Currently recognised species of
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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6966",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Lipid Peroxidation Research",title:"Lipid Peroxidation Research",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Lipid peroxidation is the major molecular mechanism that induces oxidative damage to cell structures and is also involved in the toxicity process that leads to cell death.Lipid peroxidation is a chain reaction initiated by the hydrogen abstraction or addition of an oxygen radical, resulting in the oxidative damage of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). PUFAs are more sensitive than saturated fatty acids because of the presence of a double bond adjacent to a methylene group that makes the methylene C-H bond weaker and therefore the hydrogen is more susceptible to abstraction. This leaves an unpaired electron on the carbon, forming a carbon-centered radical, which is stabilized by a molecular rearrangement of the double bonds to form a conjugated diene, which then combines with oxygen to form a peroxy-radical.In pathological situations the reactive oxygen and nitrogen species are generated at higher than normal rates, and as a consequence, lipid peroxidation occurs with deficiency of endogenous antioxidants as alpha-tocopherol deficiency or reduced glutathione. In addition to containing high concentrations of PUFAs and transition metals, biological membranes of cells and organelles are constantly being subjected to various types of damage.This book presents systematic and comprehensive reviews on free radicals and their involvement in lipid peroxidation with special emphasis on their important role in different diseases.",isbn:"978-1-83968-548-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-547-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-549-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73713",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"lipid-peroxidation-research",numberOfPages:128,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"f1f45176e765ecb65a1c6d1496e75b5b",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6966.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7143,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:27,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 10th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 28th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 27th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 15th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 16th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/224662/images/system/224662.jpg",biography:"Mahmoud Mansour Ph.D. is a professor of Biochemistry at the Pharmaceutical Sciences Department, College of Pharmacy King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, Saudi Arabia. His specialization includes molecular biology, biochemical pharmacology, pharmacogenetics, and biochemistry. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological studies in cancers (especially hepatic cancer), antioxidants, oxidative stress, proteasome (and its role in the treatment of hepatic cancer), experimental gastroenterology, clinical gastroenterology, and diabetes. He has published more than 60 papers in peer-reviewed journals. He received the State Encouragement award from the Scientific Research Academy in 1998. Fourteen of his students were appointed as full university professors in Egypt and Saudi Arabia.",institutionString:"King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"380",title:"Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-biochemistry-molecular-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"69951",title:"Introductory Chapter: Free Radicals and Lipid Peroxidation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90057",slug:"introductory-chapter-free-radicals-and-lipid-peroxidation",totalDownloads:697,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69951",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69951",authors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],corrections:null},{id:"63733",title:"Role of Lipid Peroxidation Process in Neurodegenerative Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81188",slug:"role-of-lipid-peroxidation-process-in-neurodegenerative-disorders",totalDownloads:1053,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lipid peroxidation is one of the primary events of the cell injury process. In pathophysiological condition, it is undergoing the initiation of organ damage. Various free radicals are playing a key role in this lipid peroxidation process. Free radical associated organ damage involves the three major phases, that is, initiation, propagation and termination. The primary source of various free radical formations is mediated through the pathophysiological function of mitochondria. Lipid peroxidation is contributed to the multiple neurodegenerative disorders. Thus, the various endogenous cellular anti-oxidant systems are regulated lipid peroxidation process and control the neurodegenerative action. Some of the molecules are targeted to attenuate the lipid peroxidation and their mediators for the prevention of neurodegeneration.",signatures:"Arunachalam Muthuraman, Narahari Rishitha, Nallupillai Paramakrishnan, Bhaskaran Mahendran and Muthusamy Ramesh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63733",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63733",authors:[{id:"192481",title:"Dr.",name:"Arunachalam",surname:"Muthuraman",slug:"arunachalam-muthuraman",fullName:"Arunachalam Muthuraman"},{id:"267631",title:"Ms.",name:"Narahari",surname:"Rishitha",slug:"narahari-rishitha",fullName:"Narahari Rishitha"},{id:"267632",title:"Dr.",name:"Nallupillai",surname:"Paramakrishnan",slug:"nallupillai-paramakrishnan",fullName:"Nallupillai Paramakrishnan"},{id:"267633",title:"Mr.",name:"Bhaskaran",surname:"Mahendran",slug:"bhaskaran-mahendran",fullName:"Bhaskaran Mahendran"},{id:"267635",title:"Dr.",name:"Muthusamy",surname:"Ramesh",slug:"muthusamy-ramesh",fullName:"Muthusamy Ramesh"}],corrections:null},{id:"63958",title:"Lipid Peroxidation in Meat and Meat Products",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81533",slug:"lipid-peroxidation-in-meat-and-meat-products",totalDownloads:1183,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The meat and meat products present a considerable amount of lipid in their composition. The lipid composition of these foods is diversified. Thus, depending on the type of meat, which can be rich in unsaturated fatty acid, there is an increase in the disposition for lipid oxidation. Oxidation reactions not only reduce the shelf life and nutritional value of food products but also can generate harmful compounds. Thus, having in view that many types of new technologies are applied to these foods, the proposal of this chapter of how these new methodologies have affected the lipid peroxidation of these foods. Moreover, the aim is to evaluate what impacts on the chemical characteristics of these foods.",signatures:"Ana Lúcia F. Pereira and Virgínia Kelly G. Abreu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63958",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63958",authors:[{id:"257739",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Lúcia Fernandes",surname:"Pereira",slug:"ana-lucia-fernandes-pereira",fullName:"Ana Lúcia Fernandes Pereira"},{id:"273455",title:"Prof.",name:"Virgínia Kelly",surname:"Gonçalves Abreu",slug:"virginia-kelly-goncalves-abreu",fullName:"Virgínia Kelly Gonçalves Abreu"}],corrections:null},{id:"67162",title:"Antioxidants from Nigerian Medicinal Plants: What Are the Evidence?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84454",slug:"antioxidants-from-nigerian-medicinal-plants-what-are-the-evidence-",totalDownloads:1386,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The search for natural antioxidants from plants would continue to be a dominant research interest for many years. This is because of the increasing understanding on the role of oxidative stress in damaging cell structures such as DNA, due to over production of free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in human systems, which are linked to inflammation, cancer and diabetes. However, phenolic compounds especially from phytochemicals or vegetable foods play important roles in reducing the risk of these diseases and reinforces the importance of natural antioxidants in human health. These antioxidant molecules neutralize or quench the ROS by either hydrogen atom transfer or single electron transfer mechanisms. Thus, the capacity to scavenge ROS and free radicals or inhibits lipid peroxidation is measured quantitatively as the strength of antioxidant activity. Several chemical and biochemical protocols have been used in the evaluation of plant extracts as antioxidants. Overwhelming literature reports have indicated varying degrees of antioxidant efficacies of extracts from Nigerian medicinal plants in comparison to synthetic antioxidants. These efficacies were analyzed to provide insight into the strength of antioxidant activity. This chapter reviewed 250 Nigerian medicinal plants in search of evidence for effective antioxidants.",signatures:"Abubakar Babando Aliyu, Jonathan Ilemona Achika, Joseph Adesina Adewuyi, Patience Gangas, Hamisu Ibrahim and Adebayo Ojo Oyewale",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67162",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67162",authors:[{id:"273741",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Abubakar Babando",surname:"Aliyu",slug:"abubakar-babando-aliyu",fullName:"Abubakar Babando Aliyu"},{id:"291439",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan Ilemona",surname:"Achika",slug:"jonathan-ilemona-achika",fullName:"Jonathan Ilemona Achika"},{id:"291440",title:"Mr.",name:"Joseph Adesina",surname:"Adewuyi",slug:"joseph-adesina-adewuyi",fullName:"Joseph Adesina Adewuyi"},{id:"291441",title:"Ms.",name:"Patience",surname:"Gangas",slug:"patience-gangas",fullName:"Patience Gangas"},{id:"291442",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamisu",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hamisu-ibrahim",fullName:"Hamisu Ibrahim"},{id:"291443",title:"Prof.",name:"Adebayo Ojo",surname:"Oyewale",slug:"adebayo-ojo-oyewale",fullName:"Adebayo Ojo Oyewale"}],corrections:null},{id:"66739",title:"Royal Jelly and Human Interferon-Alpha (HuIFN-αN3) Affect Proliferation, Glutathione Level, and Lipid Peroxidation in Human Colorectal Adenocarcinoma Cells In Vitro",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85777",slug:"royal-jelly-and-human-interferon-alpha-huifn-n3-affect-proliferation-glutathione-level-and-lipid-per",totalDownloads:855,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose was to investigate the influence of RJ-F(M), 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid and HuIFN-αN3 on the proliferation of CaCo-2 cells and ascertain their effects on intracellular glutathione level and lipid peroxidation. The antiproliferative (AP) activity of RJ-F (M) (0.1 g/10 mL PBS), HuIFN-αN3 (1000 IU mL−1), 10-HDA (100.0 μmol L−1) and their combinations, in the ratios 1:1, 1:2, and 2:1 on CaCo-2 cells were measured. Single RJ-F (M) had a low AP activity: 2.0 (0.5 mg mL−1). HuIFN-αN3 had an AP activity of 2.5 (208.33 IU mL−1), while 10-HDA had an AP activity of 1.5 (37.5 μmol mL−1). AP activity of 3.8 was obtained when RJ-F(M) and HuIFN-αN3 were in the ratio 2:1. In it, the level of GSH was 24.9 ± 2.4 nmol g−3 of proteins (vs. 70.2 ± 3.2 nmol g−3 in the control), and level of MDA was 72.3 ± 3.1 nmol g−3 (vs. 23.6 ± 9.1 nmol g−3 in the control). 10-HDA, together with HuIFN-αN3, is responsible for the inhibition of CaCo-2 cell proliferation in vitro. RJ-F (M) and HuIFN-αN3 applied at 2:1 decreased level of GSH and increased lipid peroxidation via MDA in CaCo-2 cells. Future studies are needed whether these GSH- and MDA-related activities of RJ-F (M), HuIFN-αN3, 10-HDA, and their combinations may decrease the tumorigenicity index and tumorigenic potential of tumor cells in vitro",signatures:"Bratko Filipič, Lidija Gradišnik, Klemen Rihar, Adriana Pereyra, Damir Đermić and Hrvoje Mazija",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66739",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66739",authors:[{id:"254007",title:"Dr.",name:"Bratko",surname:"Filipič",slug:"bratko-filipic",fullName:"Bratko Filipič"},{id:"255988",title:"Mrs.",name:"Lidija",surname:"Gradisnik",slug:"lidija-gradisnik",fullName:"Lidija Gradisnik"},{id:"255989",title:"Dr.",name:"Klemen",surname:"Rihar",slug:"klemen-rihar",fullName:"Klemen Rihar"},{id:"255990",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",surname:"Pereyra",slug:"adriana-pereyra",fullName:"Adriana Pereyra"},{id:"255992",title:"Prof.",name:"Hrvoje",surname:"Mazija",slug:"hrvoje-mazija",fullName:"Hrvoje Mazija"},{id:"255993",title:"Dr.",name:"Damir",surname:"Đermić",slug:"damir-djermic",fullName:"Damir Đermić"}],corrections:null},{id:"65211",title:"Statins Alone or in Combination with Ezetimibe or PCSK9 Inhibitors in Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease Protection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82520",slug:"statins-alone-or-in-combination-with-ezetimibe-or-pcsk9-inhibitors-in-atherosclerotic-cardiovascular",totalDownloads:1347,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Statins have proved to be very effective in reducing atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) risk, with no apparent threshold at which low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) lowering is not associated with a reduced risk. Yet, several meta-analyses of statin trials show significant on-treatment residual risk of major cardiovascular (CV) events. This finding points to the unmet needs, in terms of LDL-C targets and ASCVD protection, of statin-treated patients, raising the question of statin combination therapy. Ezetimibe is a cholesterol absorption inhibitor, with the potency to decrease LDL-C for about 10–18%, apolipoprotein B (apoB) for 11–16%, while, in combination therapy with statins, leads to an additional LDL-C lowering of 25%, with a total LDL-C lowering of 34–61%. It is also estimated that 10–20% of patients on statin treatment cannot tolerate them. As a result, adequate doses to achieve treatment target, or as recommended for the patient-specific risk profile, cannot be prescribed. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) Inhibitors are monoclonal antibodies that inhibit the binding of PCSK9 to LDL-C receptors. Besides a very potent lipid-lowering effect, PCSK9 inhibitors have added ASCVD risk reduction benefit due to a very aggressive LDL-C lowering action, especially beneficial in patients who are intolerant to statins.",signatures:"Marija Vavlukis and Ana Vavlukis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65211",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65211",authors:[{id:"221486",title:"Prof.",name:"Marija",surname:"Vavlukis",slug:"marija-vavlukis",fullName:"Marija Vavlukis"},{id:"264541",title:"MSc.",name:"Ana",surname:"Vavlukis",slug:"ana-vavlukis",fullName:"Ana Vavlukis"}],corrections:null},{id:"70331",title:"Designating Vulnerability of Atherosclerotic Plaques",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90664",slug:"designating-vulnerability-of-atherosclerotic-plaques",totalDownloads:623,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microcalcification is an indication of vulnerability of plaques in humans. With conventional imaging modalities, screening of micrometer-sized structures in vivo with high spatial resolution has not been achieved. The goal of this study is to evaluate the potentials of micro-computed tomography (micro-CT), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy (TRFS), scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM), and photo-acoustic microscopy (PAM) in the determination of atherosclerotic plaques with microcalcifications and, therefore, the prospect of constructing a modality on a catheter system. The discrimination of microcalcifications within the fibrocalcific plaques and, therefore, the effectivity of these imaging techniques are discussed. The potential of quantum dots (QDs) in biological imaging is also elucidated since they attract great attention as contrast and therapeutic agents, owing unique properties including good light stability, low toxicity, strong fluorescence intensity, and changing emission wavelength with QD size, ranging from 10 to 100 Å in radius.",signatures:"Bukem Tanoren Bilen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70331",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70331",authors:[{id:"298850",title:"Dr.",name:"Bukem",surname:"Bilen",slug:"bukem-bilen",fullName:"Bukem Bilen"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3203",title:"Oxidative Stress and Chronic Degenerative Diseases",subtitle:"A Role for Antioxidants",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7014dbaa632114f7220802475ccd0402",slug:"oxidative-stress-and-chronic-degenerative-diseases-a-role-for-antioxidants",bookSignature:"José A. 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\r\n\tIn general, dehydration is defined as a process of water loss. More specifically, dehydration is a heterogeneous physicochemical process that leads to a decrease in water molecules concentration in some material, and more specifically at the surface of solid material. Dehydration is a reversible, endothermal reaction that happens at the interface of interaction. The most striking property of dehydration is the active involvement of intermediate products in the process of water removal. Dehydration has enormous practical and theoretical significance in various fields, from bio-medical and environmental to materials and physicochemical sciences. Despite that, and the existence of numerous literature data concerning dehydration, which is most frequently described as drying, dehydration is not enough systematically investigated. The critical overview of the available literature data reveals that the main field in up-to-date investigations of dehydration are the following: novel theoretical models of the mechanism of the dehydration process and models developed for describing the kinetics of the dehydration process, non-equilibrium thermodynamics features of the dehydration process, dehydration assisted with different external fields and their effects on the process and kinetics of the dehydration, the effects of the phase-state of adsorbed water on the processes and kinetics of the dehydration, phase, and structural changes in adsorption materials during dehydration and dehydration of specific groups of materials, such as inorganic oxides, crystals- hydrates, zeolites, silicates and clays, polysaccharides, amino acids, peptides, composites, nanocomposites, polymers, hydrogels, aerogels, foods and food products, fruits, vegetables, meats, and biological materials ( tissues, algae, mushrooms, etc.), pharmaceuticals, etc. It is worth mentioning that dehydration of hydrogels, as a specific class of materials, gets more important in the last decade. The proposed book aims to give a comprehensive overview of the up-to-date state-of-the-art in the most relevant topics in dehydration with special emphasis on novel materials and novel methods in mathematical modeling of dehydration’s kinetics, but not limited to them. The author’s contributions in the highlighted potential of novel findings in dehydration processes and their miscellaneous application will be acknowledged.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-141-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-140-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-142-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"91d7853d4e74d161d7a8f5913626cf94",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Jelena Jovanovic",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11563.jpg",keywords:"Mechanism of Dehydration, Phase State, Phase Transformations, Kinetics, Dehydration Isotherms, Enthalpy, Gibb’s Free Energy, Activation Energy, Inorganic Materials, Natural Materials, Composites, Hydrogels",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 24th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 20th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 7th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Experienced researcher in smart materials, polymers, hydrogels, synthesis, and kinetics, with a BS and MS, focused in Organic Chemistry and Polymers from the Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade and a high h index (27).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"447810",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jelena",middleName:null,surname:"Jovanovic",slug:"jelena-jovanovic",fullName:"Jelena Jovanovic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/447810/images/system/447810.jpg",biography:"Dr. J. Jovanovic is a research professor at the Institute of General and Physical Chemistry (IOFH) in Belgrade, R. Serbia, as since 2019 and previously she was employed at the University of Belgrade, Faculty of Physical Chemistry during 2005-2019 The main academic and scientific career of Dr. J. Jovanovic is extensive and covers several areas: advanced and smart materials, polymers, polymer composites, carbon composite materials, hydrogels. Synthesis with special emphasis on non-conventional synthesis, e.g. under microwaves, ultrasonic, or cavitation. Green chemistry synthesis and physicochemical processes. Synthesis of various types of hydrogels both under conventional and unconventional conditions. She works extensively on the investigation of the effects of different fields on the reaction kinetics of chemical and physicochemical processes. 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Despite
\n
Direct fluorescent antibody tests (DFAs), enzyme-immunoassays (EIAs), and rapid immunochromatographic assays (dipsticks) are commercially available [60, 61, 62, 63]. The EIA kits have been evaluated with human stool specimens only, presumably from patients infected with
Current treatment options for cryptosporidiosis are limited. So far, there is no vaccine against
The parasite has a complex monoxenous life cycle with both asexual (merogony) and sexual (gametogony) stages. Ingestion of an infective oocyst (containing four sporozoites) by a susceptible host initiates the excystation process in the gastrointestinal tract. The sporulated oocyst ruptures, releasing sporozoites that invade the enterocytes, inducing the cell membrane to enclose the parasite in the parasitophorous vacuole, which then differentiates into a trophozoite. Trophozoites undergo merogony and form either a further type I meront or a type II meront, which contains four merozoites that are destined for gametogony. Merozoites can differentiate into sexually distinct stages called macro- and microgametocytes in a process called gametogony. New oocysts are formed in the epithelial cells from the fusion of a macro- and a microgametocyte to form a diploid zygote. The new fused cell evolves and sporulates in situ in a process called sporogony, becoming oocysts containing four sporozoites. Type II meronts attach to the epithelial cell and differentiate into either macrogamonts or microgamonts. The microgametes from the microgamont are released, and each can fertilised a macrogamont to form a diploid zygote. This cell undergoes a process like meiosis (sporogony) to produce an oocyst, either thin- or thick-walled, containing four sporozoites (sporulated oocysts). The thin-walled oocysts are involved in autoinfection, and thick-walled oocysts are released within the faeces to infect new hosts [104, 105, 106, 107] (Figure 1).
\nA schematic diagram of
Until relatively recently,
Once excreted into the environment, oocysts can be dispersed from the faecal matrix into the terrestrial environment (Figure 2). When present on the soil surface, oocysts may be exposed to high temperatures and desiccation, causing their inactivation. Oocysts are sensitive to desiccation and UV-C irradiation [116]. Reports show that desiccation is lethal to oocysts with only 3 and 5% remaining viable after being air-dried at room temperature for 2 and 4 h, respectively [117, 118]. However, when within the soil column, the oocysts were maintained, protected, and viable [119, 120]. Studies have indicated that oocysts at 4°C recovered from soil column may remain infectious for long periods [119, 121]. These findings suggest that the soil column is a sanctuary for
\n
\n
Transmission cycles of
The WHO has categorised
\n | \nCattle | \n[139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144] | \n
\n | \nChickens and turkeys | \n[145] | \n
\n | \nCattle | \n[146, 147] | \n
\n | \nDogs | \n[148, 149, 150] | \n
\n | \nRabbits | \n[151, 152, 153, 154, 155] | \n
\n | \nMarsupials | \n[141, 156] | \n
\n | \nCats | \n[93, 157, 158] | \n
\n | \nHumans | \n[18] | \n
\n | \nTurkeys, chickens, humans | \n[18, 93, 153, 159, 160] | \n
\n | \nRodents | \n[161, 162, 163] | \n
\n | \nruminants, especially calves | \n[18] | \n
\n | \nPigs | \n[164] | \n
\n | \nPigs | \n[139, 160, 165, 166, 167] | \n
\n | \nRodents, snake | \n[168] | \n
\n | \nSheep and cervids | \n[152, 154, 157, 158, 169] | \n
\n | \nHumans | \n[93, 170] | \n
\n | \nHedgehogs and horses | \n[171, 172] | \n
\n | \nGuinea pigs | \n[173, 174] | \n
\n | \nSheep and goat | \n[174] | \n
\n Chipmunk genotype | \nRodents | \n[93] | \n
\n Horse genotype | \nHorses | \n[152, 153] | \n
\n Mink genotype | \nMinks | \n[175] | \n
\n Monkey genotype | \nMonkey | \n[152] | \n
\n Skunk genotype | \nSkunk | \n[152, 153] | \n
Currently recognised species of
The most prevalent species.
Human infections predominantly are caused by
The human-to-human spread is particularly well described within families (often secondary cases after a primary outbreak infection) in childcare nurseries, nursing homes, and hospitals [42, 177, 178]. In addition, contact with production animals, mainly cattle, that are the main hosts of
In developing countries, most
Recent years have seen impressive progress of next-generation sequencing technologies in genome assembly and annotation methodologies, mainly by advancements in the fields of molecular biology and technical engineering and by reducing cost.
\n | \n— | \nSAMEA 3496639 | \nPRJEB 10000 | \n9.10 | \n30.1 | \n3818 | \n3817 | \n
\n | \nTU502 | \n— | \nPRJNA 13200 | \n8.74 | \n30.9 | \n3949 | \n3885 | \n
\n | \nTU502_2012 | \nSAMN 02382005 | \nPRJNA 222836 | \n9.10 | \n30.1 | \n3796 | \n3745 | \n
\n | \nUKH1 | \nSAMN 02382004 | \nPRJNA 222837 | \n9.15 | \n30.1 | \n3769 | \n3718 | \n
\n | \n30,976 | \nSAMN 02862040 | \nPRJNA 252787 | \n9.06 | \n30.1 | \n3995 | \n3959 | \n
\n | \nIowa type II | \nSAMN 02952908 | \nPRJNA 144 | \n9.10 | \n30.2 | \n7774 | \n7610 | \n
\n | \n30,847 | \nSAMN 04417240 | \nPRJNA 354069 | \n9.09 | \n28.5 | \n3897 | \n3876 | \n
\n | \nUKMEL1 | \nSAMN 02666797 | \nPRJNA 222838 | \n8.97 | \n31.0 | \n3806 | \n3753 | \n
\n | \nUKMEL4 | \nSAMN 08383028 | \nPRJNA 315503 | \n8.79 | \n30.9 | \n— | \n— | \n
\n | \nUKMEL3 | \nSAMN 08383027 | \nPRJNA 315502 | \n8.70 | \n31.0 | \n— | \n— | \n
\n | \n39,726 | \nSAMN 02768023 | \nPRJNA 534291 | \n8.97 | \n30.8 | \n3766 | \n3766 | \n
\n | \nChipmunk LX-2015 | \nSAMN 03281121 | \nPRJNA 272389 | \n9.51 | \n31.9 | \n— | \n— | \n
\n | \n37,763 | \nSAMN 10623052 | \nPRJNA 511361 | \n9.05 | \n32.0 | \n— | \n— | \n
\n | \nTAMU 09Q1 | \nSAMN 02382006 | \nPRJNA 222835 | \n8.50 | \n24.2 | \n— | \n— | \n
\n | \nUKCU2 | \nSAMN 08383019 | \nPRJNA 3154496 | \n9.18 | \n25.8 | \n— | \n— | \n
\n | \nRN66 | \nSAMN 02953683 | \nPRJA 19553 | \n9.25 | \n28.5 | \n— | \n3934 | \n
\n | \nUKUIA1 | \nSAMN 10107889 | \nPRJA 492837 | \n9.26 | \n31.1 | \n— | \n— | \n
Genomic features of
Draft genome.
Overall, gene content and genomic organisation among intestinal occurrences of the species are well conserved, with
Notwithstanding its novelty, the major challenges for the generation of whole genomes of
\n
I would like to thank Victor Ricardo Azevedo for the assistance with Figure 3.
\nThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
In 2014 recreational, adult-use of cannabis (interchangeably referred to as marijuana) was established in the state of Colorado. At this time the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment (CDPHE) was given statutory responsibility in Colorado Revised Statute (C.R.S.) 25-1.5-110, to; “monitor changes … in the emerging science and medical information relevant to the health effects associated with marijuana use.” and “appoint a panel of health care professionals with expertise in, but not limited to, neuroscience, epidemiology, toxicology, cannabis physiology, and cannabis quality control to further direct policy.” Based on this charge, CDPHE appointed a 14-member committee titled the Retail Marijuana Public Health Advisory Committee (RMPHAC) to review scientific literature on the health effects of marijuana.
Under the same statute mentioned previously, the RMPHAC is directed to “…establish criteria for studies to be reviewed, reviewing studies and other data, and making recommendations, as appropriate, for policies intended to protect consumers of marijuana or marijuana products and the general public.” To implement this charge, the RMPHAC meets four or five times a year to review the scientific literature currently available on health effects of marijuana use, evaluate findings without bias, openly discuss the science and apply expert opinion, come to consensus on the science, translate the science into public health messages, make policy-related recommendations, recommend surveillance activities, and identify and address gaps in the science important to public health. All this information is compiled and detailed in a report every two years for the Colorado State Board of Health, the Colorado Department of Revenue, and the Colorado General Assembly, titled “Monitoring Health Concerns Related to Marijuana in Colorado” [1].
Since 2014, and prior to this publication, the RMPHAC has come together on a quarterly basis, held discussions concerning hundreds of articles, and developed over one hundred evidence statements within eleven health topics. As more scientific evidence regarding cannabis health effects are published, this committee continues to build upon existing evidence statements or will construct new statements when appropriate. This chapter will detail the review methods used by the RMPHAC to develop evidence statements about the health effects associated with marijuana use, describe the findings from all eleven health topics, and report the public health statements, recommendations, and research gaps used to inform public health policy in the State of Colorado.
The first step in the process of investigating the health effects from marijuana use was to develop and implement an unbiased, transparent, and complete process for evaluating scientific literature and data on marijuana use and health outcomes. To ensure this, the RMPHAC and CDPHE technical staff developed a twelve step review process guided by the established preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) framework [2]. These twelve steps are followed for each review and are as follows:
Conduct a broad search of current peer-reviewed publications quarterly. Relevant articles cited in reviews or other primary studies are also included.
Review relevant full-text articles identified in the search.
Rate the findings: each finding in the articles is rated as a high-, medium-, or low-quality finding based on strengths and limitations of the methods. Evaluation of the strengths and limitations was based on criteria in the grading of recommendations assessment, development and evaluation (GRADE) system, a well-accepted method for evaluating the quality of scientific evidence [3].
Group related findings: each finding is categorized based on population, exposure, and outcome (health effect), to answer specific questions.
Weigh the evidence: draft evidence statements that summarize the quantity and quality of evidence answering a specific question.
Translate the evidence: draft public health statement that translate the evidence statement into language at an 11th grade reading level.
Synthesize the evidence: draft public health recommendations (e.g., for education or monitoring) based on important information identified through the review process.
Identify research gaps: draft statements to articulate the research gaps identified during the review process.
Present to committee: findings, evidence statements, public health statements, public health recommendations, and research gaps are publicly presented to the RMPHAC for review and revision during open public meetings.
Public comment: during the open public meetings, interested stakeholders and members of the public are invited to provide comments relevant to the topics presented.
Reach consensus: committee members come to consensus on findings, evidence statement, public health statement, public health recommendations, and research gaps.
Adopt summary statements: committee votes to officially accept findings, evidence statements, public health statements, public health recommendations, and research gaps.
All review methods were approved by the RMPHAC, including the terms used to conduct the ongoing broad search of peer-reviewed publications for relevant literature. Medline is the priority research database used to obtain articles for review. Embase, the biomedical database, and gray literature were secondarily reviewed when references in included articles were not included in Medline searches. Studies of marijuana use in humans were the primary focus of the review, with animal studies included for only specific topics with limited human research. All identified peer-reviewed literature on a given topic was reviewed, regardless of positive or negative findings or quality of the methods utilized. For the ongoing broad Medline search, medical subject heading (MeSH) terms were used and is as follows; “Cannabis”[Mesh] OR Marijuana “Smoking”[Mesh] OR “Marijuana Abuse”[Mesh] OR cannabis OR marijuana OR marihuana OR hash oil OR hashish. In 2014, when this review was established, specific searches were conducted using the appropriate MeSH terms for each topic area.
Once relevant literature is obtained, each finding is rated high, medium, or low quality based on the strengths and limitations of the methods which is determined by criteria in the GRADE system. The GRADE system is a well-established method for systematic literature review and has been used by the Cochrane Collaboration, British Medical Journal, American College of Physicians, World Health Organization, and many others [3]. Findings rated high quality are defined as “We are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect outlined in the study.” These are well-designed and well-controlled studies with few limitations. Due to the fact that most studies included in our review are observational epidemiology studies, receiving a high quality rating does not necessarily imply causation. It simply implies that an observed association persists between an exposure and effect in an appropriately-sized study population after adjusting for appropriate confounders. Medium quality findings are defined as “we are moderately confident in the effect estimate outlined in the study. The true effect is likely to be close to the estimate of the effect, but there is a possibility that it is substantially different.” For observational epidemiology studies this implies the finding of an observed association may be limited by a small study population or insufficient adjustment for important confounders. Low quality findings are defined as “our confidence in the effect estimate outlined in the study is limited. The true effect may be substantially different from the estimate of the effect.” For observational epidemiology studies this implies the finding of an observed association with an interpretation that is significantly restricted by study limitations.
Findings from relevant literature are usually grouped based on outcome or the health effect in question. However, in some situations findings are further subdivided based on factors such as: age range of the exposed population, special subject circumstances such as pregnancy or breastfeeding, level or method of marijuana use, time period since last use of marijuana, amount of marijuana used, and THC concentration. Standardized definitions of level of marijuana use (daily, weekly, etc.) and age groups (child, adolescent, young adult, etc.) were established to help facilitate grouping of findings. Once findings are grouped appropriately, the evidence is drafted into evidence statements that summarize the quality and quantity of scientific evidence supporting an association between marijuana use and a health outcome.
In order to make our review findings easily interpretable we used a standardized rating system to classify evidence statements. These statements are also constructed to accurately portray the quality and quantity of all findings used to support the particular health outcome. Evidence statements all use standardized language from one of the following six classifications:
Substantial evidence—indicates robust scientific findings that support an association between marijuana use and the outcome.
Moderate evidence—indicates scientific findings that support an association, but these findings have some limitations.
Limited evidence—indicates modest scientific findings that support an association, but these findings have significant limitations.
Mixed evidence—indicates both supporting and opposing scientific findings for an association, with neither direction dominating.
Insufficient evidence—indicates the outcome has not been sufficiently studied to conclude whether or not there is an association between marijuana use and the outcome.
Body of research failing to show an association—indicates the topic has been researched without evidence of an association; is further classified as a limited, moderate, or substantial body of research.
In the following sections evidence statements will be discussed according to health topic and statements with enough findings to receive a substantial or moderate rating are displayed in tables. All statements, regardless of evidence level, are drafted by CDPHE technical staff, revised based on committee review and feedback from technical advisors and public stakeholders. Statements in their final form are approved by a vote of the committee.
The RMPHAC has reviewed the relationships between adolescent and young adult marijuana use on various areas of concern; including cognitive abilities, academic performance, mental health, and future substance use, displayed in Table 1. Specifically regarding cognitive and academic abilities, weekly marijuana use by adolescents is associated with deficits for at least twenty-eight days after last use. Weekly use among adolescents is also associated with failure to graduate from high school or complete a college degree. Information on how marijuana use affects short-term and long-term IQ is currently insufficient and limited, respectively. As with many of our statements that reflect long-term marijuana use, the paucity of long-term studies is a research gap that will hopefully improve due to the changing legal landscape of cannabis throughout the United States.
Substantial evidence | Moderate evidence | |
---|---|---|
Benefits of quitting | Treatment for cannabis use disorder can reduce use and dependence [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10] | Quitting or decreasing marijuana use lowers the risk of adverse mental health outcomes [11, 12, 13, 14] |
Cognitive and academic effects | Weekly, or more frequent, use is associated with a lower rate of graduating high school [15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23] | Weekly, or more frequent, use is associated with a lower rate of attaining a college degree (among those who start a degree program) [19, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29] |
Weekly, or more frequent, use is associated with ongoing cognitive and academic impairment for at least 28 days after last use [30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35] | ||
Mental health | Daily or near daily use is associated with future psychotic disorders like schizophrenia [36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43] | Marijuana use is associated with suicidal thoughts or attempting suicide [22, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63] |
Use is associated with future psychotic symptoms (likelihood increases with more frequent use) [14, 40, 42, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80] | ||
Substance use, abuse, and addiction | Those who use marijuana can develop cannabis use disorder (addiction) [81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87] | Marijuana use is associated with future use and use disorder for alcohol [15, 20, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92] |
Marijuana use is associated with future use and use disorder for marijuana, tobacco and other drugs [13, 15, 20, 22, 25, 28, 79, 84, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105] | ||
High THC (%) concentration | Using marijuana with higher THC concentration (>10% THC) is associated with continued use [38, 106, 107, 108] | |
Use of marijuana with higher THC concentration (>10% THC) is associated with future mental health symptoms and disorders [38, 78, 107] |
Marijuana use among adolescents and young adults.
Adolescents and young adults who use marijuana are more likely to experience psychotic symptoms in adulthood (such as hallucinations, paranoia, and delusional beliefs), future psychotic disorders (such as schizophrenia), and suicidal thoughts or attempting suicide, when compared to adolescents and young adults who do not use marijuana. Additionally, those using marijuana with higher tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) concentration (>10% THC) are more likely than non-users to continue using and to develop future mental health symptoms and disorders. How marijuana use during adolescence affects symptoms or a diagnosis of anxiety in adulthood currently stands at a mixed evidence level, with fourteen articles contributing to this rating. Only one of which received a high quality rating and also reported mixed findings relevant to this evidence statement on anxiety [64]. Results from their main analysis did show an association with adolescent cannabis use and adulthood anxiety, however, results from a monozygotic-only co-twin control analysis reported no association [64].
Evidence shows that adolescents who use marijuana can develop cannabis use disorder, along with marijuana use being associated with developing use disorder for tobacco, alcohol, and other drugs. On a more positive note, evidence shows that adolescents who receive treatment for cannabis use disorder can decrease their use and dependence. Additionally, those who quit using marijuana have lower risks of adverse cognitive and mental health outcomes than those who continue to use.
To assess how marijuana use may or may not be associated with cancer, the RMPHAC reviewed health effects of the chemicals released in marijuana smoke and vapor and evaluated how different rates of marijuana use relate to cancer. Strong evidence shows marijuana smoke contains many of the same cancer-causing chemicals found in tobacco smoke [109]. There is also substantial evidence that daily or near-daily marijuana smoking is associated with pre-malignant lesions in the airway. However, there is conflicting research for whether or not marijuana smoking is associated with lung cancer. As shown by the moderate evidence statement in Table 2, the body of research reviewed has failed to show an association between smoking less than the equivalent of one joint per day for 10 years and lung cancer.
Substantial evidence | Moderate evidence | |
---|---|---|
Cancer and precancerous lesions | Daily or near daily use is associated with pre-cancerous lesions in airway [110, 111, 112] | Smoking less than the equivalent of one joint per day for 10 years is not associated with lung cancer [113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118] |
Chemicals in MJ smoke or vapor | Marijuana smoke contains many of the same cancer causing chemicals as tobacco smoke [109, 119, 120, 121, 122] | |
Genitourinary Cancer | Use among adult males is associated with increased risk of nonseminoma testicular cancer [123, 124, 125, 126, 127] |
Marijuana use and cancer.
Apart from the respiratory system, most of our statements are not in Table 2 due to the limited evidence available concerning cancers of the bladder, prostate, head and neck. These limited statements all suggest these forms of cancer might not have any association with marijuana use. However, there is evidence that marijuana use among adult males may be associated with nonseminoma testicular cancer. High quality research on non-respiratory tract cancers related to marijuana use remains a research gap identified by the RMPHAC.
Related to cardiovascular health effects, how marijuana use associates with myocardial infarction, stroke, and death from cardiovascular causes were reviewed. Evidence shows that marijuana use or consumption in those under the age of fifty-five years are at an increased risk of ischemic stoke, as shown in Table 3. However, currently there is only limited scientific evidence to support our statements on myocardial infarction and death related to a cardiovascular event.
An important metric to understand is how THC blood levels compare from various marijuana methods of use and the numerous concentrations of THC in available products on the retail marijuana market. For example, there is substantial evidence that smoking more than 10 mg THC (or 10–20% of a 1 g marijuana joint) produces a blood THC level near or above 5 ng/mL within 10 min. As we see the THC concentration of marijuana products increase, we can expect this association to remain strong. One important finding in Table 4 is that it can take up to four hours after consuming an edible marijuana product to reach the peak THC blood concentration and feel the full effects. Another method of use, vaporized THC, shows moderate evidence of producing a similar blood THC level to smoking the same amount.
Substantial evidence | Moderate evidence | |
---|---|---|
THC blood levels resulting from different exposures | It takes up to four hours after ingesting marijuana (edible products) to reach peak blood THC levels [146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151] | Ingesting (edible products) more than 15 mg THC may produce a blood THC level above 5 ng/mL [148, 152, 153, 154] |
Smoking more than 10 mg THC produces a blood THC level near or above 5 ng/mL within 10 min [152, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159] | Inhaling vaporized THC produces a blood THC level similar to smoking the same dose [149, 159, 160] | |
Secondhand exposure | Typical secondhand marijuana smoke exposure is unlikely to cause a positive drug screen by urine or blood [161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169] |
Marijuana dose and drug interactions.
Within this topic the RMPHAC reviewed effects of secondhand marijuana smoke, drug-drug interactions involving marijuana, and relationships between marijuana and opioid use. There is credible evidence of clinically important drug-drug interactions between marijuana and multiple medications, including some anti-seizure medications and a common blood-thinner, warfarin. Data about potential interactions are lacking for many drugs at this time and are likely to evolve substantially in the coming years. Other than our statement about secondhand marijuana smoke exposure being unlikely to cause a positive drug screen, our statements in this topic area are all based on limited evidence. Health effects resulting from secondhand marijuana smoke exposure is an area lacking in research. There is also conflicting evidence for whether or not marijuana use is associated with a decrease in opioid use among chronic pain patients or individuals with a history of problem drug use.
As with any psychoactive substance it is imperative to know how marijuana affects a person’s ability to drive and the crash risks associated with use. To fully comprehend how marijuana causes driving impairment we must also understand the pharmacokinetics of THC in the human body to know how long these affects will persist after last use. Table 5 displays all driving related statements that have evidence to provide a substantial or moderate rated statement. Current research shows substantial evidence that recent marijuana use by a driver increases the risk of a motor vehicle crash. In addition, using alcohol and marijuana together increases impairment and the risk of a motor vehicle crash more than using either substance alone.
Substantial evidence | Moderate evidence | |
---|---|---|
Combined marijuana and alcohol use | Combined use of marijuana and alcohol increases crash risk more than either substance alone [170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181] | |
Impairment and crash risk | Recent marijuana use/consumption by a driver increases the risk of a motor vehicle crash [170, 171, 172, 174, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188] | Higher THC blood level increases the risk of a motor vehicle crash [173, 178, 180, 189] |
Smoking more than 10 mg THC can lead to driving impairment [147, 155, 157, 177, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200] | Blood THC levels of impaired drivers are higher now than they were in the past [201] | |
Orally ingesting more than 10 mg THC can lead driving impairment [146, 147, 153, 155] | ||
Increased risk of driving impairment at blood THC as low as 2–5 ng/mL [155, 185, 190, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206] | ||
Time to wait before driving | Waiting at least 6 after smoking less than 18 mg allows driving impairment to resolve or nearly resolve [155, 190, 207] | Waiting at least 6 h after smoking about 35 mg allows driving impairment to resolve or nearly resolve [157, 192, 196] |
Waiting at least 8 h after orally ingesting less than 18 mg allows driving impairment to resolve or nearly resolve [147, 153, 155, 208] |
Marijuana use and driving.
The RMPHAC also set out to determine how various patterns of marijuana use affect driving. People that consume marijuana less-than-weekly are likely to experience impaired driving after using marijuana containing ten milligrams or more of THC. This statement holds true for smoking or consuming edible marijuana products. Research on driving impairment for those that consume more frequently than weekly is currently lacking in scientific literature. Due to this our evidence statement on crash risk for different levels of use (less-than-weekly compared to more frequent use) has received an insufficient rating at this time.
Articles measuring THC blood levels were also assessed to evaluate for any correlation to driving impairment, crash risk, and to develop statements informing consumers the amount of time to wait prior to driving. There is substantial evidence, including a randomized clinical trial [202], which has displayed meaningful driving impairment with a whole blood THC of 2–5 ng/mL. Additionally, moderate evidence points to a positive relationship between THC blood level and motor vehicle crash risk. In order for marijuana consumers to allow impairment to resolve, less-than-weekly consumers should wait at least six hours after smoking or eight hours after eating or drinking marijuana products. When consuming larger amounts of THC or for people that consume more frequently, evidence is currently insufficient to determine the safe amount of time for impairment to wear off. Evidence is also showing that blood THC levels of marijuana-impaired drivers are higher now than in the past, likely resulting from the increasing THC concentration of available marijuana products.
The RMPHAC reviewed how marijuana use may affect gastrointestinal disease, particularly cyclic vomiting, and infertility or abnormal reproductive function. Displayed in Table 6, evidence shows that long-time, daily or near daily marijuana use is associated with cyclic vomiting, also called cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS). A majority of evidence supporting this statement is from case reports or case series of identified CHS patients, however, many review articles detail diagnostic criteria, treatment options, and the physiology behind marijuana use and CHS presentation [220]. Regarding reproductive function, there is limited research showing marijuana use is associated with male infertility or abnormal function, however, the research is conflicting for women.
The RMPHAC reviewed workplace, recreational and other non-driving injuries, burns from hash-oil extraction or failed electronic smoking devices, and physical dating violence. Evidence shows mixed results for marijuana use affecting the risk of workplace injury, recreational injury, and other types of non-driving-related injury. There have been many reports of severe burns resulting from home-extraction of butane hash oil leading to explosions, and cases of electronic smoking devices exploding, leading to trauma and burns.
Concerning dating violence, Table 7 shows our only statement reaching moderate or substantial levels of evidence is that young adult women who use marijuana are unlikely to perpetrate physical dating violence against their dating partners. Otherwise, evidence does show that young adults who use marijuana are unlikely to commit or be victims of physical dating violence, however evidence is limited at this time. Evidence for adolescent boys that use marijuana has mixed findings for physical dating violence perpetration and limited evidence for victimization, with evidence for adolescent girls being the opposite (Table 7).
Similar to statements in our adolescent and young adult section, it is imperative to understand how marijuana could impact neurological, cognitive, and mental health in adult marijuana consumers. This section also explores how marijuana consumption relates to marijuana abuse and addiction among adult consumers. While our review on cognitive effects includes decision making, executive function, memory impairment, and lasting cognitive effects, strong evidence has been found only for memory impairment, as shown in Table 8. We have found substantial evidence that daily or near daily adult marijuana consumers are more likely than non-users to have memory impairments for at least seven days after last use. Evidence is mixed for whether or not these memory impairments or other cognitive effects last for at least twenty-eight days after last use, among the same population of adult consumers.
Substantial evidence | Moderate evidence | |
---|---|---|
Cognitive effects | Daily or near daily use is associated with impaired memory for at least 7 days [30, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235] | |
Mental health effects | Use is associated with acute psychotic symptoms during intoxication, which are worse with higher doses [236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243] | |
Daily or near daily use is associated with future psychotic disorders like schizophrenia [38, 42, 107, 244, 245, 246] | Use of marijuana with THC concentration > 10% is associated with future psychotic disorders like schizophrenia [38, 107, 247] | |
Substance use, abuse and addiction | Those who use marijuana can develop cannabis use disorder (addiction) [82, 85, 86, 93, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252] | |
Treatment for cannabis use disorder can reduce use and dependence [4, 6, 8, 9, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257] | ||
Those using daily or near daily can experience withdrawal symptoms when abstaining [11, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270] |
Marijuana use and neurological, cognitive, mental health effects.
As with all psychoactive substances, mental health effects in adult marijuana consumers must be examined. An important acute effect of THC with substantial evidence is psychotic symptoms, such as hallucinations, paranoia, and delusional beliefs during intoxication, and these symptoms are worse with higher doses. Additionally, daily or near daily marijuana use is associated with developing a psychotic disorder such as schizophrenia. As detailed in our report focusing on the increasing concentration of THC in products available, there is increased public health concern as these products may lead to higher potential for adverse health effects in consumers [1]. This concern is substantiated by available research enabling us to provide a moderate rated statement showing association between higher concentration THC products and future psychotic disorders in adult marijuana consumers.
Finally, evidence shows marijuana consumers can experience withdrawal symptoms when abstaining and become addicted to marijuana or develop cannabis use disorder. However, as with adolescents, treatment for cannabis use disorder can reduce use and dependence in adult consumers. Many associations within this section lack high quality evidence or research currently exhibits mixed findings, such as marijuana use being associated with anxiety, depression, or bipolar disorder (Table 8).
Table 9 details our evidence concerning marijuana use during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Biological evidence shows THC passes through the placenta to the fetus and is present in the breast milk of women who use marijuana. Scientific evidence shows the fetus absorbs and metabolizes THC passed through the placenta and THC metabolites are found in the meconium or first stool passed by the newborn after birth. Additionally, infants who drink breast milk containing THC absorb and metabolize the THC. These statements show how important it is to understand how marijuana use during pregnancy and/or breastfeeding can affect the offspring or impact delivery of the offspring.
Substantial evidence | Moderate evidence | |
---|---|---|
Effects on exposed offspring | Prenatal marijuana exposure is associated with reduced cognitive function, academic ability, and IQ scores in childhood [271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280] | |
Prenatal marijuana exposure is associated with attention problems in childhood [273, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285] | ||
Birth defects | Prenatal marijuana use is not associated with birth defects [286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292] | |
Preterm delivery or abnormal birth weight | Maternal use during pregnancy is associated with infants being born small for gestational age (birth weight less than 10th percentile for gestational age) [286, 287, 289, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305] | |
THC is passed through the placenta of women who use marijuana, the fetus absorbs and metabolizes the THC, and THC metabolites are found in the meconium [306, 307, 308, 309, 310]. | ||
THC is present in the breast milk of women who use marijuana. Infants who drink breast milk containing THC absorb and metabolize the THC [311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316]. |
Marijuana use during pregnancy and/or breastfeeding.
Specifically regarding exposed offspring, the RMPHAC reviews potential effects starting at birth and later in childhood or adolescence. Marijuana use during pregnancy has shown to not be associated with birth defects in general, but limited evidence of an association with an increased risk of heart defects, stillbirth, and decreased growth in offspring. Stronger evidence was found for effects that are seen in offspring years after birth if a child’s mother used marijuana while pregnant. These include impaired cognitive function and academic ability, lower IQ scores, and attention problems in childhood.
While consumers have a variety of marijuana products to choose from, smoking marijuana flower remains the most common method of use and thus respiratory effects must be evaluated [317]. The RMPHAC reviews respiratory diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD), chronic bronchitis and asthma, respiratory infections, lung function relative to smoked marijuana. The committee has also reviewed potential health effects of vaporized marijuana as those products have emerged on the legal market. Displayed in Table 10, strong evidence shows an association between daily or near-daily marijuana use and chronic bronchitis, including chronic cough, sputum production, and wheezing. Weaker evidence shows daily or near-daily marijuana use may be associated with bullous lung disease leading to pneumothorax in individuals younger than forty years of age. Additionally, limited evidence does show frequent smokers who switch from marijuana smoking to marijuana vaporizing may have fewer respiratory symptoms and improved pulmonary function. Finally, a notable effect of acute marijuana smoking is a short-term improvement in lung airflow, though evidence contributing to this statement is dated (Table 10).
Substantial evidence | Moderate evidence | |
---|---|---|
Smoked marijuana | Use is associated with chronic bronchitis with cough, wheezing and mucus [318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327] | |
Acute use is associated with short-term lung airflow improvement [328, 329, 330] |
Marijuana use and respiratory effects.
As marijuana becomes more accessible to the public, we must consider unintentional exposures in homes with children and how packaging can affect these. Strong evidence was found, shown in Table 11, that more unintentional exposures of children occur in states with increased legal access to marijuana, and exposures can lead to significant clinical effects requiring medical attention and even hospitalization. However, evidence does show that child-resistant packaging reduces unintentional pediatric marijuana poisonings (Table 11).
Substantial evidence | Moderate evidence | |
---|---|---|
Legal marijuana access increases unintentional marijuana exposures in children [331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341] | Child-resistant packaging reduces unintentional pediatric poisonings [342, 343, 344] |
Unintentional marijuana exposure in children.
Once evidence statements have been drafted and approved by the RMPHAC, the next step (number 6 from our systematic review process) is to translate the evidence into public health statements. These are designed to accurately reflect the evidence statements using language the public can understand. The committee also wanted to ensure these statements conveyed the volume and quality of research related to the outcome and allowed the statement to stand on its own without context. Similar to our evidence statements, these use standardized language to represent the strength of relationship and use the phrase “associated with” to represent epidemiologic associations that do not imply causation. As of the date of this book’s publication CDPHE has seventy-four public health statements corresponding to all our evidence statements rated moderate or substantial.
In a similar manner, public health statements are subsequently drafted into public health recommendations. These are synthesized in order to inform the development of evidence-based prevention and education campaigns performed by CDPHE. Furthermore, recommendations are separated by data quality issues, surveillance, and education. Our recommendations share common themes to those put forth by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine’s review of health effects associated with cannabis and cannabinoids [345].
Data quality issues are defined as recommendations to improve current data collection deficiencies at the clinical or governmental level that prevent full analysis of public health outcomes related to marijuana use. It is especially important to improve data quality by systematically collecting information on the frequency, amount, THC content, and method of marijuana use in both public health surveillance and medical care settings. Clinicians should routinely screen for marijuana use during hospitalizations, especially among pregnant or adolescent patients.
Public health surveillance recommendations are based on improving capacity to detect an acute public health danger (e.g., real time emergency department surveillance to detect poisonings from contaminated product); the ability to characterize chronic public health dangers to support policy and other intervention decisions; or the ability to generate epidemiologic data to contribute to planning and evaluating population level interventions. Questions regarding marijuana use should be continued on population-based surveys such as the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, the Healthy Kids Colorado Survey, and Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System. Additionally, methods should be expanded to collect more detailed information, such as quantity and methods of use, THC content of products used, and adverse effects experienced.
Education recommendations are included to ensure evidence-based information on potential health effects of marijuana use is provided to the appropriate target audiences. Public education is especially important related to the effects of use during pregnancy, adolescent use, driving after use, increasing THC concentration of products, and unsafe storage around children. Education for health care providers should also be emphasized on the need for marijuana use screening, the known health effects of use, and encouraging more open dialog between providers and patients.
In addition to public health recommendations, important research gaps related to the population-based health effects of marijuana use were identified during the literature review process. These research gaps are based on common limitations of existing research or issues important to public education or policymaking. Research gaps particularly important to public health and safety include the need for: (1) research on the effects of marijuana use on pregnant women and their offspring, including while breastfeeding; (2) research on marijuana and marijuana products that contain THC concentrations consistent with products currently available in legalized markets; (3) research on health effects among individuals who have used marijuana frequently for a long period of time; (4) research on driving impairment among people who use marijuana more than weekly and may have developed tolerance; (5) research to better characterize the pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics, potential drug interactions, health effects, and impairment related to non-smoking methods of marijuana use such as edible products and vaporizing; and (6) research to better describe the risk of adverse health effects due to contamination of the marijuana product by fungi, mold, solvents, additives, heavy metals, and pesticides.
Other research gaps identify areas that need improvement in new research moving forward. Such as studies using better and more standardized indicators of marijuana use, including frequency, THC content, and route of exposure, including populations that use marijuana daily or near daily, and stratifying groups by age and gender. Finally one step to provide strong evidence would be research data on a community based cohort to study both beneficial and adverse health effects of marijuana consumption. Identifying these research gaps provides researchers and funding sources with an important framework to prioritize areas of research related to marijuana use and public health.
Since 2014, when CDPHE was designated to monitor the emerging science and medical information relevant to the health effects associated with marijuana use, the RMPHAC and CDPHE technical staff have conducted an ongoing systematic review of scientific literature to establish over one hundred evidence statements with eleven health topics. Our mission is to translate the science into meaningful public health statements and recommendations to inform and educate the general public, healthcare providers, and everyone in-between on the health effects associated with marijuana use.
First, the committee established a strict process to ensure a thorough and unbiased review, set up quarterly meetings to enable open discussions on a continuous basis, and come to consensus on the science and how to present this information to the public. After establishing our process, evidence from scientific research is constantly reviewed and added when appropriate to form a comprehensive review of marijuana health effects across eleven health topic. Strong evidence statements from all health topics were displayed in tables and key findings were detailed in subsections to provide an overview of effects associated with marijuana use across many different populations and health topics. Additional details were described on how these evidence statements are used to inform public health policy in the State of Colorado through public health recommendations and research gaps.
Elyse Contreras, DeLayna Goulding, Daniel I. Vigil, Katelyn E. Hall, Michael Van Dyke, Shireen Banerji, Russell Bowler, Ashley Brooks-Russell, Christopher Domen, Heather Krug, David J Kroll, Sharon Langendoerfer, Andrew Monte, Kenneth Novoa, Judith Shlay, Elizabeth Stuyt, George Sam Wang, Bernadette Albanese, Lisa Barker, Laura Borgelt, Alvin C. Bronstein, Todd Carlson, Rowena Crow, Teresa Foo, Ken Gershman, Tista Ghosh, Heath Harmon, Rebecca Helfand, Renee M. Johnson, Bruce Mendelson, Madeline Morris, Kristina T. Phillips, Allison Rosenthal, Kim Siegal, Scott Simpson, Christian Thurstone.
“The authors declare no conflict of interest.”
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Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"344229",title:"Dr.",name:"Sankeshan",middleName:null,surname:"Padayachee",slug:"sankeshan-padayachee",fullName:"Sankeshan Padayachee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"315727",title:"Ms.",name:"Kelebogile A.",middleName:null,surname:"Mothupi",slug:"kelebogile-a.-mothupi",fullName:"Kelebogile A. Mothupi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"337613",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tshakane",middleName:null,surname:"R.M.D. Ralephenya",slug:"tshakane-r.m.d.-ralephenya",fullName:"Tshakane R.M.D. Ralephenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"28",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",keywords:"Animal Reproduction, Artificial Insemination, Embryos, Cryopreservation, Conservation, Breeding, Epigenetics",scope:"The advances of knowledge on animal reproductive biology and technologies revolutionized livestock production. Artificial insemination, for example, was the first technology applied on a large scale, initially in dairy cattle and afterward applied to other species. Nowadays, embryo production and transfer are used commercially along with other technologies to modulate epigenetic regulation. Gene editing is also emerging as an innovative tool. This topic will discuss the potential use of these techniques, novel strategies, and lines of research in progress in the fields mentioned above.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11417,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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