition becomes directly proportional to the viscosity of water. Pore sizes of formation inversely affect imbibition since smaller pore sizes generate greater capillary pressures and thus higher imbibition.
The initial amount of water present in matrix of rocks has been investigated by several researchers to ascertain its impact on the quantum of imbibition, but findings have been inconsistent, thus making it difficult to draw any conclusions. Whereas Blair [73] and Li et al. [74] found that an initially high water saturation of formation led to lower volumes of imbibed water, Cil et al. [75] and Zhou et al. [76] found the opposite in their experiments. Other works by Li et al. [74], Viksund et al. [77] and Akin et al. [78] also concluded that initial water saturation had no effect on imbibition of water by the formation. They explained that volume of water imbibed is a function of capillary pressure and effective permeability but these show an inverse and direct relation with water saturation respectively. The amount of water imbibed is therefore not controlled by a single parameter, but will depend on which of the two variables is dominant in any given formation. In this regard, they concluded that the influence of initial saturation on imbibition should be ascertained for every formation independently.
The impact of temperature on imbibition is not direct however; temperature of a formation has impact on wettability and fluid properties which subsequently impact imbibition. Experimental investigations by Handy [65], Pooladi-Darvish and Firoozabadi [79] concluded that higher temperatures led to faster rates of imbibition.
Total clay content directly relates to the effect of pore size on rate and amount of imbibition. Due to small pore size of clay-rich rocks, higher clay content in a formation results in smaller pore sizes thus greater imbibition. This position is confirmed by Zhou et al. [80] who performed several experimental and numerical analyses on the Horn Shale gas formation and concluded that high clay content in a formation leads to high volumes and rates of imbibition respectively.
According to Zhou et al. [81], earlier researchers viewed imbibition to mainly be the product of capillary pressure but findings from recent studies have challenged this position. Recent research shows osmosis contributes significantly to water imbibition and thus clay minerals and hydraulic fluid interactions especially for unconventional reservoirs which are often characterised by high clay mineral contents.
During osmotic imbibition of water into formation, formation clay minerals act as semi-permeable membranes through which fracturing fluids invade the matrix of the formation. Here, solutes from the concentrated formation fluids try to move into lower solute fracturing fluids but due to the semi permeable membrane formed by presence of clay, the solutes are unable to cross this barrier. Continuous accumulation of solutes near the semi-permeable membrane creates an attraction force that draws water into the formation in order to balance out the concentration differential.
Inorganic clayey matrix is generally known to be water-wet therefore providing favourable conditions for imbibition of water from fracturing fluid within fractures. In this process, the invading water displaces gas from the surface of clay matrix which leads to the formation of a multiphase flow environment near the fracture surface (Figure 2). Development of this phenomenon can create an unfavourable saturation condition, under which gas flow through fractures is hindered, thus lowering yield for wells. The phenomenon is known as water-blocking and it is has been described by researchers as one of the most severe damages in reservoirs with ultra-low permeability [82, 83, 84].
Fracture and near-fracture clay-fluid interactions (adapted from [
Recent experimental works on the imbibition of water by shale rocks showed that the imbibed water remains within the pore network, thus reducing the permeability to gas of the reservoir [81]. Simulation and history matching also confirmed that invasion and wetting of clay mineral surfaces by water from fracturing fluid was responsible for decline in gas production. Reduction in gas flow due to water blocking effect has also been reported by Shanley et al. [85], who observed drastic reduction in gas production when water concentrations in fractures exceeded 40–50%. Detailed study of water-blocking phenomenon has showed that this phenomenon may cause permanent damage for some shale formations whiles the damage is transient for other shale types [70, 71, 86]. The details of mechanisms and variables that determine whether damage is temporal or permanent are still being investigated.
Water-blocking during fracturing of unconventional reservoirs is explained by the presence of two pore types in unconventional formations. The first pore types are the larger oil-wet pores located within the organic matrix of the formation. The second type of pores are the smaller water-wet pores located within the inorganic argillitic matrix. Pore throats of the larger oil-wet pores are however small. During hydraulic fracturing, high pressure fluids break the formation to form fractures with some fracturing fluids leaking off into near-fracture matrix. Once in the matrix, the fluids first occupy the larger oil-wet pores. However, due to smaller pore throats, fracturing fluid in the formation is segmented within each internal pore with minimal linkage to other pores. This causes water to be domiciled in formation as droplets filling larger oil-wet pores which subsequently makes remobilisation difficult upon resumption of production. This phenomenon significantly reduces hydrocarbon effective permeability. The natural healing process in this phenomenon occurs when fluid is drawn from larger pores into smaller water-wet pores deeper within the reservoir thus dissipating the water blocking effect. This leads to improved permeability and hydrocarbon production [71].
Clay minerals and non-clay minerals (carbonates and quartz) within a formation are susceptible to geochemical attack from the fracturing fluids. Most shale formations were deposited in sea water-rich environments and have established equilibrium of their minerals and fluids over geological time. Once these formations are exposed to engineering fluids, especially water-based fluids, the geochemical equilibrium is no longer stable. Subsurface temperature, pressure, and pH often enhance geochemical reactivity of scale-forming minerals, resulting in changed porosity, and fracture permeability as a result of mineral dissolution and precipitation [87, 88].
Dissolution of rock forming minerals has been reported at low pH. As pH increases, ions from dissolved minerals recrystallise to form new minerals and/or amorphous precipitate that may have an adverse effect on formation permeability. At very high pH, clay minerals within a formation become unstable and may become mobile. This situation leads to migration of illite samples which may occlude the hydrocarbon flow paths within the formation (Figure 2).
Shale swelling during hydraulic fracturing results from swelling of clay minerals within fracture face and shale matrix (Figure 2). Three mechanisms have been noted to cause clay mineral swelling as water is adsorbed into nano-pores, micro-pores, meso-pores and even macro-pores of clay minerals in the formation. The first mechanism is swelling due to hydration of negatively charged clay surfaces with several water layers depending on the type of clay. This has been observed in various types of clays with different levels of water saturation [89, 90]. The second mode of swelling is similar to what causes imbibition of water into clay minerals, where the clay acts as a semi-permeable membrane. In this case water is moved into the inter-layer spaces of clay minerals causing massive swelling [91]. In the third mechanism, continuous expansion of clay interlayer leads to separation of the clay layers into different clay components thus transforming initially intact clay layers into inter-particle spaces [92, 93].
Swelling of clays within the fracture walls can lead to constricted apertures which severely restrict flow of hydrocarbons during production [94]. Clay swelling may also induce micro fractures in formations which may improve absolute permeability [95, 96].
During fracturing, interactions between shale and invading fluids lead to swelling of clay minerals within the shale causing in-situ stress development. Osmosis has been suggested as the potential transport mechanism which causes swelling pressure build-up within shale rock. The reaction between clay minerals and invading fluid is observed to be a primary cause of damage to reservoir permeability during and after hydraulic fracturing. Previous experiments have shown that a chance of permeability impairment following fluid interaction with formation is directly related to the specific clay mineral content of the formation [31, 71, 97]. In the case that the solute concentration in fracturing fluid is significantly lower compared to concentrations in clay interlayer, osmotic swelling is likely to occur, where fluid is drawn into the interlayer with the aim of balancing the solute concentrations. This phenomenon leads to significant expansion of the clay minerals. Expansion of clay minerals therefore exerts pressure on surrounding pores and matrices thus leading to a build-up of stress.
Geo-Materials mechanical properties are dictated by the amount of pore space present, compositional heterogeneities [98], solids (inorganic and organic) mechanical strength and the presence/absence of pore-fluids and their composition. Therefore, mechanical weakening of formation rocks due to reaction with newly introduced fracturing fluids has been observed by a number of researchers. Akrad et al. [99] observed that sustained interaction between fracturing fluid and formation can induce softening of the formation rock thus reducing the Young’s Modulus of the rock, therefore producing mechanical weakening. Du et al. [98] investigated mechanisms of fracture propagation due to hydraulic fluid injection and concluded that the mechanical response of formations due to interaction with fracturing fluid is directly linked to the mineral composition and geochemistry of rocks. In their studies of proppant embedment efficiency, Corapcioglu et al. [100] found that exposure of the formation to fracturing fluid leads to decrease in Young’s Modulus of the rock. Research on the impact of fracturing fluid on formation mineralogical components has also showed that non-clay minerals (carbonates, quartz, feldspar and various sulfides/sulphates) as well as clay minerals, like chlorite, are susceptible to dissolution in fracturing fluids, leading to a reduction in the structural strength of the formation.
LaFollette and Carman [101] reacted Haynesville shale samples in fracturing fluid at temperature of about 300°F for periods of 30, 60, 120 and 240 days respectively and observed changes in Brinell Hardness of the samples. The highest reduction occurred between 60 to 120 days after which there was a marginal increase in hardness. Carman and Lant [102] also reacted rock samples with different fracturing fluids at temperatures close to subsurface formation temperatures. Their results showed that Brinell’s Hardness for all the rock samples decreased after reacting with fracturing fluids.
Flowback water is the fluid produced immediately following treatment of a well. This fluid is generally made up of mixed compositions of fracturing fluids, products of reactions between fracturing fluids and formation, and formation fluids. High salinity and concentrations of dissolved metals have been reported in flowback waters [104, 105]. Potential toxicity of produced water to humans and the environment remains high and of great concern; therefore, researchers have been studying these fluids to assess their risks to the environment. Most studies of this nature have largely been undertaken in producing unconventional hydrocarbon fields in the USA as well as black shales from Germany and Denmark [106, 107]. A summary of these works is presented below:
Chapman et al. [104] sought to characterise the flowback waters from Marcellus Formation in the Appalachian Basin with strontium isotopes in order to help detect and trace contamination of surface and ground waters by flowback water. The geochemical characterisation of the flowback fluids showed elevated levels of Bromide, Calcium, Strontium (up to 5200 mg/L), Sodium, Chloride (up to 12000 mg/L) and Barium. They also reported high total dissolved solids in the fluids in excess of 200000 mg/L. They concluded that high elemental concentrations were the result of interactions between fracturing fluids, formation minerals and formation fluids.
For their part, Wilke et al. [107] studied the rate of release of metals, salts anions and organic compounds from shale rocks in Denmark and Germany. They reported that, concentration of ions in solution largely depended on the composition of the black shale and did not show dependency on pH of the fluids used in experiments. There was however a correlation between the buffering capacity of specific mineral components of the rock, such as pyrite and carbonate on amount of dissolved ions. They also reported decrease in ionic concentrations over time due to precipitation of new minerals. Findings from this research provided an understanding of possible flowback water composition and toxicity from these unconventional fields in Denmark and Germany respectively.
Experimental studies by Macron et al. [106] on geochemical interactions between fracturing fluid and formation showed evidence of clay and carbonate dissolution as well as precipitation of new minerals. Dissolution leads to elevated elemental concentrations in fluids some of which show a drastic reduction when precipitation of new minerals begins. Results from this experimental work were validated using measured concentrations of sodium chloride (NaCl) in Marcellus shale which showed similar trends. They concluded that results from their work can be used to form a basis of assessing controls of geochemical reactions in the reservoir, in other words, flowback water compositions.
In this section, recent research advancements are summarised. Review of recent studies shows that geochemical and geo-mechanical impacts from interactions between clay minerals and/or formation and fracturing fluids are being assessed more closely to help solve problems associated with reduced permeabilities during post-fracturing flowback. Geo-mechanical response of formations due to differences in temperatures of fracturing fluid and subsurface formations have also become a focus area for researchers. These advancements have unlocked new areas of research which will be explored in the near future. Other researchers have also focused on developing methods to measure the extent to which geochemical and geo-mechanical impacts are controlled by certain mechanisms during interactions between formations and fracturing fluid. Recent studies assessed for the purpose of this review are as follows:
Though water-blocking effect is known to be one of the causes of permeability loss following hydraulic fracturing, mechanisms by which this occurs are not well understood. Elputranto et al. [108] simulated this phenomenon to study the main forces that drive it. They concluded that the fundamental driver of high water saturations held near the fracture-matrix interface may be due to capillary end effects. These act near the interface between fracture and formation matrix to increase the water saturation beyond the saturation caused by imbibition. Elputranto et al. [108] therefore suggested that capillary end effect is a significant mechanism that must be considered when assessing potential of water-blocking effect in a formation. Future research may focus on experimental validation of this simulation work.
In order to effectively diagnose the predominant mechanism of face damage in fractures in tight sands, Li et al. [109] proposed a new experimental method. In their work, two mechanisms are suggested as mostly being responsible for fracture face damage; high capillary pressure and swelling of water sensitive clays. Li et al. [109] integrated pressure transmission and pressure decay methods to determine the predominant cause of fracture face damage. They concluded that their method is able to distinguish the cause of the key mechanism in fracture face damage. Though the method was effective in tight sand, it has yet to be tested on shales and other unconventional reservoir rock samples with high clay mineral content. Future research should focus on investigating the scope of application of this method for shale formations and other unconventional reservoir rocks with high clay compositions.
Fine particle migration is a major cause of fracture aperture blocking yet a very difficult phenomenon to study. Muggli et al. [110] introduced a simple, time saving experimental method to assess particle migration potential for different fracturing fluid compositions. They premised their method on the fact that behaviour of fine particles in the subsurface is a function of fracturing fluid composition. In their method, turbidity, capillary suction time behaviour and particle size distribution relative to the time and depth of particles are observed and recorded. Results from observations are then used to draw conclusions on the potential of particle migration and pore throat blocking. They tested their method using Eagle Ford Brine with and without additives. Low turbidity and capillary suction time were observed for brine without additives whiles higher values were recorded when additives were used. They explained that high turbidity was due to the inhibition of flocculation caused by the additives. Low capillary suction times therefore, may not always be desirable. In conclusion, they indicated that this experiment can be repeated using other fracturing fluid compositions to determine their impact on migration of fines.
Significant geochemical reactions are expected to occur during the shut-in period when fracturing fluid is in contact with formation. Wang et al. [111] studied rock-fluid interactions during the shut-in period to assess the water chemistry over the period using 15% HCL and water. They also assessed the possibility of scale formation in the reservoir based on these reactions. Their results showed ability of fracturing fluid to react with and dissolve formation minerals to increase permeability. However, these reactions also lead to release of ions into solution which may cause precipitation of scale-forming and permeability reduction minerals. Wang et al. [111] proposed their study as a way of understanding the long-term implications of rock-fluid interactions. Future research to expand the frontiers of this work should consider using different fracturing fluid compositions.
Furthermore, the impact of microstructural and geochemical interactions between fracturing fluids and fracture face in organic rich carbonates was studied by Liang et al. [112]. They concluded that 2% Potassium Chloride, though used to inhibit adverse reactions between fluids and clays minerals, may in fact increase the dissolution rates of carbonates thus increasing absolute permeability. This increase was observed to be more pronounced for slickwater relative to synthetic sea water. Their study is evidence that water-based fracturing fluids could be beneficial when used in some formation types such as organic-rich carbonates. Future research in this area should therefore be focused on understanding the mechanisms that cause faster dissolution in presence of Potassium Chloride.
Juan et al. [113] investigated the relative impacts of slickwater and linear gel on mechanical properties of different rock types in the Permian basin. Reactions for these set of experiments were conducted at elevated temperature and pressure conditions, 190°F and 1000 psi respectively. Their findings indicated that: linear gel caused more mechanical (Young’s Modulus) reduction, about 27% compared to slickwater, about 14%; Samples with higher contents of carbonates sustained more damage relative to low carbonate samples, with carbonate etching being the primary damage mechanism in slickwater whilst that in the linear gel is aggressive dissolution; Most carbonate dissolution happened within the first five hours of the reaction. This experiment provides critical information on reactions between rocks and fluids at elevated temperatures and could be repeated for other types of fracturing fluids in different formations to observe the responses.
Temperature differences between injected fracturing fluids and formation have been reported to exert significant mechanical impacts during fracturing. This observation has gained attention and has become focus area for researchers. Vena et al. [114] studied the impact of large temperature differentials between formation and invading fracturing fluids. They took particular interest in changes such as clay swelling, imbibition and other mechanisms that adversely affect formation permeability. Their results indicate an initially pronounced impact on stress regimes within the formation leading to development of micro-fractures which are sealed over time. Similar findings were obtained by Elputranto et al. [115] when they used high resolution simulation methods to assess the response of formation to fluid with high temperature and salinity differentials to formation. Since perpetual propagation or opening of these micro-fractures will greatly enhance permeability of a reservoir, future research should be focused on understanding the mechanisms that can sustain these micro-fractures.
Elputranto et al. [115] used high resolution simulated models to investigate the mechanical impact on the interface between hydraulic fracture and matrix due to reactions emanating from cold and low salinity fracturing fluid invading rock formation. They simulated the responses during the well shut-in period and flowback and production periods. Their results show that thermo-elastic effects are generated in the formation that lead to increased permeability which is short lived. Based on results from this work, future research will focus on how to sustain and possibly allow better propagation of these short-lived fractures created due to thermo-elastic effects of fracturing fluid interaction with formation. Achieving this will lead to significantly improved permeability and production.
Li et al. [116] conducted an experiment on the use of CO2 as pre-fracturing fluid during hydraulic fracturing in tight gas formations. They aimed to confirm that the combination of CO2 and water during hydraulic fracturing operations could help harness benefits of both fluids especially at locations with low water availability. This research was undertaken for subsequent application in the Loess plateau of Ordos basin in China. Results from experiments showed improved permeability due to dissolution of carbonates and clay minerals by CO2. They also found that CO2 interacts with hydrocarbons and provides additional impacts in terms of improving hydrocarbon properties to enhance relative permeability, thus providing increased productivity. More experiments should be conducted to ascertain the optimum use of CO2 and water combinations for fracturing.
Adverse environmental footprints of hydraulic fracturing operations have also necessitated research to find innovative ways of mitigating these impacts. Ellafi et al. [117] investigated the possibilities of re-using produced water as fracturing fluid. They justified their research by drawing attention to the large volumes of fresh water used in hydraulic fracturing operations. Some helpful statistics quoted to buttress their points include the following: Texans waste about 2% of water demand on fracturing jobs [118]; the amount of water withdrawn from the Missouri River for hydraulic fracturing in 2018 alone, was about 1.269x 1010 gals, an estimated 10.1% of North Dakota water consumption [119].
The authors would like to acknowledge this study was made possible by The US DOE Award DE-FE0031776 from the Office of Fossil Energy. We also thank Ben Chapman of College of Engineering, Architecture and Technology (CEAT), OSU for helping with the graphics. We are grateful to our Team Members in Hydraulic Barrier and Geomimicry Materials at OSU: Allan Katende, Cody Massion, Chris Grider and Vamsi Vissa for their support.
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There is greater mobility in youth and mature adulthood and old age than in early adulthood; and the majority of young and early adult women leaving labor force attribute it to motherhood.",book:{id:"5727",slug:"unemployment-perspectives-and-solutions",title:"Unemployment",fullTitle:"Unemployment - Perspectives and Solutions"},signatures:"Virgilio Partida and Maria Edith Pacheco",authors:[{id:"203465",title:"Dr.",name:"Virgilio",middleName:null,surname:"Partida",slug:"virgilio-partida",fullName:"Virgilio Partida"}]},{id:"56156",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69808",title:"Ageing Issue in Activation Labour Policies: The ‘Intergenerational Approach’ to Tackle Unemployment",slug:"ageing-issue-in-activation-labour-policies-the-intergenerational-approach-to-tackle-unemployment",totalDownloads:1176,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Starting from the theoretical-political paradigm of activation, the chapter analyses welfare reforms (focusing on pension and labour policies) in two European countries: France and Italy. Special attention is given to the intergenerational approach implemented in recent years, following international agencies’ recommendations. First evaluations of the devices put in practice to face employment problems affecting young and mature workers allow to develop some considerations on the ambiguity that characterize activation paradigm in the context of the global crisis, having produced a severe employment reduction and putting into question the validity of this widespread paradigm. In this context, the implementation of intergenerational measures seems to reveal little effects on unemployment rates for both young and older workers and on the availability of new jobs into the labour market. Nevertheless, they tend to improve the quality of work, reducing fixed-term contracts and allowing public finance savings. A cultural implication is also cited, referring to the change of perspective these measures may foster to overlap age discriminations in workplaces, as in public debate.",book:{id:"5727",slug:"unemployment-perspectives-and-solutions",title:"Unemployment",fullTitle:"Unemployment - Perspectives and Solutions"},signatures:"Barbara Barabaschi",authors:[{id:"196787",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Barabaschi",slug:"barbara-barabaschi",fullName:"Barbara Barabaschi"}]},{id:"56202",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69813",title:"Labor Market Inclusion Through Social Economy in Slovakia",slug:"labor-market-inclusion-through-social-economy-in-slovakia",totalDownloads:1398,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The social economy becomes an effective and a modern instrument of social market economy, and the importance of this sector is constantly increasing. According to the degree of acceptance of the concept of social economy, the European Union countries are divided into several groups. This business area in Slovakia is currently developing, and it is supported slightly. France, Italy, and Spain are among the leaders, and their experience can serve as inspiration for the establishment of social initiatives in Slovakia. They prefer social objective before making a profit; they are democratically organized and based on the unmet demand of the local community. The social enterprises are often creating sustainable jobs, bringing innovative solutions to social problems, and they have close links to active labor market policies. The chapter focuses on the current situation in the social economy in relation to the labor market, points out the successful path of development, and identifies opportunities for progress in this area in Slovakia with emphasis on the employment of disadvantaged job seekers.",book:{id:"5727",slug:"unemployment-perspectives-and-solutions",title:"Unemployment",fullTitle:"Unemployment - Perspectives and Solutions"},signatures:"Eva Pongrácz and Hana Poláčková",authors:[{id:"196711",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eva",middleName:null,surname:"Pongrácz",slug:"eva-pongracz",fullName:"Eva Pongrácz"},{id:"204654",title:"Dr.",name:"Hana",middleName:null,surname:"Poláčková",slug:"hana-polackova",fullName:"Hana Poláčková"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56148",title:"Factors Affecting Employment and Unemployment for Fresh Graduates in China",slug:"factors-affecting-employment-and-unemployment-for-fresh-graduates-in-china",totalDownloads:3570,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The factors such as college reputation, major, and gender, which affect job search prospects of graduates from Shandong Province in China, are studied. A duration model including parametric, semiparametric, and nonparametric approaches is used and yielded several important findings. First, graduates find jobs faster if they come from the research universities. The study shows that economics and management, and engineering graduates find jobs more easily. Other major graduates have no significant difference although they are not more likely to find jobs than the former. Moreover, there is no remarkable gap between female and male graduates.",book:{id:"5727",slug:"unemployment-perspectives-and-solutions",title:"Unemployment",fullTitle:"Unemployment - Perspectives and Solutions"},signatures:"Kong Jun",authors:[{id:"196476",title:"Prof.",name:"Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Kong",slug:"jun-kong",fullName:"Jun Kong"}]},{id:"56202",title:"Labor Market Inclusion Through Social Economy in Slovakia",slug:"labor-market-inclusion-through-social-economy-in-slovakia",totalDownloads:1398,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The social economy becomes an effective and a modern instrument of social market economy, and the importance of this sector is constantly increasing. According to the degree of acceptance of the concept of social economy, the European Union countries are divided into several groups. This business area in Slovakia is currently developing, and it is supported slightly. France, Italy, and Spain are among the leaders, and their experience can serve as inspiration for the establishment of social initiatives in Slovakia. They prefer social objective before making a profit; they are democratically organized and based on the unmet demand of the local community. The social enterprises are often creating sustainable jobs, bringing innovative solutions to social problems, and they have close links to active labor market policies. The chapter focuses on the current situation in the social economy in relation to the labor market, points out the successful path of development, and identifies opportunities for progress in this area in Slovakia with emphasis on the employment of disadvantaged job seekers.",book:{id:"5727",slug:"unemployment-perspectives-and-solutions",title:"Unemployment",fullTitle:"Unemployment - Perspectives and Solutions"},signatures:"Eva Pongrácz and Hana Poláčková",authors:[{id:"196711",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eva",middleName:null,surname:"Pongrácz",slug:"eva-pongracz",fullName:"Eva Pongrácz"},{id:"204654",title:"Dr.",name:"Hana",middleName:null,surname:"Poláčková",slug:"hana-polackova",fullName:"Hana Poláčková"}]},{id:"56156",title:"Ageing Issue in Activation Labour Policies: The ‘Intergenerational Approach’ to Tackle Unemployment",slug:"ageing-issue-in-activation-labour-policies-the-intergenerational-approach-to-tackle-unemployment",totalDownloads:1175,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Starting from the theoretical-political paradigm of activation, the chapter analyses welfare reforms (focusing on pension and labour policies) in two European countries: France and Italy. Special attention is given to the intergenerational approach implemented in recent years, following international agencies’ recommendations. First evaluations of the devices put in practice to face employment problems affecting young and mature workers allow to develop some considerations on the ambiguity that characterize activation paradigm in the context of the global crisis, having produced a severe employment reduction and putting into question the validity of this widespread paradigm. In this context, the implementation of intergenerational measures seems to reveal little effects on unemployment rates for both young and older workers and on the availability of new jobs into the labour market. Nevertheless, they tend to improve the quality of work, reducing fixed-term contracts and allowing public finance savings. A cultural implication is also cited, referring to the change of perspective these measures may foster to overlap age discriminations in workplaces, as in public debate.",book:{id:"5727",slug:"unemployment-perspectives-and-solutions",title:"Unemployment",fullTitle:"Unemployment - Perspectives and Solutions"},signatures:"Barbara Barabaschi",authors:[{id:"196787",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Barabaschi",slug:"barbara-barabaschi",fullName:"Barbara Barabaschi"}]},{id:"56183",title:"Unemployment Normalization in Different Economic Contexts",slug:"unemployment-normalization-in-different-economic-contexts",totalDownloads:1341,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"A recent strand of research has raised the question of whether a change is underway in the relationships that people have with work and nonwork. This body of work suggests that the manner in which people view unemployment and not working is changing. This chapter pursues and clarifies the first results of this research. The authors hypothesize a process of unemployment normalization, defined as the view that unemployment is a normal or even inevitable phase of life in a person’s career path and is the result of external circumstances rather than personal ones. This was tested with 600 unemployed people in two different economic contexts—France and Luxembourg—using a scale that revealed two latent factors: Justification for current unemployment situation and Perceived normality of unemployment. The findings reveal differences in the degree of normalization according to socioeconomic variables as well as an impact on the perceived health of the unemployed.",book:{id:"5727",slug:"unemployment-perspectives-and-solutions",title:"Unemployment",fullTitle:"Unemployment - Perspectives and Solutions"},signatures:"Claude Houssemand and Anne Pignault",authors:[{id:"196722",title:"Prof.",name:"Claude",middleName:null,surname:"Houssemand",slug:"claude-houssemand",fullName:"Claude Houssemand"},{id:"196907",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne",middleName:null,surname:"Pignault",slug:"anne-pignault",fullName:"Anne Pignault"}]},{id:"60703",title:"Attorneys and Attorney Tariff in Slovenia",slug:"attorneys-and-attorney-tariff-in-slovenia",totalDownloads:1387,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In Slovenia, attorneys as part of the justice system represent an autonomous and independent service that is regulated by law. As set out in the decision of the Constitutional Court of RS, there is no doubt that the legislature has to adopt the law to regulate the attorneys? profession, but in its attempt of such regulation, the legislature always collides with the constitutional requirement that the attorneys are autonomous and independent. Therefore, when regulating the attorneys? profession, the legislature has to address the issues of autonomy and independence, and thus also the question of determining attorney tariffs, while certain issues must be left to be autonomously regulated within the attorneys? profession. The attorney tariff does not determine a mandatory price of legal services because an attorney and his client may always reach an agreement that is different from the attorney tariff. However, the tariff is binding when the court decides on the obligation to reimburse the party who has succeeded in a dispute for their attorney costs. With our research, we have empirically demonstrated that the existing attorney tariff in Slovenia unjustifiably drains smaller law firms, which guarantee an efficient coverage of population and smaller undertakings with a network of legal services.",book:{id:"7453",slug:"attorneys-and-attorney-tariff-in-slovenia",title:"Attorneys and Attorney Tariff in Slovenia",fullTitle:"Attorneys and Attorney Tariff in Slovenia"},signatures:"Boštjan Brezovnik, Žan Jan Oplotnik and Franjo Mlinarič",authors:[{id:"245699",title:"Dr.",name:"Bostjan",middleName:null,surname:"Brezovnik",slug:"bostjan-brezovnik",fullName:"Bostjan Brezovnik"},{id:"245700",title:"Dr.",name:"Zan Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Oplotnik",slug:"zan-jan-oplotnik",fullName:"Zan Jan Oplotnik"},{id:"245701",title:"Dr.",name:"Franjo",middleName:null,surname:"Mlinaric",slug:"franjo-mlinaric",fullName:"Franjo Mlinaric"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"73",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/23.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 12th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"280770",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine K.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavropoulos",slug:"katherine-k.m.-stavropoulos",fullName:"Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdFuQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-24T09:03:48.jpg",biography:"Katherine Stavropoulos received her BA in Psychology from Trinity College, in Connecticut, USA and her Ph.D. in Experimental Psychology from the University of California, San Diego. She completed her postdoctoral work at the Yale Child Study Center with Dr. James McPartland. Dr. Stavropoulos’ doctoral dissertation explored neural correlates of reward anticipation to social versus nonsocial stimuli in children with and without autism spectrum disorders (ASD). She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. 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He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. He has published over 120 articles in international conferences and journals and has served on the program committees of numerous international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"90",title:"Human Development",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/90.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"191040",title:"Dr.",name:"Tal",middleName:null,surname:"Dotan Ben-Soussan",slug:"tal-dotan-ben-soussan",fullName:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBf1QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:56:11.jpg",biography:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan, Ph.D., is the director of the Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics (RINED) – Paoletti Foundation. Ben-Soussan leads international studies on training and neuroplasticity from neurophysiological and psychobiological perspectives. As a neuroscientist and bio-psychologist, she has published numerous articles on neuroplasticity, movement and meditation. She acts as an editor and reviewer in several renowned journals and coordinates international conferences integrating theoretical, methodological and practical approaches on various topics, such as silence, logics and neuro-education. 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Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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