A holistic conceptual scheme for sustainable building design.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80356-552-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-551-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-553-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4c2e03f295fbc697350f0bf3bf89a14f",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Murat Eyvaz, Dr. Ahmed Albahnasawi, M.Sc. Ercan Gürbulak and MSc. Mesut Tekbaş",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11840.jpg",keywords:"Aridity and Drought, Precipitation and Evapotranspiration, Land Use, Human Activity, Desertification, Desert, Soil Structure, Water Treatment, Water Scarcity, Irrigated Agriculture, Remote Sensing, Climate Change",numberOfDownloads:49,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 10th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 11th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 10th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 28th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 27th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Murat Eyvaz has co-authored many journal articles and conference papers and has taken part in many national projects. He serves as an editor in 51 journals and a reviewer in 125 journals indexed in SCI, SCI-E, and other indexes. He has four patents on wastewater treatment systems. Dr. Eyvaz's research interests include applications in water and wastewater treatment facilities, electrochemical treatment processes, and filtration systems at the lab.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Albahnasawi is a pioneering researcher in environmental sciences and engineering, he has co-authored numerous journal articles and conference papers on water and wastewater treatment, and waste remediation. Recently, his research interests are the application and designing of Microbial Fuel Cell integrated with Fenton oxidation for industrial wastewater treatment/solid waste management and monitoring of organic micropollutants by both chromatographic and spectrophotometric analyses.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Gurbulak is a pioneering researcher in environmental sciences and engineering. He has co-authored numerous journal articles and conference papers on water and wastewater treatment, and advanced waste remediation technologies. His research interests are the application and designing of hydrothermal processes for industrial wastewater treatment/solid waste management and monitoring of organic micropollutants by both chromatographic and spectrophotometric analyses.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:"Dr. Tekbaş is a pioneering researcher in environmental sciences and engineering, he has co-authored numerous journal articles and conference papers on water and wastewater treatment, and advanced waste remediation technologies. His research interests are the application and designing of supercritical water oxidation processes for wastewater treatment/solid waste management and electrochemical analyses.",coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/170083/images/system/170083.png",biography:"Dr. Murat Eyvaz is an associate professor in the Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include applications in water and wastewater treatment facilities, electrochemical treatment processes, filtration systems at the lab and pilot-scale, membrane processes (forward osmosis, reverse osmosis, membrane bioreactors), membrane manufacturing methods (polymeric membranes, nanofiber membranes, electrospinning), spectrophotometric analyses (UV, atomic absorption spectrophotometry), chromatographic analyses (gas chromatography, high-pressure liquid chromatography). He has co-authored many journal articles and conference papers and has taken part in many national projects. He serves as an editor and reviewer for many indexed journals. 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He received his bachelor’s degree in Environmental Engineering from Marmara University, Turkey, in 2005. He completed his MSc and Ph.D. at Gebze Technical University in 2008 and 2019, respectively. 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Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"66666",title:"Study of the Influence of Humic Acid Macromolecules on the Structure of Erythrocytes of Some Animals by the Method of Absorption",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85321",slug:"study-of-the-influence-of-humic-acid-macromolecules-on-the-structure-of-erythrocytes-of-some-animals",body:'Recently, an increase has been observed in the interest to the application of humic acids (HA) in medicine. These are the examples of HA effect on some vitally important properties of human organism [1]:
Antioxidant properties. A humic complex manifests an explicit ability to support chemical balance in organism. Depending on the situation, humic acid can behave itself either as donor or electron acceptor. This makes humic acid a powerful, natural antioxidant, the trap of free radicals that damage protein structures and DNA molecules of cells, break their genetic code, and, in particular, promote the development of oncological diseases.
Antiviral activity. Humic acids exhibit a high antiviral activity. A humic acid molecule covers a virus as a “coat” to block its escape into the bulk and prevents its reproduction. In this case, humic acid sends a signal to immune system about the appearance of an invader. This pushes the immune system to fight the virus which is in a vulnerable position (bound to a humic acid molecule). As a result, the number of viruses decreases, and the immune system successfully fights the disease.
Detoxicant and hepatoprotector. Humic acids are a powerful means of complexing. They bind and remove heavy metals (lead, copper, mercury, cadmium, cobalt, zinc, etc.) from the body. At a certain concentration, these cause severe poisoning and cell mutations. Heavy metals are not removed independently without special therapeutic measures. Humic acids participate actively in liver metabolism and act as a filter for heavy metals. They capture and immobilize toxic substances, preventing them from taking part in chemical reactions. Thereafter, toxin is readily removed from the body.
Influence on blood properties. Humic acids, in the amount of 100–300 mg per kg, have no effect on the time of bleeding, the time of blood cluttering, thrombin time, or platelet aggregation. Red cells and hemoglobin remain at normal levels. In this case, in the presence of humic acids, erythrocytes carry a higher percentage of oxygen to tissues.
Antibacterial activity. Humic acids have a pronounced antibacterial action on the following pathogenic microorganisms:
Immune system. One of the most pronounced HA effects is strengthening of the general immune response. Humic compounds regulate the number of glycoproteins that affect the balance of Т- and В-lymphocytes. In addition, these activate the synthesis of interleukins 1 and 2 and the production of endogenous interferon and gamma-globulins which activates the oppressed functions of immune system. A series of clinical investigations indicate that humic acids can manifest the anticancer properties by inhibiting tumor growth and suppressing the action of viruses that can cause the development of cancer. Fulvic acid decreases protease activity which allows one to decrease the metastatic activity of cancer cells.
Anti-inflammatory properties. Humic acids have an anti-inflammatory action. These accelerate the healing of wounds and ulcerative defect by strengthening the processes of fibroblast proliferation, acceleration of water, protein, and lipid exchange. They also inhibit the synthesis of inflammation mediators—prostaglandins. The tissue hyaluronidase, which accelerates wound healing, is activated locally. Humic acids were established to inhibit proteolytic enzymes that damage the walls of vessels and skin.
Antiatherosclerotic effect. Since humic acids can distinguish and bind substances, present in excess in the body, they form and remove the complexes with cholesterol and lipoproteins of low density which makes them efficient in their fight against atherosclerosis and its effects.
Antiallergic effect. Humic acids decrease organism sensibilization by actively binding and removing allergens from organisms. In this case, the symptoms of allergy vanish, the number of eosinophils in blood is normalized, and stable remission is attained.
Anti-stress effect. Humic acids regulate the action of stress hormones produced by adrenals (adrenaline, noradrenaline). The high level of adrenaline and noradrenaline indicates an increased level of anxiety. Excess hormones are blocked by humic acids and fail to reach their receptors in a cell. In addition, the ability of humic acids to affect the saturation of red blood cells with oxygen improves overall health and causes a surge of strength.
On humic acid structure, humic acid macromolecules are the polymer of variable molecular size and composition [2, 3]. At present, there is no full clarity in the understanding of a concrete structure of HA macromolecules, and only the general structural peculiarities are available. In terms of the generally accepted concepts, chemically, humic acids are the highly molecular nitrogen-containing organic acids whose molecules include aromatic groupings. A general pattern of the structure of HA macromolecule is as follows. There is a nucleus (aromatic carbon skeleton) and a periphery (polysaccharide-polypeptide chains) ([4]; Figure 1). It is assumed then that the molecular fragments of the nucleus and periphery of one HA macromolecule are bound by chemical bonds. The condensed aromatic nuclei, bound by the chains with a fair conjugation of carbon-carbon and other bonds, are the carriers of the specific properties of humic acids. Peripheral, irregular, structural elements (peripheral chains) are the variable components. As a result, the structure of HA macromolecules is unstable and subjected to statistic fluctuations. As a whole, the HA macromolecules are characterized by statistically continuous range of various structural units. Thus, a characteristic feature of HA macromolecules is their polydispersion.
Model of macromolecule structure of humic acid according to Felbeck [
Recently, along with the traditional viewpoint on the structure of HA macromolecules, there appeared the alternative one [5]. In the framework of the alternative concept, the HA macromolecule structure is the supramolecular self-organizing ensemble of heterogeneous and relatively small molecules, arising from a dead biological material, rather than a single molecule in which the various structural fragments are bound by covalent bonds. The most important property of such a humic, supramolecular structure is that it is stabilized not by covalent bonds but by weak dispersion forces (van der Waals, π-π interactions, and СН-π interactions) and by Н-bonds. The efficiency of HA macromolecule complexing with various simple organic and inorganic compounds is known, at present, in detail [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. It is worth noting that all the works on the study of HA complexing were performed without the method of absorption and information on HA interaction with erythrocytes is unavailable at all.
It is concluded then that by now, there are numerous data on the effect of HA on the vitally essential functions of human organisms. However, the medical HA-based preparations (HA preparations) are not at present widely used in medicine.
One of the reasons, constraining a broad development and implementation of HA preparations, is the absence of a systematic study and, thus, the absence of fundamental knowledge of the mechanism of interaction between humic substance and cell at the molecular level. In particular, there are no data on the interaction of HA macromolecules with such an important cell, contained in blood, as erythrocyte. Information about the HA-erythrocyte interaction can be extracted by observing a supramolecular effect, i.e., the presence of hemagglutination.
It is known that humic substances can agglutinate erythrocytes. As verified by our preliminary experiments, the HA components, obtained from brown coal, selectively agglutinate human and animal erythrocytes: some components agglutinate human and chicken erythrocytes but fail to agglutinate the goose and guinea pig ones. On the contrary, the other types of humic acids agglutinated the goose and guinea pig erythrocytes and failed in the case of chicken and human erythrocytes. Finally, some types of HA agglutinated all erythrocytes used in experiments, whereas the other types of humic acids could not agglutinate erythrocytes at all. In particular, the samples of commercial, artificial fulvic and humic acids did not agglutinate erythrocytes. These results indicate that upon agglutination, the specific HA-cell interactions occur that allow one to distinguish their binding sites; i.e., the interaction efficiency is individual for a concrete HA-erythrocyte pair. Thus, of interest is the study on the efficiency of HA-erythrocyte interaction at the molecular level.
The goal of this work was to determine the efficiency of the interaction between erythrocytes of some animals and HA macromolecules by the method of absorption. Information on the efficiency of HA-erythrocyte interaction can be extracted from the experiments on the change in the parameters of Soret absorption band, that, as shown in [17], are sensitive to the change in the state of oxyhemoglobin molecule, HbO2, contained in erythrocytes. The visible region of HbO2 absorption spectra exhibits the three strongest characteristic bands with maxima at λ ~ 415 nm (Soret band), λ ~ 545 nm (β band), and λ ~ 580 nm (α band) [18, 19]. The origin of HbO2 absorption spectra has been established quite reliably. It is defined by the electron properties of hemes that are the prosthetic groups in the structure of hemoglobins [20]. In metalloporphyrins, the Soret band (heme molecules in erythrocytes) is determined by both the electronic π → π* transition 21Еа ← 11Ag, when the upper state is twice degenerated (D4h symmetry), and the electronic π → π* transitions 21В3u ← 11Ag and 21B2u ← 11Ag in the absence of degeneracy (D2h symmetry) [19, 20]. Experimentally, the Soret spectrum of oxyhemoglobin in erythrocytes exhibits one band which allows us to assign the origin of the spectrum observed to the electron transition 21Еа ← 11Ag.
The changes in the HbO2 absorption spectrum upon both HA addition and conservation of initial erythrocyte can be a priori expected due to the following. In the initial erythrocytes, about 10% of HbO2 can be bound to the inner surface of the membrane [21, 22, 23, 24], i.e., the membrane-bound oxyhemoglobin results from the interaction between HbO2 molecule and membrane components (band 3 protein, spectrin, glycophorin, membrane lipids). The form of erythrocytes can vary after addition of HA and upon hemagglutination which can have effect on the structure of the membrane-bound HbO2 molecules, i.e., cause changes in heme structure. Thus, the structural rearrangement of the membrane-bound HbO2 molecules can lead to the changes in their spectral parameters. As a result, the absorption spectra of initial erythrocyte samples and of those that can agglutinate will be different. The position of absorption band maxima depends on the state of the electron orbitals of porphyrin rings, contained in the heme. The sensitivity of electron transitions between orbitals to the structural changes in porphyrin rings, which form a heme, has been established quite reliably [19, 20]. The Soret band is determined by the electron π → π* transition which is highly sensitive to the change in structure and environment [25]. In particular, as has been established, upon binding of porphyrins to DNA, the Soret band undergoes a long-wave shift of up to 20 nm upon internal intercalation and of 8 nm upon the external one [26]. Besides, the addition of protein causes a bathochromic shift of 10 nm in the chlorine absorption spectrum, contained in porphyrin rings [27]. At last, the effect of erythrocyte lysis on the position of the Soret band maxima is reported in [17]. Thus, the spectral parameters of the oxyhemoglobin molecule absorption spectrum are assumed to change upon hemagglutination due to the deformation of erythrocyte structure.
The goose, chicken, and guinea pig erythrocytes of different geometric parameters and the HA, isolated from brown coal, were used as the samples for solving the problem stated. A preliminary work indicates that the HA preparation agglutinates the chicken and guinea pig erythrocytes and does not agglutinate the goose ones.
Figure 2 shows the absorption spectra of erythrocyte samples of various concentrations in HA solution, isolated from the guinea pig (а), chicken (b), and goose (c) blood. In the HA solutions, the obtained spectra of the initial erythrocyte samples also coincide with the available data on oxyhemoglobin, whose spectra exhibit the bands at λ ~ 415 nm, λ ~ 545 nm, and λ ~580 nm [18, 19]. The presence of characteristic bands at λ ~ 545 nm and at λ~580 nm in the spectra of erythrocyte samples with HA indicates that the HA solutions contain just the oxyhemoglobin molecules because this doublet is not recorded for other hemoglobin derivatives (deoxyhemoglobin, methemoglobin, carboxyhemoglobin, and hemichrome) [18, 19, 30].
Absorption spectra of erythrocyte samples. (a) guinea pig, [Erythr] = 3 × 1012 particles/k; (b) chicken, [Erythr] = 4 × 1012 particles/l; and (c) goose, [Erythr] = 1.2 × 1012 particles/l.
Figure 3 demonstrates the absorption spectra of oxyhemoglobin of different concentrations in HA solutions. According to the data presented, as the concentration of erythrocytes decreases, the position of the Soret band maximum undergoes a noticeable long-wave shift for goose and chicken erythrocytes, and in the case of the guinea pig ones, the shift is very weak. Thus, the interaction between erythrocytes and HA causes the maximal spectral changes in goose erythrocytes, and the minimal ones are observed in the chicken erythrocytes.
Absorption spectra of erythrocytes of different concentrations in HA solutions. (А) guinea pig: (1) [Erythr] = 4.5 × 1011 particles/l, (2) [Erythr] = 3 × 1011 particles/l, and (3) [Erythr] = [1.5 × 1011 particles/l; (B) chicken: (1) [Erythr] = 6 × 1011 particles/l, (2) [Erythr] = 4 × 1011 particles/l, (3) [Erythr] = 2 × 1011 particles/l, and (4) [Erythr] = 1.2 × 1011 particles/l; and (С) goose, (1) [Erythr] = 1.8 × 1012 particles/l., (2) [Erythr] = 1.2 × 1011 particles/l, (3) [Erythr] = 0.6 × 1012 particles/l, and (4) [Erythr] = 0.36 × 1011 particles/l.
The highest effect of the difference in the position of the Soret Δλ band maximum is observed by comparing the absorption spectra of the initial sample erythrocytes with the sample of (erythrocyte + HA} solution. Thus, for a solution [guinea pig erythrocyte (1.5 × 1012 particle/l) + HA №1], this difference was Δλ = +3.3 nm (shortwave shift); for a solution [chicken erythrocyte (2 × 1012 particle/l) + HA №1], Δλ = −1.5 nm (longwave shift); and for a solution [goose erythrocyte (6 × 1011 particle/l) + HA№1], Δλ = +4.3 nm (shortwave shift). Thus, there is a difference in the change in the position of the Soret band maxima by both the absolute value and the direction.
However, a conclusion can be now drawn on the individual character of the effect of HA interaction with the erythrocytes of the animals studied, observed at the molecular level, which correlates with the previous information on the individual character of the hemagglutination of the erythrocytes of these animals.
Figure 4 shows the absorption spectra of guinea pig oxyhemoglobin of various concentrations with HA samples №1 and №2. As follows from the figure, at any erythrocyte concentration, the positions of the Soret band maxima for HA sample №1 are always in a redder region of the spectrum. Thus, the efficiency of the interaction between the guinea pig erythrocytes and HA samples №1 and №2 is different. This effect is, probably, due to the difference in the structural properties of HA samples (Figure 5).
Absorption spectra of guinea pig oxyhemoglobin of different concentrations with HA samples №1 and №2. (А) [Erythr] = 1.5 × 1011 particle/l, (B) [Erythr] = 3 × 1011 particle/l, and (C) [Erythr] = 4.5 × 1011 particle/l. (1) HA №2 and (2) HA №1.
“Structural hypothesis.” As mentioned in Introduction, the addition of HA and the presence of hemagglutination cause changes in erythrocyte form which then can have an effect on the structure of the membrane-bound HbO2 molecules, i.e., finally, can lead to the change in heme structure. Thus, the spectral parameters of the membrane-bound HbO2 molecules can change due to their structural rearrangement. As a result, the absorption spectra of the initial erythrocyte samples without addition of HA and erythrocytes that agglutinate will differ. It is readily seen that in the framework of this hypothesis, the molecules of the membrane-bound oxyhemoglobin must undergo noticeable structural changes due to the deformation of erythrocyte membrane. The possibility of the deformation of erythrocyte structure upon interaction with other molecules was reported, e.g., in [31]. In this work, the method of atomic force microscopy was used to verify that hemin has a specific effect on the nanostructure of erythrocyte membranes by forming domains on its surface.
“Complexing hypothesis.” The shift observed in the position of the Soret band maximum can be differently explained by a feasible penetration of light HA fragments through erythrocyte membrane into the inner erythrocyte region. (This mechanism can be similar to the penetration of virus into a cell. The possibility of this process was verified by studies on the interaction between human erythrocytes and carnosine molecule [32]. In any sample of HA, due to the property of polydispersity of HA [2], light fragments are always present. Direct evidence of the presence of light fractions in the “Aldrich” sample was shown in [33]). The penetration of HA fragments into erythrocyte can lead to the formation of oxyhemoglobin-HA complexes. In this case, this process can involve both the free oxyhemoglobin molecules and the membrane-bound ones. However, this hypothesis fails to account for the experimentally observed shortwave shift of the Soret band with increasing erythrocyte concentration, Soret band origin and π* → π transitions, and the process of complexing must cause a long-wave shift [25].
HA absorption spectra [(2.5 mg/l)]. (1) №1 and (2) №2.
It is impossible now to give preference to one of these hypotheses.
Environmental pollution that occurred as a consequence of industrial development, population growth, and urbanization is one of the extremely important problems of our day. Seventeen percent of water sources, 25% of forestry products, and 40% of energy sources are consumed by the construction sector [1, 2, 3]. For this reason, sustainable building design concept has emerged in the construction sector in recent years. The aim of sustainable building design is to create a built environment that does not disrupt the ecological balance, minimizes the harmful impacts of buildings on the environment, uses resources economically, and provides the necessary conditions for human comfort and health [4]. In this context, sustainable building design can be examined under environmental, economic, and social aspects. The effective use of the site, water, energy, and materials should be taken into consideration during the building design process within the scope of environmentally sustainable building design. Economic constraints in the construction sector have to be determined by using resources effectively and performing cost-effective analyses in the context of economically sustainable building design. Besides, health and well-being of users ought to be enhanced, and public awareness should be provided in the sense of socially sustainable building design.
In accordance with the abovementioned issues, a holistic conceptual scheme is suggested by considering aspects, strategies, criteria, and procedures in this study. According to the suggested scheme, strategies of environmentally sustainable building design aspect are classified as site efficiency, water efficiency, energy efficiency, and material efficiency; strategies of economically sustainable building design aspect are classified as resource efficiency and cost efficiency, and strategies of socially sustainable building design are classified as health and well-being and public awareness. Furthermore, related criteria for each strategy and related procedures for each criterion are determined. By this means, it is intended to create awareness among the actors of the construction sector and the researchers in terms of sustainable building design in this study. Within the scope of this intention, the aim of this study is to present a guiding scheme by considering aspects, strategies, criteria, and procedures of creating an environmental, economic, and social awareness at the local and the global level.
Costs of energy and natural resources used by the buildings in the construction, usage, and demolition processes are remarkably high [5]. For a more habitable and economic future, sustainable building design procedures have been developed in the world which use land efficiently, use energy effectively, experience projects to reduce water consumption, and give importance to the material efficiency and indoor air quality considering the waste problem and environmental problems [6]. Sustainable building design offers minimum operational cost for the buildings by minimizing the energy consumption, resource usage, and environmental impacts of the buildings [7]. In this context, buildings are evaluated within the framework of international building certification systems that contribute to minimizing the environmental impacts of the buildings and lead the way to the designers, and they are certificated according to sustainability classifications. The most widely accepted and commonly used building certification systems in the world can be stated as Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) and Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED).
BREEAM is the first sustainability assessment method for master planning projects, infrastructure, and buildings. It addresses a number of lifecycle stages such as new construction, refurbishment, and in use. BREEAM guides designers, researchers, and related actors to excel, innovate, and make effective use of resources. According to the BREEAM system developed by the Building Research Establishment (BRE), buildings become entitled to obtain pass, good, very good, excellent, and outstanding certificates. Globally in 76 countries, there are 562,455 BREEAM certified developments and almost 2,266,120 buildings registered for assessment as of November 2017, since it was first launched in 1990 [8].
LEED is a system, which identifies buildings as healthier, more environmentalist, and more economical than traditional buildings, for certifying high-performance buildings and sustainable neighborhoods [9]. LEED provides a framework to create healthy, highly efficient, and cost-saving green buildings available for all building types. LEED reveals sustainable design, construction, and operating criteria in building and urban scale. According to the LEED system developed by the US Green Building Council (USGBC), buildings become entitled to obtain platinum, gold, silver, and certificated certificates. Globally in more than 165 countries and territories, more than 2.2 million square feet built-up area is LEED certified, with more than 90,000 projects using LEED as of November 2017, since it was first launched in 1998 [10].
It is often observed that only the environmental aspect of sustainability is directly taken into account when green building certification systems are examined. However, in the design of sustainable buildings, the economic aspect that produces a long-term positive economic impact and the social aspect that improves the lives of those with whom the buildings interact need to be absolutely included in the design [9]. In this study, aspects, strategies, criteria, and procedures of sustainable building design are classified considering the conceptual frameworks of different scientific studies [4, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17] and the LEED [10] and BREEAM [8] evaluation criteria. This classification is presented in Table 1.
Sustainable building design aspects can be achieved by certain criteria and procedures in design, construction, usage, and demolition processes of buildings by meeting the strategies of site efficiency, water efficiency, energy efficiency, and material efficiency in terms of
Environmental sustainability means leaving the world’s future generation something better than what has been left to, protecting environmental balance and natural systems from destruction [18]. Nowadays, as environmental problems become more and more significant, there has been an inclination for an environmentally sustainable building design to reduce these problems. In order to ensure that the buildings have environmentally sustainable characteristics, procedures are adjusted based on the strategies of site, water, energy, and material efficiency. Demand for the site, water, energy, and material increases the impact of construction sector on the environment. The local and global environments are affected by interrelated user activities and natural processes throughout the existence of buildings, and buildings impose a long lasting impact on the environment [19, 20]. In this context, the construction sector is responsible for producing sustainable environments via designing sustainable buildings. Sustainable building design includes the building materials that are sensitive to the environment; that are reusable and renewable; that minimize energy consumption; that use renewable and local sources by reducing the use of natural resources; that create healthy indoor areas; that use solar power, natural ventilation, and daylighting; and that do not require frequent maintenance and repair [21]. The emphasis for buildings should be placed on effective usage of the site, water, energy, and material within the context of environmentally sustainable building design. In this context, environmentally sustainable building design strategies can be classified as
Land, which is one of the limited sources, has been decreasing due to urban expansion. For this reason, it is essential that lands must be used efficiently. The strategy of site efficiency consists of sustainable land use, habitat protection, and improvement of long-term biodiversity for the building site and surrounding land. It addresses the environment surrounding the building and emphasizes the relationships among buildings and ecosystems. In this context, the criteria for the strategy of site efficiency are classified as
Sustainable building design scheme | |||
---|---|---|---|
Aspects | Strategies | Criteria | Procedures |
Environmentally sustainable building design | Site efficiency | Protection of natural habitats | See Table 2 |
Protection of natural topography | |||
Protection of fertile lands | |||
Improvement of urban areas | |||
Improvement of transportation systems | |||
Reduction of heat island effect | |||
Water efficiency | Reduction of water consumption | See Table 3 | |
Reuse of waste water | |||
Unpolluted use of water resources | |||
Energy efficiency | The use of passive heating, ventilating, and air conditioning | See Table 4 | |
The use of active heating, ventilating, and air conditioning | |||
Utilization of daylighting | |||
Material efficiency | Reduction of environmental impacts | See Table 5 | |
Reduction of wastes | |||
Proper sizing of building and systems | |||
Economically sustainable building design | Resource efficiency | Conservation of raw materials | See Table 6 |
Reduction of the use of nonrenewable resources | |||
Cost efficiency | Reduction of initial cost | See Table 7 | |
Reduction of operating cost | |||
Reduction of recovery cost | |||
Satisfaction of the construction sector actors | |||
Socially sustainable building design | Health and well-being | Creation of livable environments | See Table 8 |
Creation of appropriate indoor comfort conditions | |||
Public awareness | Educating the public | See Table 9 | |
Development of incentives and policies |
A holistic conceptual scheme for sustainable building design.
Strategy of site efficiency | |
---|---|
Criteria | Procedures |
Protection of natural habitats | Preservation of existing natural resources Preservation of existing flora and fauna Disposal of wastes without harming the habitat |
Protection of natural topography | Construction of the building in compliance with topography Preservation of water table Disposal of wastes without harming the topography |
Protection of fertile lands | Prevention of misuse of agricultural lands Reduction of erosion and industrial pollutants Disuse of toxic pesticides Improvement of agricultural lands lost due to misuse Prevention of agricultural lands from being made available as settlement Carrying off fertile lands of the construction site to green areas Disposal of wastes without causing land pollution |
Improvement of urban areas | Selection of location according to urban density Increase in green areas Promotion of mixed-use urban development Effective use of construction sites Redevelopment of brownfields Reclamation of abandoned mine lands Rehabilitation of existing settlements and buildings |
Improvement of transportation systems | Development of pedestrian/bicycle transportation systems Extension of public transport network Integration of building design with public transportation Development of public transportation from regional parking lots to city centers Improvement of rail transport systems in urban areas Provision of human-powered public transportation More common use of clean fuels in transportation More common use of vehicles with less fuel consumption More common use of smart traffic practices and systems Rise of efficiency standards in vehicles Creation of pedestrian ways, pockets, and lanes Creation of parking systems and local parking lots |
Mitigation of heat island effect | Preservation of existing tree cover Increase of forest areas Selection of right vegetation for right places around buildings Integration of green areas in building design Application of green wall systems Application of green roof systems |
Criteria and procedures for strategy of site efficiency.
Water is probably the most important matter in the environment and humankind’s life cycle. Protecting clean water resources has a vital importance [39]. The strategy of water efficiency consists of indoor use, outdoor use, specialized uses, and metering in the building site and surrounding land. It addresses all sources of water related to building and surroundings, including appliances, fixtures, fittings, process water, and irrigation. In this context, the criteria for the strategy of water efficiency are classified as
Strategy of water efficiency | |
---|---|
Criteria | Procedures |
Reduction of water consumption | Use of waterless toilets and urinals Use of bio composting toilets Use of small volume cisterns Use of water-saving flushes Use of low-flow fixtures Use of timers and automatic control devices Use of indigenous landscaping Use of vegetation with less water need Use of low-maintenance vegetation |
Reuse of waste water | Treatment and reuse of graywater Treatment and reuse of rainwater |
Unpolluted use of water resources | Renovation of sewage systems to prevent contamination of water resources Control of polluting elements in sewage and storage areas Disposal of wastes without causing pollution in water resources Reduction of toxic pesticides Management of water resources systems |
Criteria and procedures for strategy of water efficiency.
Energy requirement increases approximately 5% every year mainly due to industrialization, rapidly growing population, and improvement in the living standards [3]. Ever-increasing consumption of fossil fuel reserves providing the major portion of the energy needs, directly or indirectly, gives rise to the ozone layer depletion, air pollution, and climatic change. In this respect, efficient utilization of energy has become more crucial than ever in construction sector [39, 46]. Strategy of energy efficiency consists of utilization of renewable energy resources for natural heating, ventilating, air conditioning, and illumination. It addresses the use of the passive and active systems in the building and surroundings. In this context, the criteria for the strategy of energy efficiency are classified as the
Strategy of energy efficiency | |
---|---|
Criteria | Procedures |
Use of passive heating, ventilating, and air conditioning | Use of Trombe walls for natural heating and air conditioning Use of metal walls for natural heating and air conditioning Use of double-skin façades for natural heating and air conditioning Use of greenhouses for natural heating and air conditioning Use of Venturi chimneys for natural ventilating Use of wind scoops for natural ventilating Use of atriums for natural heating and air conditioning Use of building shading devices for natural air conditioning Use of labyrinth systems for natural heating, ventilating, and air conditioning Use of wind energy by cross ventilation method for natural ventilating Use of effective insulation systems Selection of appropriate distance to other buildings compatible with local climatic conditions Selection of appropriate position for building compatible with local climatic conditions Selection of appropriate building form compatible with local climatic conditions Use of appropriate colors on façades compatible with local climatic conditions Determination of building envelope surface compatible with local climatic conditions Selection of appropriate location for building Selection of right vegetation for right direction around buildings Preservation of existing green areas |
Use of active heating, ventilating, and air conditioning | Use of photovoltaic panels for power generation Use of solar collectors for water heating Use of wind turbines for power generation Use of water source heat pumps for power generation and water heating Use of geothermal heat pumps for power generation and water heating Use of energy efficient appliances and equipment with timing devices |
Utilization of daylighting | Use of light shelves Use of solar tubes Use of heliostats Use of anidolic ceilings |
Criteria and procedures for strategy of energy efficiency.
Materials are the fundamental components of a building. Construction sector consumes approximately 3 billion tons of raw materials which comes up to 40% of total usage per year globally [46]. The production and consumption of building materials has diverse impacts on the local and global environments. Extracting, processing, manufacturing, transporting, and recycling building materials cause environmental impacts to some extent [50]. The strategy of material efficiency consists of reducing these impacts through the entire life cycle of building materials from extraction to the end of life, as well as reducing the construction wastes and sizing the building properly. It focuses on procurement of materials that are sourced in a responsible way and have a low embodied impact over their life cycle [8]. In this context, the criteria for the strategy of material efficiency are classified as
Strategy of material efficiency | |
---|---|
Criteria | Procedures |
Reduction of environmental impacts | Use of local building materials Use of natural building materials Use of high-performance building materials Use of long-lasting building materials Use of durable building materials Use of nontoxic and noncarcinogenic building materials Use of antibacterial building materials Use of low embodied energy building materials Use of low volatile organic compound (VOC) building materials Use of building materials made from renewable sources Use of building materials with less maintenance need Use of building materials extracted without ecological damage Use of certified wood materials Use of environmental and health product declarations |
Reduction of wastes | Use of reusable building materials Use of recyclable building materials Use of reclaimed building materials Use of recycled building materials Use of nonconventional products as building materials Rehabilitation and reuse of existing structures Rehabilitation and reuse of existing infrastructures Sorting, storage, and disposal of wastes by waste management |
Proper sizing of building and systems | Design of sufficient-sized interior spaces Reduction of building envelope surface Use of simple geometrical forms for building design Utilization of flexible and modular building design Utilization of standard building material sizes |
Criteria and procedures for strategy of material efficiency.
Economic sustainability is defined as the use of various strategies for employing existing resources optimally, so that a responsible and beneficial balance can be achieved over the longer term [57]. Economic sustainability is inextricably linked to both environmental and social sustainability [58]. Sustainable building design does not only improve the quality of environment and comfort of users but also has many economic benefits as well. The initial cost of the building can be higher than a conventional building owing to the innovative use of sustainable building materials, systems, and equipment through integrated sustainable building design process. However, sustainable buildings decrease annual costs in terms of energy, water, maintenance and repair, and other operating costs so that the life cycle cost is lower than the cost of conventional buildings. In addition to the mentioned cost savings, sustainable buildings also provide indirect economic benefits such as increasing comfort and productivity of users, reducing absenteeism, and increasing property value, to both the actors of the construction sector and users [59]. Reducing costs based on construction wastes, pollution, infrastructure, and transportation can also be considered as indirect economic benefits. In this context, economically sustainable building design criteria can be classified as
The construction sector is a major consumer of all resources, and therefore the actors of the construction sector have pursued to design sustainable buildings focusing on increasing the efficiency of resource use [16]. Resource efficiency refers to the conservation of raw materials and nonrenewable resources based on life cycle conception to design buildings that consume fewer resources and that leads to less environmental impacts. The strategy of resource efficiency comprises both energy and material efficiency (see Sections 2.1.3 and 2.1.4). Whereas energy efficiency considers the economical use of nonrenewable resources, encouraging the use of renewable resources, material efficiency is about the economical use of raw materials and reduction of wastes. Resource efficiency addresses human impacts on natural resources, economic requirements for land use, environmental impacts, amount of material used, and the ratio of gross domestic product (GDP) to material used [60]. In this context, the criteria for the strategy of resource efficiency are classified as
Strategy of resource efficiency | |
---|---|
Criteria | Procedures |
Conservation of raw materials | Use of reusable building materials Use of recyclable building materials Use of reclaimed building materials Use of recycled building materials Use of long-lasting building materials Rehabilitation and reuse of existing structures and infrastructures Development of new eco-innovative building materials Optimization of supply chain Optimization of material production techniques |
Conservation of nonrenewable resources | Increase of use of renewable energy resources Reduction of energy consumption in all life cycle stages of buildings Use of energy saving electrical installation Use of energy saving heating, ventilating, and air conditioning installation |
Criteria and procedures for strategy of resource efficiency.
The construction sector can be mentioned as the sector of the economy which plans, designs, constructs, alters, refurbishes, maintains, repairs, and eventually demolishes buildings. The inputs of the sector are obtained from other sectors of the economy, such as manufacturing, financial services, local government, commercial sectors, and industrial sectors supplying materials. Due to these dealings, there have been considerable procedural and structural changes in the construction sector, such as the increased use of design and construct arrangements, integrated project management processes, novation, partnering, benchmarking, re-engineering, management contracting, private finance initiatives, and public and private partnerships. Concordantly, life cycle cost management of building projects has become progressively important in terms of delivering the highest-quality projects in time with accurate budgeting and cost control, ensuring cost efficiency [67]. Through life cycle cost perspective, there are three main costs to be considered at the outset of a building project, being the initial building investment cost, the cost of the building in use, and the cost of building recovery [68]. In this respect, the strategy of cost efficiency focuses on long-term economic performance with minimized initial, operating, and recovery costs providing satisfaction of the actors of the construction sector. The criteria for the strategy of cost efficiency are classified as the
Strategy of cost efficiency | |
---|---|
Criteria | Procedures |
Reduction of initial cost | Use of local building materials to reduce transportation cost Use of recycled building materials Use of reclaimed building materials Reduction of transportation to and from the site Utilization of flexible and modular building design Use of standardized building components Use of common and available building components Safe and correct storage of building materials Reduction of time for assembly of building materials on site Selection of appropriate construction technologies for various building types Selection of appropriate suppliers for building materials Selection of right labor force for right positions |
Reduction of operating cost | Selection of long lasting building materials and components Reduction of maintenance and repair cost Reduction of regular cleaning cost Selection of right location for heating, ventilating, and air conditioning systems Use of easy-to-use building automation and control systems |
Reduction of recovery cost | Consideration of recycling potential of building materials in design phase Consideration of reclaiming potential of building materials in design phase Reuse of building materials or components Consideration of ease of demolition of building in the design phase Reuse of an existing building |
Satisfaction of the construction sector actors | Improvement of productivity Increase of profitability Development of lower-cost projects by increasing cost estimation Shortening the completion time of the project |
Criteria and procedures for strategy of cost efficiency.
Debates about sustainability do not consider sustainability solely as an environmental and economic concern but also incorporate social dimensions [77]. In this respect, the main goals of sustainable development are defined as environmental stewardship, economic prosperity, and social responsibility. These three goals should be interrelated and supportive of each other in order to execute sustainability strategies [78]. When the construction sector is examined, it is observed that the social aspect of sustainability is usually neglected, despite the anthropocentric focus of sustainability definitions [77]. In the mentioned definitions, sustainability focuses on well-being rather than well-having by sustainable livelihoods and addresses fundamental issues for humanity now and in the future, which constitutes the social aspect of sustainable building design [79]. In order to achieve socially sustainable building design, creating unpolluted and safe environments, protecting human health, improving user productivity, enhancing human comfort conditions, creating esthetically satisfactory indoor and outdoor environments, conserving local heritage and culture, improving communication with the public, and developing regulations are of great importance. In this context, socially sustainable building design criteria can be classified as
It is imperative to pay attention to enhance the quality of life in buildings that encourage a healthy and safe internal and external built environment for users [8] without exhausting natural resources or causing severe ecological damage. The strategy of health and well-being consists of building design procedures ensuring unpolluted, fire- and natural-hazard-resistant, disabled-friendly environments and good indoor environmental quality to protect the health and comfort of building users. It also addresses increased comfort, health, and safety of building users, visitors, and others within the vicinity. Livable and high-quality indoor environments contribute increasing property value, to improve productivity and to reduce absenteeism [80]. In this context, the criteria for the strategy of health and well-being are classified as the
Strategy of health and well-being | |
---|---|
Criteria | Procedures |
Creation of livable environments | Prevention of noise pollution Prevention of visual pollution Prevention of air pollution Prevention of water pollution Prevention of soil pollution Provision of fire protection Provision of resistance to natural hazards Consideration of the accessibility of disabled users Conservation of local heritage and culture |
Creation of appropriate indoor comfort conditions | Provision of sufficient indoor air quality Provision of appropriate indoor humidity ratio Provision of indoor visual comfort conditions Creation of visual connection with the outer environment Provision of indoor thermal comfort conditions Provision of indoor acoustical comfort conditions Provision of operable windows Provision of clean fresh air Use of low volatile organic compound (VOC) building materials Prevention of electromagnetic pollution Use of nontoxic and noncarcinogenic building materials Use of antibacterial building materials |
Criteria and procedures for strategy of health and well-being.
Ensuring sustainability in construction sector depends not only on achieving environmental and economic aspects of sustainability but also the participation of the public and an understanding of the consequences of individual behaviors. Although sustainable building design is envisaged as a necessity in construction sector, in general it continues not to receive much attention between public [85]. As a matter of fact, there is a need to create greater public awareness of the health impacts of buildings, to increase the focus on sustainability strategies, and to encourage building codes to place increased emphasis on healthier building practices [86]. Strategy of public awareness comprises raising consciousness of public and the actors of the construction sector about the benefits of sustainable buildings, mobilization of sustainable building tools, adoption of procedures for sustainable building management, and development of innovative concepts and services [87]. It focuses on developing financial incentives, improving cooperation between organizations, and developing policies for innovative initiatives and technologies on sustainable design features [88]. In this context, the criteria for the strategy of public awareness are classified as
Strategy of public awareness | |
---|---|
Criteria | Procedures |
Educating the public | Organization of congresses and conventions on sustainable building design Implementation of training programs about sustainable building design Preparation of educational videos about sustainable building design Organization of competitions on sustainable buildings Efficient use of media about sustainable building design Educating the public in pilot sustainable buildings |
Development of incentives and policies | Provision of financial incentives such as tax and customs’ duty exemption Improvement of cooperation between public and private organizations Implementation of policies for the efficient use of renewable energy technologies Implementation of the decisions made in the international meetings on environment |
Criteria and procedures for strategy of public awareness.
Today’s world is facing environmental, economic, and social problems. Many studies and researches in various sectors are being carried out to reduce these problems. Sustainable building design can be considered as a path of minimizing environmental, economic, and social problems in the construction sector. In this context, sustainable building design has to be contextualized properly. When reviewing the most recent interpretations of sustainable building design in the literature, many uncertainties and constraints have been observed because of the inability to integrate the environmental, economic, and social aspects of sustainability. These uncertainties and constraints are tried to be solved in this study by developing a holistic conceptual scheme, which comprehensively contextualizes all the strategies, criteria, and procedures associated with the aspects of environmentally, economically, and socially sustainable building design. By this way, it is envisaged that this study can contribute to the improving literature on sustainable building design in terms of site efficiency, water efficiency, energy efficiency, material efficiency, resource efficiency, cost efficiency, health and well-being, and public awareness. Consequently, this scheme may be adopted as a guideline for the actors of the construction sector and the researchers and can help in promoting sustainable building practices in the construction sector. Furthermore, it is of vital significance to develop new laws and regulations, to improve government incentives, to study on new standards, to carry out scientific researches, and to conduct effective training programs.
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