Signs and symptoms of MG.
\r\n\tFood insecurity results in fear of hunger and starvation that ultimately affects one’s ability to work for sustainability and economic growth of the country. In addition to this, food insecurity results in various chronic diseases due to reduce immunity that ultimately, a burned on the county economy. Therefore, this book will intend to discuss in detail about the food insecurity challenges and their effect on the quality of life. This book will also aim to provide an overview about the new trends and future prospective that help to resolve the food security issues.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-942-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-941-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-943-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"090302a30e461cee643ec49675c811ec",bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad, Dr. Muhammad Imran and Dr. Muhammad Kamran Khan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11475.jpg",keywords:"Nutrition, Poverty, Hunger, Food Waste Utilization, Innovative Technologies, Food Processing, Genetically Modified Food, Policy Making, Trade Reforms, Climate Change, Agriculture Productivity, Disease Resistant Crops",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 7th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 5th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 4th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 22nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 21st 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"An emerging scientist in the field of food science and technology with special expertise in development of rapid and nondestructive technologies, chemometrics and data mining.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Muhammad Imran has expertise in extrusion technology, microencapsulation, lipids chemistry, sensory evaluation and food process engineering.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"A renowned scientist with expertise in Novel food processing technologies.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"292145",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Haseeb Ahmad",slug:"muhammad-haseeb-ahmad",fullName:"Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/292145/images/system/292145.png",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad is currently an assistant professor in the Department of Food Science, Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan. He also served as an assistant professor for one year at the National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan. He received his doctoral degree from Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany, in 2016. During his stay there, he also worked as a research associate for research projects relevant to various food disciplines. Dr. Ahmad is the author of about thirty five research publications and twelve book chapters. He has also presented his research work at various national and international conferences (25). His area of research is food science with special expertise in process analytics and data mining.",institutionString:"Government College University, Faisalabad",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"208646",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Imran",slug:"muhammad-imran",fullName:"Muhammad Imran",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/208646/images/system/208646.jpg",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Imran, is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Food Science, Faculty of Life Sciences, Government College University, Faisalabad–Pakistan since September 03, 2012. Dr. Muhammad Imran completed his Doctorate (Food Technology) from the National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad. He won the Indigenous and IRSIP (Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, East Lansing, USA) Fellowships for completion of doctorate research funded by HEC, Islamabad, Pakistan. Dr. Muhammad Imran has expertise in extrusion technology, microencapsulation, lipids chemistry, sensory evaluation, and food process engineering. Until today, Dr. Muhammad Imran has authored 80 publications (International & National) in various Impact Journals of Scientific repute and written 15 Book Chapters as principal author and co-author. Dr. Muhammad Imran has attended several International Conferences (held nationally and locally) as an Invited and Keynote Speaker and also participated as an organizing member to conduct International Conferences, Seminars Workshops, etc. Dr. Muhammad Imran is a Life Time Member of PSFST.",institutionString:"Government College University, Faisalabad",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"208645",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Kamran Khan",slug:"muhammad-kamran-khan",fullName:"Muhammad Kamran Khan",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:"Government College University Faisalabad",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429339",firstName:"Jelena",lastName:"Vrdoljak",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429339/images/20012_n.jpg",email:"jelena.v@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6418",title:"Hyperspectral Imaging in Agriculture, Food and Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9005c36534a5dc065577a011aea13d4d",slug:"hyperspectral-imaging-in-agriculture-food-and-environment",bookSignature:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado, Humberto Rodríguez Fuentes and Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6418.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105774",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Isabel",surname:"Luna Maldonado",slug:"alejandro-isabel-luna-maldonado",fullName:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10359",title:"Landraces",subtitle:"Traditional Variety and Natural Breed",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0600836fb2c422f7b624363d1e854f68",slug:"landraces-traditional-variety-and-natural-breed",bookSignature:"Amr Elkelish",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10359.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231337",title:"Dr.",name:"Amr",surname:"Elkelish",slug:"amr-elkelish",fullName:"Amr Elkelish"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"66655",title:"Introductory Chapter: Myasthenia Gravis - An Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85761",slug:"introductory-chapter-myasthenia-gravis-an-overview",body:'The term myasthenia gravis (MG) is derived from the Greek terms my, asthenia, and gravis, which mean muscle, weakness, and severe, respectively. Myasthenia gravis is a rare potentially fatal chronic autoimmune disorder, in which circulating autoantibodies directed against components of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) of skeletal muscles, most commonly nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (AChR) and associated protein in the postsynaptic membrane, will block neuromuscular transmission resulting in muscle weakness [1]. The muscle weakness is typically worsened with continued activity, improves on rest, and is of variable severity ranging from mild ocular muscle weakness to severe generalized muscle weakness involving the respiratory muscle with impending respiratory failure.
The first reported case of MG could be traced to the Native American Chief Opechancanough, who died in 1664. “The excessive fatigue he encountered wrecked his constitution; his flesh became macerated; his sinews lost their tone and elasticity; and his eyelids were so heavy that he could not see unless they were lifted up by his attendants …he was unable to walk; but his spirit rising above the ruins of his body directed from the litter on which he was carried by his Indians
The worldwide prevalence of MG is 100–200 per million population [9], affecting more than 700,000 people all over the world [10]. The prevalence rate has increased since the 1950s due to improved diagnostic precision and decreased mortality rate. It occurs in both genders, in all ages from different ethnic groups with variable prevalence and annual incidence rate from one country to another. Female-to-male ratio for incidence is 3:2 in people below the age of 30 and 1:1.5 in people more than 50 years of age. Life-threatening MG crises occur approximately in 15–20% of patients, typically within the first 2 years of diagnosis [11]. Previously, MG crises were associated with 50–80% mortality rate. Currently, the overall inpatient mortality rate of MG is 2.2%, being higher in crises (4.47%). Older age and respiratory failure were the predictors for death in MG crises [12].
Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disease mediated by organ-specific antibody. These antibodies are present at neuromuscular junction (NMJ) and directed against nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (AChR) on the postsynaptic muscle membrane in 80–90% of patients. In 3–7%, the autoantibodies are directed against another NMJ protein, muscle-specific tyrosine kinase (MuSK). Using cell-based assay may increase the rate of detection of autoantibodies in patients with negative result by standard binding and modulating technique [13]. Patients with negative antibodies against AChR and MuSK might show positive antibodies against low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP4) [14]. Other types of antibodies might be detected in patients with MG like agrin antibodies and antibodies to collagen Q and cortactin. These antibodies are of debatable clinical importance [15]. The reason why some patients develop these autoantibodies remains unclear. Genetic predisposition linked to human leukocyte antigen complex, single nuclear polymorphism, association with thymic hyperplasia or thymoma and abnormalities in the number and function of regulatory T and B cells are probably playing a role in the etiology of MG [16, 17, 18, 19]. Risk factors for developing MG include positive personal or family history of autoimmune disease like rheumatoid arthritis, HLA-B8, DR3, and women being less than 40 and men more than 60 years of age.
Normally, Ach is released in a discrete package from the motor nerve terminal at the neuromuscular junction. These Ach quanta diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the folded muscle end plate membrane (Figure 1). Motor nerve stimulation will release many Ach quanta causing depolarization of muscle end plate membrane resulting in muscle contraction. In MG, Ach was released normally but its effect on the postsynaptic membrane reduced. The autoantibody against AChRs will result in the destruction of postsynaptic membrane and reduction in the number of available Ach receptors on the muscle end plate membrane (binding site for Ach), which in turn will lead to an inconsistent generation of muscular action potentials manifesting as muscle weakness (Figures 2 and 3). The process of destruction of the postsynaptic membrane is dependent on complement activation. In patients without antibodies against AChRs, a muscle-specific tyrosine kinase (MuSK), an agrin-dependent protein on muscle membrane, has been found to be the antigenic target. These autoantibodies are T-cell dependent and there is interesting differential involvement of muscle groups, especially the extraocular muscles [20].
Mechanism of muscle activation. Adopted from the free domain:
Mechanisms of inhibition of neurotransmission by anti-AChR antibodies. Adopted from the free domain:
Pathogenesis of MG. Adopted from the free domain:
Fatigable weakness, involving specific susceptible groups of muscles, is the clinical hallmark of MG. This weakness usually fluctuates from hour to hour, day to day, worsens with activity, and improves on rest. The susceptible groups of muscles include ocular, bulbar, facial, limb muscle, axial muscle, and respiratory muscle. Clinical features resulting from the involvement of the susceptible group of muscle are summarized in Table 1 [21].
Group of muscle | Clinical features |
---|---|
Ocular muscle | Fluctuating ptosis and/or diplopia |
Bulbar muscle | Dysarthria, painless dysphagia, dysphonia, and masticatory weakness |
Facial muscle | Facial weakness, inability to close eye firmly, drooling of saliva |
Axial muscular | Flexion or extension of the neck |
Limb muscle | Weakness involving the arms more than legs |
Respiratory muscle | Labor breathing, orthopnea, dyspnea, and respiratory failure |
Signs and symptoms of MG.
The most common initial presenting feature of MG is ocular muscle involvement presenting as fluctuating ptosis and/or diplopia, with or without generalized weakness, in about 85% of cases [22]. The absence of ocular involvement makes the diagnosis difficult. In 50–60% of patients with isolated ocular involvement, progression to generalized weakness occurs within 2 years of the onset. The second most common presenting feature is bulbar muscle involvement manifesting as dysphagia, dysarthria, dysphonia, or difficulties in chewing, occurring in about 15% of cases [23]. A life-threatening respiratory muscle involvement, requiring immediate therapeutic action might occur on rare occasions. Patients with MG usually experience a variable course with intermittent worsening of symptoms precipitated by viral infection, surgery, warm weather, immunization, emotional stress, pregnancy, chronic diseases, or medications. Progression to maximum severity usually occurs with the first 2 years of onset and spontaneous long-term remission might occur in up to 10–20% of patients [22]. About 10–20% of infants born to mothers with symptomatic or asymptomatic MG present soon after birth with transient neonatal MG. It occurs as a result of transplacental passage of antibodies against NMJ receptors. The most common presenting features are hypotonia and poor feeding that resolve usually within the first months after birth [24].
Myasthenia gravis is classified clinically into five classes and several subclasses according to MG foundation of American clinical classification, see Table 2 [25].
Class | Clinical description |
---|---|
Class 1 | Any eye muscle weakness, possible ptosis, all other muscles’ strength is normal |
Class 2 2a 2b | Mild weakness of other muscles; may have eye muscle weakness of any severity Predominantly limb or axial muscles weakness or both Predominantly oropharyngeal or respiratory muscle weakness or both |
Class 3 3a 3b | Moderate weakness of other muscles; may have eye muscle weakness of any severity Predominantly limb or axial muscle weakness or both Predominantly oropharyngeal or respiratory muscle weakness or both |
Class 4 4a 4b | Severe weakness of other muscles; may have eye muscle weakness of any severity Predominantly limb or axial muscle weakness or both Predominantly oropharyngeal or respiratory muscle weakness or both; use of feeding tube without intubation |
Class 5 | Intubation needed to maintain airway |
Clinical classification of MG.
The diagnosis of MG might be difficult and easily missed, because of the rarity of the condition and hence unfamiliarity to physicians. Furthermore, fluctuations of muscle weakness may add to the perplexing presentation. Once MG is suspected, the following test can be requested:
Anti-AchR has about 100% specificity, 85% sensitivity in patients with generalized MG, and 50% sensitivity in pure ocular variety [26]. False positive results may occur in patients with thymoma without MG, small cell lung cancer, rheumatoid arthritis treated with penicillamine, and rarely in people over 70 years of age. Other serological tests include anti-MuSK antibody (positive in 50% of myasthenic patients with negative anti-AchR), anti-agrin antibody, anti-lipoprotein-related protein 4 (LRP4) antibody, antistriational antibody (present in all myasthenic patients with thymoma), and anti-cortactin antibody.
These studies are commonly used to detect defects in neuromuscular transmission in patients with MG. Repetitive nerve stimulation and single-fiber electromyography are the most commonly used tests. Repetitive nerve stimulation can detect 75 and <50% of generalized and ocular MG patients, respectively. On the other hand, single-fiber electromyography can detect defects in neuromuscular transmission in 95–99% of myasthenic patients and a negative result can exclude the diagnosis [27].
Chest X ray, CT scan, and MRI might be recommended to evaluate patients with anterior mediastinal mass and suspected thymoma, and also to exclude brain and orbit mass lesion inducing cranial nerve palsies in ocular MG.
In MG, the number of AChRs at the NMJ is low due to inhibition by the autoantibody. The result is decrease in the number of interaction between Ach (release from motor nerve terminals) and its receptors on postsynaptic muscle membrane of NMJ. The Ach is metabolized by Ach esterase (AChE) enzyme. Therefore, inhibition of this enzyme will increase the Ach concentration at the NMJ and hence improve the chance of interaction between the Ach and its receptors. Edrophonium test is based on the clinical improvement of muscle weakness in myasthenic patients after intravenous administration of short-acting Ach esterase inhibitor, Edrophonium (Tensilon). Double blinding of both the patient and the examiner increases the validity of the test [28].
This debatable test uses the fact that cooling might improve neuromuscular transmission. It is mainly used by ophthalmologists to assess improvement in ptosis and diplopia in myasthenic patients [29].
The severity of symptoms in patients with MG will determine the strategy of the treatment using the many therapeutic options available. According to MG foundation of American clinical classification (Table 2), MG can be divided into three categories: mild (classes 1 and 2), moderate (class 3), and severe (classes 4 and 5). The available therapeutic options include:
The cornerstone for the treatment of MG is the administration of reversible cholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor, pyridostigmine, which is more effective in patients with generalized and ocular MG and less effective in patients with positive anti-MuSK antibody. In those patients with poor response to pyridostigmine, steroid and immunosuppressive agents should be considered [30, 31, 32].
All types of MG respond to corticosteroid (prednisone and prednisolone) in terms of improvement of muscle strength. Furthermore, corticosteroid may prevent progression of the disorder from ocular to generalized MG [30, 33]. Patients who do not respond to corticosteroid or who cannot tolerate it are candidates for immunosuppressive agents using azathioprine (they are first-line agents and can be used with corticosteroid), cyclosporine, methotrexate, mycophenolate mofetil, or tacrolimus [32]. Recently, promising results are shown by two monoclonal antibodies, rituximab and eculizumab. The use of rituximab in refractory MG may show clinical improvement and reduction for the need of corticosteroid and therapeutic plasma exchange [34].
It is the procedure by which the patient’s plasma is removed and replaced by fresh plasma or albumin. This will lead to the removal of autoantibody against AChRs, leading to short-term improvement of NMJ transmission and hence muscular strength. It is useful as an acute treatment in patients with severe generalized MG, refractory MG, myasthenia crises, and as maintenance therapy in patients with juvenile MG [35].
The mechanism of action of IVIG is complex and may involve inhibition of cytokines and complement deposition, competition with autoantibodies, interference with binding of Fc receptor on macrophages and immunoglobulin receptor on B cells, and interference with antigen recognition by sensitized T cells [36]. It is used as an acute treatment in patients with severe generalized MG and MuSK-MG, as a maintenance therapy in patients with refractory and juvenile MG, and in myasthenia crises [1].
Myasthenic patients commonly have thymic abnormalities. Patients with generalized MG have thymic hyperplasia in 85% and thymoma in 10–15% of cases. Those patients are usually anti-AChR antibody positive. Thymectomy is indicated for all patients with thymoma and for patients aged 10–55 years who have generalized MG but without thymoma. In fact, thymectomy is proposed as first – line therapy in most patients with generalized MG. Thymectomy not indicated in patients with antibodies to MuSK, LRP4, or agrin antibodies because the thymic pathology is different from the more common type of MG characterized by seropositivity to AChR, and also it is not indicated in patients with ocular MG during the first 2 years after diagnosis because the possibility of spontaneous remission [2].
With the recent advances in the management of MG in both supportive intensive care and specific therapeutic options, most patients enjoy normal or near normal life span. The mortality rate is about 3–4% and the risk factors for death include a short history of a progressive disease, age more than 40 years, and thymoma. Morbidity in MG results from intermittent muscle weakness, which may result in aspiration pneumonia, difficult breathing, and even respiratory failure requiring ventilator assistance and in possible side effects of medications used in the treatment.
Packaging industry stands at third position globally, next to food and petroleum industries contributing nearly 2% of Gross National Product in developed nations [1]. Approximately 51% of all packaging applications are dedicated to food sector [2]. Consumer inclination towards safe and healthy food have led to the development of state-of-the-art and unique approaches in food processing and packaging. One such development is the introduction of smart packaging technologies. Smart packaging although interchangeably used for intelligent packaging at times, refers to combination of active and intelligent packaging [3]. The Framework Regulation on Food Contact Materials (1935/2004) defines “
Active and intelligent packaging market was estimated at 17.50 billion US $ in 2019 and expected to reach at 25.16 billion US $ by 2025 witnessing a CAGR of 6.78%. Asia Pacific region was identified as the fastest growing market including China, Japan, India and South Korea and North America as the largest market with WestRock®, Honeywell®, BASF® and Amcor Ltd. as the major market players. Oxygen and moisture scavengers are the utmost commercialized forms of active packaging. Gas scavengers for food was the most marketed active packaging technique in USA during 2018–2019 [5]. During past ten years, the research interestedness in active and intelligent packaging has increased steadily as indicated by the trend of peer-reviewed publications in Figure 1 during 2010–2019. As per a survey conducted by O’Callaghan and Kerry (2016) [6] for applicability of smart packaging to cheese, the future is highly optimistic with consumers willing to pay more on receiving the information provided by these advanced technologies. However, to the best of our knowledge, not a single article has reviewed the application and future research directions of smart packaging technologies in cheese. Therefore, the present review offers insight to active and intelligent packaging systems for cheese and future research aspects.
Graph illustrating the number of publications on active packaging, intelligent packaging and cheese during the year 2010–2019 (
World cheese production has shown significant increase from 5.43 million tonnes in 1961, 14.58 million tonnes in 1995 to 22.65 million tonnes in 2015 [7]. About 3000 varieties of cheeses are produced throughout the world and the annual total cheese consumption during 2015–2028 is expected to grow at a CAGR of 1.4% [8]. EU 28 (European Union consisting of 28 countries) stood at first position in cheese export by exporting 841.8 thousand tonnes of cheese. The USA accounted for almost 20% of the world’s cheese production and exported 348.5 thousand tonnes of cheese contributing 13.8% of the total export share during 2018 while Japan and Russia were the top export destination [8]. Approximately 40% of world’s milk is converted to cheese with France, USA, Iceland, Finland and other developed nations being the major players in cheese production and consumption [7]. The total cheese production in USA was 5,908 million kg, with an import of 176 million kg [8]. Mozzarella is the highest produced cheese variety in USA and several other major cheese producing nations [9]. Additionally, the retail prices of cheese in almost all the countries had shown an upsurge during last ten years [8]. The detailed information about cheese production, consumption, import, export quantity of several countries and retail price of selected cheeses are presented in Table 1. The total whole cow milk cheese in India was 2250 tonnes in 2014 [7]. It is true that India is not a traditionally structured ‘cheese nation’ but it is gaining pace with increased domestic consumption and exports. India offers only 40 varieties of cheese of which about 60 per cent of the market is dominated by processed cheeses, 30 per cent by cheese spreads and the remaining 10 per cent by flavored and Mozzarella cheese [10].
Country | Production | Consumption | Imports | Exports | Retail Price | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cheese type | Currency | Price/kg | |||||
EU28 | 9376 | 9652 | 59 (H) | 842 (H) | |||
Germany | 2339 | 2002 | 32 | 130 | Gouda | EUR | 5.98 |
France | 1725 (A) | 1721 | — | 117 | Emmental | EUR | 8.43 |
Italy | 1101 (A) | 1320 | 10 | 100 | Mozzarella | EUR | 4.46 |
Netherlands | 880 (A) | 420 | — | 140 | Gouda | EUR | 10.98 |
Poland | 825 | 723 | — | 53 | Gouda | PLN | 20.69 |
Denmark | 452 | 166 | — | 73 | |||
United Kingdom | 426 | 795 | — | Cheddar | GBP | 7.28 | |
Ireland | 224 | 31 | — | 49 | NS | EUR | 9.60 |
Austria | 200 | 200 | — | — | |||
Spain | 179 (A) | 416 | — | — | NS | EUR | 8.60 |
Czech Republic | 135 | 201 | — | — | Edam | CZK | 144.73 |
Belgium | 109 | 164 | — | — | NS | EUR | 9.65 |
Lithuania | 102 | 58 | — | Tilsit | EUR | 7.34 | |
Finland | 87 | 142 | — | — | Edam | EUR | 9.08 |
Hungary | 84 | 129 | — | — | Trappist | HUF | 1700.00 |
Sweden | 82 | 201 | — | — | Herrgardsost | SEK | 90 |
Latvia | 47 | 39 | — | — | Hard cheese | EUR | 7.89 |
Estonia | 45 | 32 | — | — | Gouda | EUR | 8.24 |
Slovakia | 38 (A) | 74 | — | — | Edam | EUR | 6.55 |
Cyprus | 3 (A) | 22 | — | — | — | — | — |
Luxemburg | 3 | 16 | — | — | — | — | — |
Other EU | — | — | 17 | 179 | — | — | — |
North and Central America | |||||||
USA | 5908 | 5668 | 176 | 348 | Cheddar | USD | 11.87 |
Canada | 443 | 538 | 31 | — | NS | CAD | 14.70 |
Mexico | 419 | 539 | 123 | — | — | — | — |
El Salvador | — | — | 39 | — | — | — | — |
Nicaragua | — | — | — | 41 | — | — | — |
South America | |||||||
Brazil | 755 | 781 | — | — | Mozzarella | BRL | 30.49 |
Argentina | 579 | 574 | — | 49 | Quartirolo-type | ARS | 184.24 |
Chile | 101 (B) | 198 | — | — | Gouda | CLP | 6396.00 |
Colombia | 97 | 100 | — | — | — | — | — |
Uruguay | 45 | 33 | — | — | NS | UYU | 143.22 |
Other Europe | |||||||
Russia | 473 | 811 | 263 | — | NS | RUB | 412.60 |
Belarus | 332 | 128 | — | 210 | — | — | — |
Switzerland | 190 (A) | 186 | 62 | 68 | NS | CHF | 13.32 |
Ukraine | 168 | 198 | — | — | Russian (50% fat) | UAH | 172.00 |
Norway | 82 (C) | 101 | — | — | — | — | — |
Iceland | 11 | 9 | — | — | — | — | — |
Asia | |||||||
Turkey | 753 (D) | 714 | — | — | — | — | — |
Israel | 146 (A) | 160 | — | 51 | Edam | ILS | 41.30 |
India | 48 (E) | — | — | — | Mozzarella | INR | 380.00 |
Japan | 45 (F) | 321 | 297 | — | Processed | JPY | 1890.00 |
China | 41 (G) | 149 | 124 | — | — | — | — |
Kazakhstan | 28 | 47 | — | — | — | — | — |
Republic of Korea | 4 | 156 | 124 | — | NS | KRW | 16,225.0 |
Saudi Arabia | — | — | 172 | — | — | — | — |
Indonesia | — | — | 30 | — | — | — | — |
Philippines | — | — | 38 | — | — | — | — |
Oceania | |||||||
New Zealand | 385 (G) | 48 | 323 | Cheddar | NZD | 8.84 | |
Australia | 344 | 350 | 98 | 176 | Cheddar | AUD | 13.25 |
Africa | |||||||
Egypt | 395 | 482 | — | 61 | NS | EGP | 59.41 |
South Africa | 108 | 109 | — | — | NS | ZAR | 117.19 |
Zimbabwe | 3 | 9 | — | — | NS | USD | 4.00 |
Total selected countries | 21,277 | ||||||
Rest of world | — | — | 865 | 381 | — | — | — |
World | — | — | 2550 | 2550 | — | — | — |
Cheese production, consumption, imports, exports (in ‘000 tonnes) and retail price during 2018–2019.
(A) Cow’s milk cheese only; (B) Based on production of big dairies; (C) 2018: Cow’s milk cheese- 72,600 tonnes; (D) 2018: Cow’s milk cheese- 658,500 tonnes; (E) Refers to co-operative dairies only; (F) Natural cheese production; (G) Including processed cheese; (H) Excluding Intra-EU trade; NS- Not specified (
In order to simplify the cheese packaging requirements, its mandatory to classify them in several categories depending on their moisture content (hard, semi-hard, soft, very-soft), shapes (wheels or half-wheel cheese, cheese slabs also known as portioned cheese, sliced cheese, cheese squares, soft and creamy cheese, grated, diced and processed cheese) and preservation techniques (cheese preserved in brine, wax coated, modified atmosphere or vacuum packaged). The very hard, extra hard, hard to semi-hard category of cheese possess moisture content in the range of 36–52% and includes Edam, Gouda, Swiss, Parmesan, Cheshire and Romano [11]. Rindless types of cheese are ripened in their packaging material alike to cheeses having their surface covered with molds, bacteria or yeasts producing enzymes responsible for ripening [12]. The important factors for selecting packaging materials of very hard to hard varieties of cheese are ripening time, temperature, cheese surface area to volume ratio, gas production (if any), cheese product form (sliced, grated, portions) and permeability of packaging materials [13]. The packaging systems for rindless cheeses includes laminates of polyethylene terephthalate- low density polyethylene (PET-LDPE) (300/50 μm thickness), cover film of oriented (O)PET-LDPE (23/75 μm thickness), tubular bags of oriented polyamide (OPA)-LDPE (15/40 μm thickness) and trough film of PET-HMLDPE (high molecular weight LDPE) (200/25/25 μm thickness). Wax coatings (mineral, paraffin and microcrystalline wax) are used to prevent mold growth, moisture evaporation and high gas barrier properties [11]. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) with high barrier materials (PA/EVOH (ethylene vinyl alcohol), LLDPE/EVA (ethylene vinyl acetate)/Ionomers) is generally used for portioned or sliced hard cheese owing to their large surface area exposure to light and oxygen. Vacuum packaging is not preferred for cheese with eyes (Swiss, Gouda, Edam) as it rupture the eyes structure [14].
The semi-soft and soft varieties of cheese contain 52–80% moisture and can be further categorized broadly in three groups (i) ripened by bacteria e.g. Brick, Munster; (ii) ripened by surface mold e.g. Limburger, Brie, Camembert and (iii) internally mold ripened e.g. Gorgonzola, Roquefort, Stilton [15]. Packaging requirements of bacteria ripened cheeses is affected by presence of light, humidity, pH and gases. Internally mold ripened cheese should be packed in O2, CO2 and water permeable packages e.g. polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride or thermoformed packages etc., for optimum mold growth [3]. For externally ripened cheese, packaging should not take place until mold had grown to certain extent and packaging material with certain permeability to O2 and H2O are prerequisite to avoid growth of anaerobic proteolytic bacteria and moisture condensation inside cheese pack, respectively.
Fresh or unripened cheeses (e.g. cottage, quark, cream etc.) have moisture content greater than 80% and are exposed to lactic acid fermentation. Such cheeses have very high chances of dehydration or whey expulsion owing to their high-water activity. Some of the suitable packaging material for fresh cheeses are injection molded HDPE or PP packages with side slits for whey drainage, paraffin or PVDC (polyvinylidene chloride) coated paper and LDPE or PP laminated aluminum (Al) foil (7–20 μm) [14]. Processed cheese is hot filled into pouches, polymer coated or lacquered Al foils (12–15 μm). Processed cheese slices are packed in laminates of PET-HDPE, PET-PVDC and OPP-EVOH-LDPE and processed cheese spreads in tubes of LDPE/EVOH/PET or metal tubes, PP or PET-LDPE cups heat sealed with Al foil, tin plate or enameled Al cans and glass cups closed with Al foil plastic laminate or lidded with an easy opening tin plate [17]. A comprehensive list of permitted additives and their recommended usage level is presented in Table 2, which could be utilized for the development of legally permitted smart packaging materials. Also, a few commercially available smart packaging systems used for cheese are listed in Figure 2.
Name of the additive (&INS No.) | Recommended maximum levels | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Unripened cheese | #Ripened cheese | Plain processed cheese/processed cheese, processed cheese spread | Note | |
Aspartame (951) | 1000 mg/kg | — | — | If used in combination with aspartame-acesulfame salt (INS 962), combined maximum use level, expressed as aspartame, should not exceed this level. |
Carotenoids | 100 mg/kg | — | 100 mg/kg | |
Chlorophylls and Chlorophyllin, copper complexes | 50 mg/kg | — | 100 mg/kg (Chlorophyll- INS No.-140) | |
Canthaxanthin (161 g) | 15 mg/kg | 15 mg/kg | — | For use in flavored products only |
Caramel III - ammonia caramel (150c) | 15000 mg/kg | — | — | |
Caramel IV-sulfite ammonia caramel (150d) | 50000 mg/kg | — | — | |
Indigotine (Indigo carmine) (132) | 200 mg/kg | — | — | For use in surface treatment only |
*Lauric arginate ethyl ester (243) | 200 mg/kg | — | — | Equivalent to 2 mg/dm2 surface application to a maximum depth of 5 mm, For use in surface treatment only |
Natamycin (Pimaricin) (235) | 40 mg/kg | 40 mg/kg | 40 mg/kg | |
Phosphates | 4400 mg/kg | — | 9000 mg/kg | As phosphorus |
Polysorbates | 80 mg/kg | — | — | On the creaming mixture basis |
Ponceau 4R (124) | 100 mg/kg | — | — | For use in surface treatment only |
Riboflavins | 300 mg/kg | 300 mg/kg | 300 mg/kg | |
*Sorbates | 2000 mg/kg | 3000 mg/kg | 3000 mg/kg | As sorbic acid, For Chhana and paneer only) |
Nisin (234) | 12.5 mg/kg | 12 mg/kg | 12.5 mg/kg | For Chhana and paneer only |
Propionic acid, sodium propionate, calcium propionate (singly or in combination, expressed as propionic acid) (280, 281, 282, 283) | 3000 mg/kg | 3000 mg/kg | — | |
Glucono delta lactone (575) | GMP | — | — | |
Sunset yellow FCF (110) | 100 mg/kg | — | 100 mg/kg | For use in surface treatment only |
Calcium chloride (509) | 200 mg/kg | 200 mg/kg | Except cream cheese | |
Beta-carotenes, vegetable (160a(ii)) | 600 mg/kg | 100 mg/kg | 1000 mg/kg | Except Coulommiers |
Carrageenan (407) | 5000 mg/kg | — | For cream cheese only | |
Alginate of sodium/potassium/ calcium (410, 402, 404) | 5000 mg/kg | — | — | For cream cheese only |
Propylene glycol alginate (405) | 5000 mg/kg | — | — | |
Paprika extract (160c) | GMP | GMP | — | |
Curcumin (100) | GMP | 100 mg/kg | 100 mg/kg | |
Annatto (160b (i) and (ii)) | GMP | $100 mg/kg @50 mg/kg | 50 mg/kg | $(Norbixin based) @(Bixin based) |
Lysozyme (1105) | — | GMP | — | |
Sodium salts of mono/di/poly phosphoric acid (339, 450 (i, ii, iii), 451 (i), 452 (i)) | — | 9000 mg/kg | — | Total salt content should not exceed 9000 mg/kg calculated as phosphorous/carbonates /citrate/ chloride |
Potassium salts of mono/di/poly phosphoric acid (340, 450 (iv, v), 451 (ii), 452 (ii)) | — | 9000 mg/kg | — | |
Allura red AC (129) | — | — | 100 mg/kg | |
Diacetyltartaric and fatty acid esters of glycerol (472e) | — | — | 10000 mg/kg | |
Hydroxybenzoates, para | — | — | 300 mg/kg | As para-hydroxybenzoic acid |
Iron oxides | — | — | 50 mg/kg | |
Sodium aluminum phosphates | — | — | 1600 mg/kg | For use in processed cheese only As aluminum |
Pimaricin (Natamicin) (235) | — | 2 mg/dm2 surface. | — | For surface/rind treatment only Not present in depth below 5 mm |
Additives permitted in different varieties of cheese as per FSSAI (Food Safety and Standards Authority of India).
Ingredients permitted in whey cheese includes Lauric arginate ethyl ester (INS No.-243) - 200 mg/kg and Sorbates (1000 mg/kg).&INS- International Numbering System for food additives.
$Indicates the amount of annatto if it is norbixin based.
@It indicates the amount of annatto if it is bixin based.
#Ripened cheese- Cheddar, Danbo, Edam, Gouda, Havarti, Tilisiter, Camembert, Brie, Saint Paulin, Samsoe, Emmentaler, Provolone, extra hard grating/sliced/cut/shredded cheese.
Commercially available active and intelligent packaging systems for cheese (A) biodegradable active antifungal film Antipack™ AF, Handary, Brussels, Belgium (B) antimicrobial films with natamycin, VGP SL®, Barcelona, Spain (C) edible plastic films developed from casein by Lactips, France (D) pull timer™, time temperature indicator for indicating temperature abuse developed by Macfarlane labels and insignia technologies, Scotland. (
“Active packaging” term was coined by food scientist Dr. Theodore Labuza [3], which includes oxygen absorbers, carbon dioxide absorbers/emitters, moisture absorbers, self-heating and self-cooling containers, antimicrobial packaging, ethanol emitters, flavor absorbers/releasers and microwave assisted containers [18]. The following section discusses different active packaging systems applicable to cheese and brief studies on active packaging materials for cheese and its products are also presented in Table 3.
Type of active packaging | Variety of cheese | Description |
---|---|---|
Cottage cheese [19] | Sachets of allyl isothiocyanate were effective against yeast and mold | |
Mozzarella cheese [13] | Lysozyme and ethylenediaminetetraacetic disodium salt (Na2-EDTA) inhibited the growth of coliform and | |
Kashar Cheese [20] | Zein and zein-wax coating with lysozyme, catechin and gallic acid. Lysozyme based film prevented the growth of | |
Mozzarella cheese [21] | Packages containing calcium lactate and lactic acid-based brine enhanced the shelf-life by 50% | |
Surface ripened cheese [22] | Polyethylene films coated with polyvinyldichloride and containing natamycin/nisin possessed inhibitory effect against | |
Zamorano sheep cheese [23] | Poly propylene and polyethylene terephthalate films with | |
Saloio cheese [24] | Whey protein isolate coating containing natamycin reduced water loss, color changes and microbial growth throughout the storage period of 60 days | |
Low fat cheese (5% fat in dry matter) [25] | Microbial oxygen absorber; Contains microorganisms which utilizes oxygen e.g. | |
High fat cheese (60% fat in dry matter) [25] | Microbial oxygen absorber containing | |
Cheddar cheese [26] | Microbial oxygen absorber containing | |
Delite 5% sliced cheese [26] | Microbial oxygen absorber containing | |
Saloio cheese [27] | ||
Camembert cheese [28] | 3-layered film with absorber/desorber film. 10% concentration of water absorbent, maintained attractive white appearance of cheese while 25% caused damage of the varnish layer due to swelling. | |
Cheese puffs [29] | Tricalcium phosphate-based UV light inhibitor could be incorporated directly into dry mix flavor powder of cheese puffs cooked in hot oil to prevent light induced rancidity and spoilage. |
Types of active packaging materials/systems explored for cheese and cheese-based products.
The presence of moisture not only affects the package appearance but also leads to poor texture and quality of cheese both microbiologically and chemically. Moisture control in the cheese package reduces the water activity thus preventing microbial growth and leaching of soluble nutrients [17]. Moisture scavengers include desiccants like silica gel, molecular sieves, natural clays like calcium oxide, calcium chloride and modified starch in the form of pads, sheets, sachets and blankets [4]. Moisture control in cheese packages could also be attained by incorporating humectant between different layers of packaging material, while keeping the inside layer water permeable. A two layered packaging material for moisture sensitive products like soft cheese was developed by [30] Marbler & Parmentier, (1999). The packaging material consisted of first functional layer (coated paper) for storing and releasing moisture and second layer (plastic laminate) for controlling gas permeability as a function of moisture content. These types of packaging material find their utility for cheese matured inside the package. Pantaleao, Pintado, & Pocas (2007) [27] successfully demonstrated humidity controller (Humidipak®) with Saloio cheese for shelf-life extension. A dual compartment vacuum packaging system (Tenderpac®) developed by SEALPAC® (Germany) for neatly collecting the drip loss from meat products, could be optimized for fresh unripened cheeses like mozzarella, quarg and cottage [31].
Oxygen scavengers market size was 1.80 billion USD in 2016 which is estimated to reach 2.41 billion USD in 2022 at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.1%. North America (USA, Canada and Mexico) is the leading market while Asia Pacific region (China, India, Japan and South Korea) is the fastest growing market [5]. Oxygen is majorly responsible for cheese spoilage as its presence facilitates the growth of aerobic microorganisms, oxidation of cheese components, nutritional value decline, off-flavors generation, unacceptable color changes, shelf-life reduction and decrease in food safety [32]. Therefore, control of oxygen content inside cheese package is of prime importance. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), vacuum packaging and oxygen absorbers are the alternatives available to reduce or completely remove oxygen from the package [25]. However, MAP and vacuum packaging require costly equipment for packing cheese and still do not remove the oxygen completely (residual oxygen could be up to 1% in the headspace). Vacuum packaging can affect the appearance and structure of soft cheeses adversely and oxygen can also permeate through the packaging film during later stages of storage or distribution [33]. Oxygen scavengers provide the best alternative to remove the oxygen permeating through the packaging film and also to overcome the challenges of MAP and vacuum packaging [34].
The shelf-life of cheese tarts increased to 48 days when packaged with an iron-oxide based oxygen scavenger as compared to 7 days for control samples [35]. An oxygen scavenging film containing a blend of ethylene, methyl acrylate and cyclohexene methyl acrylate copolymer as oxygen scavenger resin was developed to overcome the oxidative rancidity in cheeses, dried milk and meat products [36]. A study on the effectiveness of various packaging methods for Gouda cheese revealed that oxygen scavengers (ATCO FT 210) were as effective as vacuum packaging and MAP (40% CO2 and 60% N2) in prolonging its shelf-life [34]. Microbiological oxygen scavenging material consisting of
Cheeses like Cheddar, Swiss, Blue, Colby etc. are highly prone to lipid oxidation owing to their high fat content. Antioxidants are extensively used to prevent oxidation by scavenging free radical but due to augmented customer trend for additives free food products, incorporation into packaging material is the best option [40]. Antioxidants incorporation into packaging material not only prevents quality deterioration of the product but also stabilizes the polymer [41]. Synthetic antioxidants like butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA) are conventionally used in cheese packing. As per Code of Federal Regulation (CFR 21/172.115), the maximum rate of BHT addition to cheese is 200 mg/kg of fat and specific migration limit of BHA is 30 mg/kg of food product as per EU 10/2011 regulations. Asadero cheese was vacuum packed in LDPE co-extruded film containing 8 and 14 mg/g of BHT. Cheese packed in LDPE film incorporated with 8 mg/g of BHT had oxidized flavor while film with 14 mg/g of BHT surpassed the legal limit of BHT addition [42]. Therefore, similar to natural counterparts of other additives the recent focus is on natural antioxidants. Pomegranate peel extract (PPE) incorporated into zein films for packaging of Himalayan Kalari cheese retarded the oxidation of fat and protein due to the presence of polyphenols in PPE [43]. Sliced cheese packed in red algae films incorporated with 1% grape fruit seed extract (GFSE) showed decreased peroxide and thiobarbituric acid value indicating the antioxidant capability of GFSE [44]. Gelatin-chitosan edible film with Boldo herb extract possessed antioxidant and antimicrobial activity and had preservative effect on sliced Prato cheese by preventing psychrotrophs [41]. Similarly, other natural antioxidants like green tea extract [45], catechins [46] and rosemary extract [40] had been explored for their antioxidant potential in cheese packaging but the major challenge with antioxidant incorporated films in cheese packaging is synchronization of antioxidant diffusion rate according to cheese requirement. Also, for natural antioxidant incorporation in continuous film production by extrusion, their stability or thermal degradation is the major concern [46].
Cheeses packed with higher CO2 may suffer from sensory related issues as its dissolution leads to formation of carbonic acid [14]. Taleggio cheese produced excessive 2.5 mmol kg-1 day-1 CO2 when stored in nitrogen flushed packages at 6°C causing quality degradation [47]. However, carbon dioxide production is essential in some cheeses to achieve desired texture, eye formation in Emmental and Swiss cheese, and inhibition of microorganisms but excessive production could lead to puffed pouches or package burst [48]. When cheeses are preserved and sold at ambient temperature or when desired shelf life is high, the adverse effects of higher CO2 concentration aggravates many folds [47]. In such circumstances, carbon dioxide absorbers could be used to remove the excess CO2 and create a balanced internal cheese package atmosphere [2]. The only noticeable progress in segment of CO2 absorbers for cheese is by Fellows (2009) [49], who developed a mechanism for CO2 release from mold ripened cheese (e.g. Camembert) package using one-way valve while disallowing other gases to infiltrate. Crump (2012) [50] developed a CO2 absorber pouch using polyethylene that contained 1.1 g of calcium hydroxide (200 mesh) and silica gel each in 2:1 mixture of water for shrink wrapped Swiss cheese (114 g) and reported that the product remained in good color with acceptable taste without any expansion due to CO2 release during storage at 5°C for 4 months. The gas composition and volume of modified atmosphere packed semi-hard cheese (Kadett®, Arla Foods) packages were optimized using mathematical modeling based on gas solubility coefficients, initial carbon dioxide content in cheese and packaging material, thus avoiding consumer rejection due to volume changes [48].
Light, and principally UV light, may cause or accelerate various undesirable reactions like lipid oxidation in cheese. Also, riboflavin, an efficient photosensitizer, present in cheeses at levels of 0.30–0.60 mg/100 g, quickly captivates energy owing to its conjugated double bond and generates either free radicals or reactive oxygen species (ROS). These free radicals and ROS are the major causes of lipid oxidation, off-flavors, color bleaching and nutrient losses especially vitamin A in cheeses [51]. Light stabilizers are divided into five major categories namely: light absorbers, light screeners, excited-state quenchers, peroxide decomposers and free radical scavengers based on their mode of action [52]. Kristoffersen, Stussi, & Gould (1964) [53] reported reduced flavor deterioration in consumer packs of cheddar cheese using Uvinul D 49® as a UV light screening material. Uvinul® S-Pack is a novel FDA approved UV absorber for PET packaging films, which prevented the UV degradation of vitamins and β-carotene, thus highlighting its potential of preventing light degradation changes in cheeses kept in refrigerated illuminated cabinet of supermarkets [54]. Recently, flavonoids had been reported to facilitate the dissipation of photon energy to heat thus deterring photodegradation [22]. Thus, flavonoids incorporated packaging material as natural active element for UV light absorption may be explored for cheese.
Antimicrobial packaging is the most researched forms of cheese active packaging. Antimicrobial agent at certain minimum concentration (known as minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)) diminishes or impedes microbial growth [9]. Antimicrobial effect in cheeses is most commonly obtained by organic acids and its salt derivatives (sorbic acid, citric acid and their anhydrides), bacteriocins (nisin, lacticin and pediocin), fungicides (imazalil and natamycin), enzymes (lysozyme and lactoferrin), essential oils (basil leaf, thyme, oregano and cinnamon) and miscellaneous compounds like potassium metabisulphite, allyl isothiocyanate, EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) or a combination of these agents [22, 55, 56]. Antimicrobial agents which are sensitive to higher polymer processing temperature are usually applied as coatings. Gliadin based bioplastic films prepared by casting, and containing cinnamaldehyde as active ingredient inhibited fungal growth in cheese spreads [57]. Immobilization of antimicrobial agents like nisin on the surface of cheese packaging material is a convenient technique, however immobilization is appropriate for fluids because of direct contact between antimicrobial surface and entire liquid food [58]. Active polyethylene terephthalate film immobilized with silver nanoparticles extended the shelf-life of white fresh cheese up to 30 days [59]. Labels containing antimicrobial agents can also be used for enhancing cheese shelf life. Labels containing allyl isothiocyanate enhanced the shelf-life of Danish Danbo cheese to 28 weeks when used in combination with MAP as compared to 18 weeks with MAP alone [60].
Chitosan, a natural polysaccharide had been utilized for antimicrobial cheese packaging owing to its biodegradable, antimicrobial, filmogenic and metal complexation attributes [61]. Cellulose polymer based antimicrobial films incorporated with nisin and natamycin showed the potential for preservation of sliced Mozzarella cheese [62]. Electrospinning technique was utilized for incorporation of nisin (at the rate of 5 mg/mL) in polyethylene oxide nanofibers to inhibit
Flavor emitters are mainly used to impart flavor to any packed product or scalp/downgrade any undesirable flavor due to harsher processing conditions, thereby improving sensorial attributes and chances of modifying product formulation [66]. It may be used for masking off-flavors but food processors may unfairly market their expired, unsafe or low-quality foods without letting the consumers know. ScentSational Technologies® is global leader in developing food packages with controlled release of legally permitted flavor into headspace of a pack at varying intervals and provision for adjustment of flavor intensity [31]. Recently, they have also ventured into developing customized and patented injection molded scented and/or flavored parts of any pack. Kraft foods had developed a system for controlled and prolonged release of volatile flavor upon opening and reopening of the package [67]. Such type of packaging innovation could also be used for cheese products like chiplets, slices, processed cheese etc. which are usually contained in multi-use packages.
Color releasing multilayered film is the novel technique for incorporating permitted food grade colors (Table 2) such as annatto over cheese surface. Such films generally find their application when low intensity shade of color is desired or color is adversely affected during any processing step, storage or distribution. Mohan, Ravishankar, & Gopal, (2010) [4] suggested the migration of edible food permitted red color from the wrapper of surimi to provide it a more desirable and acceptable color. Similarly, α, β-citral migrated from the cellulose acetate films and improved the yellowness of Coalho cheese without affecting its texture during 25 days of storage [68].
Rindless cheeses are cooked or uncooked hard varieties of cheese that are ripened in plastic film which allows little or no gas or moisture movement e.g. Cheddar, Edam, Gouda and Swiss. Natural rind is the outer crust of cheese formed either during cheese making or storage under controlled humidity and temperature [3]. These rinds are highly susceptible to undesirable fungal growth and becomes slimy at times. Gerber, Koehler, Grass, & Stark (2012) [69] developed a three layered, self-cleaning and porous rind inoculated with
Microwave susceptors are the substances which absorb microwave energy and convert it into heat energy. It consists of Al foil layer deposited on paperboard or polyester film for uniform heating treatment [18]. Emmi®, a USA based cheese manufacturing firm, provides different variants of fondue recipes (melted Swiss cheese) in microwaveable containers which are ready-to-(h)eat, convenient and recyclable [70]. These types of microwave assisted heating packs could be used for melted cheese recipes. The major concern with microwave assisted heating cheese containers is duration of microwave heating. Some pop-up sound mechanism could be attached with package which blows up and makes a noise on complete even heating of the package content [3].
Pesticide control agents are generally used with secondary packaging systems to prevent insects, or for fungicidal control, during import and export of food products over distant horizons. Packaging material with pesticide control could also be used to prevent detrimental effects of pests and insects for cheeses like Cheddar, Parmesan etc. which require longer ripening period. The major concerns with these types of pesticide control agents containing packaging is their permissible limit and regulatory issues for use with cheeses. Natamycin is a GRAS status (as per FDA) fungicide which is produced during fermentation by
Intelligent packaging has not been researched extensively for cheese as reflected by very few publications in Figure 1. A few intelligent packaging systems investigated for cheese are presented in this section. However, large size of cheese market including import and export offers attractive opportunities. A list of different suppliers of commercially available smart packaging materials along with their head office, website and contact point are detailed in Table 4.
Type of smart packaging | Company (Head Office) | Brand name | Website | Distributor/Contact point in Asia |
---|---|---|---|---|
Clariant® Chemicals (Switzerland) | OXY-GUARD™, O-Buster® | www.clariant.com | Clariant Chemical, Vadodara | |
Mitsubishi Gas Chemical (Japan) | Ageless | www.mgc.co.jp | Information & Advanced Materials Company, Oxygen Absorbers Division, Japan | |
Toppan Printing (Japan) | Freshilizer | www.toppan.com | Max Speciality Films Limited, Punjab, India | |
Multisorb Filtration Group® (New York, USA) | StabilOx®, Freshmax | www.multisorb.com | — | |
Southcorp Packaging (Acquired by Visy®) (Australia) | Zero2 | www.visy.com.au | No facility in India. Available in Thailand. | |
AGM Containers (USA) | ActiSorb®O | Clariant India, Maharashtra India | ||
Avery Dennison (California, USA) | TT Sensor™ | www.averydennison.com | Bangalore, Karnataka | |
IntroTech (Netherlands) | Monitor Mark® | www.introtech.eu | — | |
Vitsab® (Limhamn, Sweden) | CheckPoint® | www.vitsab.com | — | |
TempTime® Corporation (USA) | Fresh-Check® | www.temptimecorp.com | Lisaline Lifescience Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Thane, India | |
Life Materials Technology Limited (Hong Kong) | Agion® | www.life-materials.com | — | |
Addmaster Limited (UK) | Biomaster® | www.addmaster.co.uk | Jebsen & Jessen, Indonesia (Contact point in Asia) | |
VGP (Barcelona, Spain) | Natamycin | — | ||
Evert-Fresh Corporation (USA) | Evert-Fresh | www.evertfresh.com | — | |
Sekisui Jushi (Japan) | Neupalon | www.sjc-strapping.com | — | |
Peakfresh Products Ltd. (Australia) | Peakfresh | www.peakfresh.com | — | |
Sealed Air® Corporation (USA) | Dri-Loc® | www.sealedair.com | — | |
SEALPAC® (Germany) | Tenderpac® | www.sealpacinternational.com | Synerchem Sdn. Bhd., Selangor, Malaysia (Contact point in Asia) | |
Freshpoint Lab (Australia) | O2 Sense | www.freshpoint.com | — | |
Timestrip Ltd. | Timestrip | — | — | |
Mitsubishi Gas Chemical (Japan) | Ageless Eye | www.mgc.co.jp | Information & Advanced Materials Company, Oxygen Absorbers Division, Japan | |
Insignia Technologies Ltd. (Scotland) | Novas | www.insigniatechnologies.com | — | |
Temptrip LLC (USA) | Temptrip | www.temptrip.com | — | |
Mondi Plc (Austria) | Intelligent Box | www.mondigroup.com | — | |
COX Technologies (USA) | Fresh Tag | www.cox-tec.com | — | |
Timestrip (UK) | Timestrip® | www.timestrip.com | — | |
Ripesense Ltd. (New Zealand) | ripeSense® | www.ripesense.co.nz | — | |
Sirane Food Packaging Limited (UK) | Sira-Crisp™ | www.sirane.com | Sirane East, Vostok, Russia | |
VacPac Inc. (USA) | SmartPouch | www.vacpacinc.com | — |
Suppliers and Asian contact point of commercially available smart packaging systems.
Source: compiled from internet using website of the companies.
Gas indicators or package integrity or leak indicators generally indicate the presence or absence of any gas (majorly oxygen) on the basis of certain chemical or enzymatic reactions. Cheeses are packed under modified atmospheres usually devoid of oxygen to enhance their shelf life. However, the gas composition of cheese package may change relying on the microbial growth inside the package, barrier properties of the packaging material, efficiency of packaging system, or physical damage, if any, that causes leakage [72]. So, knowing the level of oxygen is important to ensure cheese quality and safety in the entire supply chain and throughout its shelf-life. Redox dye-based oxygen indicators have been reported to indicate the package integrity and status of MAP in food non-destructively [73]. A schematic illustration of Mozzarella cheese package equipped with an oxygen indicator and oxygen scavenger with dye-based oxygen sensor is presented in Figures 3 and 4, respectively.
A schematic illustration of intelligent packaging system using an oxygen indicator applied to mozzarella cheese package (
A schematic illustration of smart (active + intelligent) packaging system for mozzarella cheese package with oxygen indicator (shown in pink color) and oxygen scavenger (O-buster® oxygen scavenger) (
A single use fluorescent-based oxygen sensor prepared using platinum octaethylporphyrin-ketone (PtOEPK), a phosphorescent oxygen-sensitive dye, sensed oxygen concentration changes in MAP cheddar cheese over a period of 4 months. The sensor was reported to possess sensitivity in the range between 0.02% and 100% oxygen. Correlation between oxygen concentration and microbial growth presented an opportunity for assessment of cheese quality using colorimetric oxygen sensor [74]. Similarly, dye based ultraviolet light activated oxygen sensor was successfully developed and characterized for its oxygen sensitivity, oxygen dependent color change and mechanical properties by Deshwal et al. (2018) [75]. The developed indicator was integrated with MAP Mozzarella cheese as an integrity/oxygen indicator, which could be helpful for stakeholders in the entire supply chain [15]. Hempel, Gillanders, Papkovsky, & Kerry, (2012) [76] successfully exploited optical oxygen sensors for detecting integrity (ingress of oxygen) of vacuum packaged cheddar cheese samples during its storage.
Freshness indicators, mostly colorimetric in nature, determine the safety, quality or freshness of product based on microbial growth or chemical change. They trigger a visual indication mechanism by detecting the metabolites of microbial or chemical change [77]. Possibilities of freshness detection of packaged milk, cream and cottage cheese using polymer-based labels was proposed by Chen & Zall (1987) [78]. Major approach for characterizing the deterioration of any cheese is by identifying the volatile organic compounds liberated during its storage (or ripening) using solid phase microextraction-gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (SPME-GC–MS). Octane, hexanal and 2-pentyl-furan were the indicators for light exposure as obtained during the volatile profile of processed cheese [79]. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and near infrared spectroscopy (NIR) have also been used to rapidly identify the chemical groups involved in the Crescenza cheese spoilage for possible development of freshness indicator [80]. Most recently, a biodegradable chitosan film containing pomegranate peels/Melissa officinalis essential oil demonstrated not only antimicrobial potential but also anthocyanins functionality as a spoilage indicator changing its color from blue to red due to pH change of cream cheese during spoilage [77]. A diverse blue cheese classification or identification indicator based on chromogenic array pattern of several pH dyes differentiated five cheeses i.e. Roquefort, Blue Stilton, blue cheese with leaves, blue cheese spread and Cheddar with 100% accuracy [81]. Such type of indicators can be used as freshness indicators of blue cheese where the changes in pH and color could be correlated with cheese spoilage. An attempt for the development of red cabbage extract-based pH indicator for monitoring Ricotta cheese spoilage was reported by Bento, Pereira, Chaves, & Stefani, (2015) [82]. Biogenic amines like histamine, tyramine, tryptamine and phenylethylamine are produced in cheese during ripening. Several reports of histamine poisoning in the past for Gouda, Swiss, Cheddar, Cheshire etc. cheeses indicate the potential of biogenic amines as freshness or spoilage indicators for cheese [83]. Freshness indicators for poultry, fish and seafood are commercially available, but a very few “biological use by date” or “chemical best before date” indicators for dairy products had been reported to the best of our knowledge indicating research possibilities in this area.
Cheese ripening indicator could be defined as the use of any technique/process/sensor for spotting metabolites (majorly volatiles) or chemical breakdown by-products of glycolysis, proteolysis and lipolysis to quantify the maturity or age of any cheese variety. The earliest attempt in cheese segment included the use of amido black dye for detecting the age of Cheddar and lactose-hydrolyzed cheddar cheese. Dye binding values were correlated with the free amino acid content [84]. Electric nose (or e-nose) had been used for headspace fingerprinting of packaged ripened cheese (Crescenza) volatiles and the data obtained was found to be helpful for its shelf-life measurement [85]. Tavaria, Ferreira, & Malcata, (2004) [86] quantified major ripening descriptors like free fatty acids, acetic, isobutyric and isovaleric acid concentration during 180 days ripening period of Serra da Estrela cheese. These volatile fatty acids furnished information about the optimal consumption time of cheese which could also be successfully used as ripening indicator. Industrially successful models based on infrared reflectance spectra, attributed to the changes in absorbance patterns of alcohol and amide groups have been used to predict the ripening stages and sensory characteristics of Cheddar [87] and Camembert cheese [88] with a minute error of one day.
The shelf-life of any food commodity as mentioned on the package in terms of “biological use by date” or “chemical best before date” is subject to its temperature exposure history owing to temperature dependence of microbial growth, enzyme activity and chemical reactions. Time temperature indicators (TTIs) convey information about the temperature exposure of the food commodity over a period of time [89]. TTIs mainly finds their applications in temperature sensitive food products that are stored or distributed in chilled conditions like milk, cheese, ice-cream, yoghurt, meat, fish etc. Shellhammer & Singh (1991) [90] used enzyme-based full history TTI (I-POINT®) on cottage cheese to correlate temperature variation with cheese quality parameters and reported that the TTIs response was significantly affected by pH, titratable acidity and standard plate count of cheese samples. However, attempts of TTI usage in cheese are few and include shelf-life evaluation of Taleggio cheese [91] and Caprino type cheese [92] using TTIs. Potential of diacetylenic monomers as active ingredient in TTIs based on polymerization reaction for monitoring cheese maturity had also been suggested [93]. A study on evolution of proteolytic activity products in Azeitao cheese with fluctuating temperature revealed prominent presence of two free amino acids (valine and leucine) and two biogenic amines (tyramine and putrescine), which may serve as temperature change indicators for the development of microbial TTI for ripened cheese [94].
Cheese traceability at batch level is maintained using self-adhesive casein labels, written records, and in advanced cases information is stored in a local database. However, such systems are inefficient considering food safety, counterfeiting risks, voluminous cheese production, warehouse optimization and cost involved in production [95]. So, application of RFID tags at ‘farm to fork’ levels of cheese industry could provide reliable solutions as it stores more information and assess at longer distances [12]. Regattieri, Gamberi, & Manzini (2007) [96] developed a RFID based traceability systems for hard cheese (Parmigiano Reggiano) which detects the history of the product over entire supply chain. Every minute information starting from feed input, production details to detailed pedigree of a cheese piece is available, thus even facilitating consumers to authorize cheese origin and prevent cheese imitation. The final cost of such RFID tags on customer was calculated to be 0.5%. Similarly, improved traceability of long-ripened cheeses (Bra Tenero, Bra Duro, Raschera and Toma Piemontese) with automatic movement recording during production, handling in ripening room and warehouse, delivery, packing and selling was achieved using tags operating at low (125 kHz), high (13.56 MHz) and ultra-high (865 MHz) frequency [12]. RFID tags with an ability to store data related to 200 variables of cheese production not only improved the quality and yield control of the production plant but also possessed robustness against different temperature, humidity, acid and frictional forces [97]. Papetti et al. (2012) [98] designed a web based “infotracing system” for Italian cheese (
Physical shock indicators are of prime importance for status quo of any fragile product during its rough handling or carriage. Cheeses are often exported across the globe with highest probability of mishandling by personnel during any step of distribution channels or improper selection of transportation channel. Physical shock indicators could be developed using diffusion mechanism, where a fluid leaks and collects irreversibly in another impermeable package, thus indicating the force or pressure to which package content had been exposed. To the best of our knowledge and literature mining no physical shock indicator for cheese and food packaging had been reported. Convex-concave type of metallic structure could also be used to identify the forces to which any cheese packages are exposed over long distances.
Packaging could also be used for facilitating the reduction of cholesterol and lactose in cheeses using cholesterol reductase and lactase enzymes. Cholesterol reductase enzyme converts cholesterol to undigested form (coprosterol), reducing its absorption in intestine. An innovative ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer (EVOH) plastic encompassing 30% beta-cyclodextrins reduced the cholesterol concentration by 23% in UHT milk [100]. Such type of active plastic films could be incorporated with β-galactosidase enzyme (lactase) and explored for the development of lactose free whey cheeses due to increased incidences of lactose intolerance across the globe [101].
Citric acid, ferrous salt/ascorbic acid, cellulose triacetate and activated carbon/clays/zeolites are most commonly used off-odor absorbers finding their use in fish, cereals, fruits and poultry products [3]. Off-flavor and odor scavengers prevent cross contamination of pungent odor and aids in improving the overall acceptance of cheeses. However, it is imperative that the constituents scavenged should not be spoilage indicators or essential for flavor development. Some ketones, aldehydes and esters are associated with fruity flavor of cheeses which may be undesirable for some customers [102]. Aldehyde and ester scavengers in cheese packaging can be helpful in improving its sensorial quality. The identified volatile compounds from the headspace of cheese packages revealed the possibilities for development of absorption system and stabilization of sensory qualities of semi-soft ripened cheese [103].
The earliest documented and patented step to achieve the tack ability of a multilayered polyester film over cheese surface was the electrical discharge or flame treatment of the inner surface [104]. Such films were temporarily adherent and easily peel able while opening cheese package. Presently, these anti-stick films can find their vast application for packaging individual slices of processed cheese or Mozzarella cheese spheres thus, reducing sticking losses.
Carbon dioxide and ethanol not only inhibit bacteria, yeasts, molds but also reduces oxidation and could be used individually or in combination for cheese packaging systems to inhibit microbial growth and pack shrinkage [105]. Cheese is most commonly packed with higher CO2 concentration using MAP technique but CO2 dissolves in the product leading to package collapse [6]. Package collapse could be overcome by inserting CO2 emitters in standard MAP cheese trays with perforated false bottom. The controlled release of ethanol in cheese packs could be obtained by encapsulating in a carrier material [65]. Ethicap®, a commercialized ethanol emitter absorbed in silica pads and embedded in sachets made from ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer prevented the growth of molds and yeast, thereby enhancing the shelf-life of soft cheeses [106]. However, objectionable off-flavors involved with higher concentration of CO2 and ethanol are concerning and supplementary flavor mixtures may be required.
An innovative single use package having the ability to absorb oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapor, comprising of calcium hydroxide which emits water due to CO2 absorption, thus activating transition metal (iron oxide) based oxygen scavenger has been developed. Such containers would be suitable for hard cheeses like Taleggio, which emits large amount of CO2 during ripening and require slight oxygen for maintaining the growth of live cultures [107].
Self-cooling packaging technique is based on an endothermic chemical reaction involving the dissolution of ammonium chloride or ammonium nitrate in water and heat pump technology using water as the heat transmission medium. Such type of packaging systems may remunerate the cold chain conditions, especially where supply channel is inefficient [3]. Initially, thermal sensitive cheese varieties may be shipped using secondary or tertiary thermal management system. Greenbox Thermal Management Systems™ utilizes organic phase change nanomaterial labeled as PureTemp®, to provide specifically designed distribution carriage systems with an ability to maintain temperature precisely for longer durations of supply [108]. It consists of a reusable, recyclable and completely biodegradable boxes in box arrangement with exterior layer of corrugated plastic. Such type of self-cooling containers may be really helpful for exporting cheeses over longer distances without any thermal abuse and quality deterioration.
Emmental and Gouda cheese possess typical and desired regular round holes (eyes) owing to the production of large amount of carbon dioxide during lactate metabolism [109]. Dye based CO2 indicators based on color intensity that is correlated with amount of CO2 released could be used to monitor advances in ripening and signpost the accomplishment of optimal ripening. Recently, a novel consumable adhesive CO2 indicator strip consisting of phenol red dye and tetrabutylammonium hydroxide coated onto silica nanoparticles was developed by Wang, Yusufu, & Mills, (2019) [110]. The color response was dependent on temperature and thickness of polymer barrier films. Such type of indicators could be explored for the development of CO2 indicator or freshness indicator for modified atmosphere packaged cheese and cheese-based products.
Temperature sensitive networks based on chitosan-poly-(N-isopropylacrylamide) for controlled release were developed by Alvarez-Lorenzo et al. (2005) [111], which can be used in active cheese packaging materials for precise emission of any active component. Films changing their gas permeability in response to degree of temperature and exposure duration may be frequently used during storage and distribution of respiring cheeses like Camembert and Gouda. BreatheWay® membrane technology (Apio Inc., California), based on side chain crystallizable (SCC) polymers provides the solution for gas permeability control according to change in temperature. The change in polymer properties like chain length and side chains can be used for attaining required oxygen and carbon dioxide permeabilities in cheese packages [3].
With the focal point being shifted to consumer convenience, quality and safety, active and intelligent packaging tools may help customers with informed choice. As the world is witnessing increased consumption of cheese, these packaging tools have potential market growth. The expansion of smart packaging technologies in cheese industry remains at a nascent stage. Recent research publications on smart packaging of meat, fish, fruits and vegetables suggest innovative ideas which could be conceptualized for cheese in near future. Smart packaging tools need to be of low cost and multiple benefits. The partnership of active and intelligent packaging can be used to complement each other’s actions. Existing challenges could be overcome by multidisciplinary approaches for the development of smaller, more powerful and cost-effective smart packaging systems. Biotechnology, nanotechnology, food science, sensor technology and information technology could be combined for overcoming the shortcomings. Biosensor and hybrid devices for cheese packaging remains untouched in terms of its development and commercialization. It could be expected that with the continuous advances in intelligent packaging and growing modified atmosphere packaged dairy products market, the demand for such type of intelligent packaging systems is expected to rise.
We are highly thankful to Director, ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal for providing the required facilities to carry out the present work.
The authors declare no conflict of interest that might be perceived as affecting the neutrality of the article.
These Terms and Conditions outline the rules and regulations pertaining to the use of IntechOpen’s website www.intechopen.com and all the subdomains owned by IntechOpen located at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom.
',metaTitle:"Terms and Conditions",metaDescription:"These terms and conditions outline the rules and regulations for the use of IntechOpen Website at https://intechopen.com and all its subdomains owned by Intech Limited located at 7th floor, 10 Lower Thames Street, London, EC3R 6AF, UK.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
\\n\\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\\n\\n“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\\n\\n“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\\n\\n“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\\n\\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\\n\\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\\n\\nWe employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\\n\\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\\n\\nIntechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
\\n\\nWe reserve the right of ownership over our entire website www.intechopen.com, and all contents. By using our services, you agree to remove all links to our website immediately upon request. We also reserve the right to amend these Terms and Conditions and our linking policy at any time. By continuing to link to our website, you agree to be bound to, and abide by, these linking Terms and Conditions.
\\n\\nIf you find any link on our website, or any linked website, objectionable for any reason, please Contact Us. We will consider all requests to remove links but will have no obligation to do so.
\\n\\nWithout prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
\\n\\nIntechOpen may revise its Terms of Service for its website at any time without notice. By using this website, you are agreeing to be bound by the current version of all Terms at the time of use.
\\n\\nThese Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\\n\\nCroatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
\n\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\n\n“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\n\n“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\n\n“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\n\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\n\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\n\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\n\nWe employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\n\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\n\nIntechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
\n\nIntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
\n\nWe reserve the right of ownership over our entire website www.intechopen.com, and all contents. By using our services, you agree to remove all links to our website immediately upon request. We also reserve the right to amend these Terms and Conditions and our linking policy at any time. By continuing to link to our website, you agree to be bound to, and abide by, these linking Terms and Conditions.
\n\nIf you find any link on our website, or any linked website, objectionable for any reason, please Contact Us. We will consider all requests to remove links but will have no obligation to do so.
\n\nWithout prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
\n\nIntechOpen may revise its Terms of Service for its website at any time without notice. By using this website, you are agreeing to be bound by the current version of all Terms at the time of use.
\n\nThese Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\n\nCroatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6674},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5955},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2461},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12719},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1018},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17724}],offset:12,limit:12,total:134466},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"7,21,23"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11782",title:"Personality Traits - The Role in Psychopathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d3a491e5194cad4c59b900dd57a11842",slug:null,bookSignature:" Vladimir V. Kalinin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11782.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"31572",title:null,name:"Vladimir V.",surname:"Kalinin",slug:"vladimir-v.-kalinin",fullName:"Vladimir V. Kalinin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11444",title:"Happiness - Biopsychosocial and Anthropological Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"fa84e7fc3611e5428e070239dcf5a93f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Floriana Irtelli and Prof. Fabio Gabrielli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11444.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"174641",title:"Dr.",name:"Floriana",surname:"Irtelli",slug:"floriana-irtelli",fullName:"Floriana Irtelli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11601",title:"Econometrics - Recent Advances and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bc8ab49e2cf436c217a49ca8c12a22eb",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Brian Sloboda",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11601.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"452331",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",surname:"Sloboda",slug:"brian-sloboda",fullName:"Brian Sloboda"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12239",title:"Topics on Globalization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"43443244d8385c57f1424d5d37c91788",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Elsadig Musa Ahmed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12239.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"268621",title:"Prof.",name:"Elsadig",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"elsadig-ahmed",fullName:"Elsadig Ahmed"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11779",title:"Non-government Organizations - New Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c109a472a9e0ea8398ae95e2d21be039",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Vito Bobek and Dr. Tatjana Horvat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11779.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11477",title:"Public Economics - New Perspectives and Uncertainty",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a8e6c515dc924146fbd2712eb4e7d118",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Habtamu Alem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11477.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"414400",title:"Dr.",name:"Habtamu",surname:"Alem",slug:"habtamu-alem",fullName:"Habtamu Alem"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11436",title:"Beauty - Evolutionary, Social and Cultural Perspectives on Attractiveness",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8f2773e5d4ffe767f38dd15712258e8c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Farid Pazhoohi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11436.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"470837",title:"Dr.",name:"Farid",surname:"Pazhoohi",slug:"farid-pazhoohi",fullName:"Farid Pazhoohi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11437",title:"Social Media - Risks and Opportunities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"000e31f2e2f7295805e9a3864158ad63",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Shafizan Mohamed and Dr. Shazleen Mohamed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11437.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"302450",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Shafizan",surname:"Mohamed",slug:"shafizan-mohamed",fullName:"Shafizan Mohamed"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11443",title:"Empathy - Advanced Research and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4c1042dfe15aa9cea6019524c4cbff38",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Sara Ventura",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11443.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"227763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",surname:"Ventura",slug:"sara-ventura",fullName:"Sara Ventura"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11769",title:"Multiculturalism and Interculturalism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6c4bda24f278d74f943f2155f13f4d73",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Mohiuddin, Dr. Tareque Aziz and Dr. Sreenivasan Jayashree",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11769.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12109",title:"Identifying Occupational Stress and Coping Strategies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"09a2f5fe50b90b20637b7aceccf1cfdd",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Kavitha Palaniappan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12109.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"311189",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavitha",surname:"Palaniappan",slug:"kavitha-palaniappan",fullName:"Kavitha Palaniappan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11775",title:"Global Peace and Security",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"131303f07b492463a5c4a7607fe46ba9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Norman Chivasa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11775.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"331566",title:"Dr.",name:"Norman",surname:"Chivasa",slug:"norman-chivasa",fullName:"Norman Chivasa"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:36},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:22},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:61},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:108},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:3}],offset:12,limit:12,total:25},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4438},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1677,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1337,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1309,editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:847,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2273,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:591,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:515,editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:413,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2194,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:341,editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"11042",title:"Complementary Therapies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9eb32ccbef95289a133a76e5808a525b",slug:"complementary-therapies",bookSignature:"Mario Bernardo-Filho, Redha Taiar, Danúbia da Cunha de Sá-Caputo and Adérito Seixas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11042.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"157376",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Bernardo-Filho",slug:"mario-bernardo-filho",fullName:"Mario Bernardo-Filho"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ad1d3f637564a29cf1636759f5401994",slug:"thermoelectricity-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Guangzhao Qin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"188870",title:"Mr.",name:"Guangzhao",middleName:null,surname:"Qin",slug:"guangzhao-qin",fullName:"Guangzhao Qin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production",subtitle:"Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee41e09e4ad6a336ca9f0e5462da3904",slug:"sustainable-crop-production-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Vijay Singh Meena, Mahipal Choudhary, Ram Prakash Yadav and Sunita Kumari Meena",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"420235",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"vijay-meena",fullName:"Vijay Meena"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10863",title:"Cardiac Rhythm Management",subtitle:"Pacing, Ablation, Devices",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a064ec49b85ebfc60585c9c3690af53a",slug:"cardiac-rhythm-management-pacing-ablation-devices",bookSignature:"Mart Min and Gabriel Cismaru",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10863.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"62780",title:"Prof.",name:"Mart",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"mart-min",fullName:"Mart Min"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10874",title:"Insights on Antimicrobial Peptides",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"23ca26025e87356a7c2ffac365f73a22",slug:"insights-on-antimicrobial-peptides",bookSignature:"Shymaa Enany, Jorge Masso-Silva and Anna Savitskaya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10874.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e0e4727c9f1f9b34d788f0dc70278f2b",slug:"mineralogy",bookSignature:"Miloš René",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"142108",title:"Dr.",name:"Miloš",middleName:null,surname:"René",slug:"milos-rene",fullName:"Miloš René"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10882",title:"Smart Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"70c3ce4256324b3c58db970d446ddac4",slug:"smart-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Usama Ahmad, Md. Faheem Haider and Juber Akhtar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10882.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10885",title:"Snake Venom and Ecology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc4503ed9e56a7bcd9f2ca82b0c880a8",slug:"snake-venom-and-ecology",bookSignature:"Mohammad Manjur Shah, Umar Sharif, Tijjani Rufai Buhari and Tijjani Sabiu Imam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10885.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9dbafb0b297cf5cbdb220707e022a228",slug:"electrocatalysis-and-electrocatalysts-for-a-cleaner-environment-fundamentals-and-applications",bookSignature:"Lindiwe Eudora Khotseng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"236596",title:"Dr.",name:"Lindiwe Eudora",middleName:null,surname:"Khotseng",slug:"lindiwe-eudora-khotseng",fullName:"Lindiwe Eudora Khotseng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10900",title:"Prunus",subtitle:"Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9261926500acb26c4ae5a29eee78f0db",slug:"prunus-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Ayzin B. Küden and Ali Küden",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10900.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"200365",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayzin B.",middleName:"B.",surname:"Küden",slug:"ayzin-b.-kuden",fullName:"Ayzin B. Küden"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"159",title:"Semiconductor",slug:"semiconductor",parent:{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"},numberOfBooks:16,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:431,numberOfWosCitations:727,numberOfCrossrefCitations:342,numberOfDimensionsCitations:724,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"159",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7671",title:"Concepts of Semiconductor Photocatalysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"549e8caa1b260cea0dd3fe688cd126f5",slug:"concepts-of-semiconductor-photocatalysis",bookSignature:"Mohammed Rahman, Anish Khan, Abdullah Asiri and Inamuddin Inamuddin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6845",title:"Graphene and Its Derivatives",subtitle:"Synthesis and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"63a9783e678fc42ce981efb35be02096",slug:"graphene-and-its-derivatives-synthesis-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ishaq Ahmad and Fabian I. Ezema",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6845.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25524",title:"Prof.",name:"Ishaq",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"ishaq-ahmad",fullName:"Ishaq Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8866",title:"Silicon Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c7cfb39af7a429ef119b71a2e1f221e7",slug:"silicon-materials",bookSignature:"Beddiaf Zaidi and Slimen Belghit",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8866.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"230574",title:"Dr.",name:"Beddiaf",middleName:null,surname:"Zaidi",slug:"beddiaf-zaidi",fullName:"Beddiaf Zaidi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6815",title:"Advanced Material and Device Applications with Germanium",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cbf335cca2531b56745bac330be2a47c",slug:"advanced-material-and-device-applications-with-germanium",bookSignature:"Sanghyun Lee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6815.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"195331",title:"Prof.",name:"Sanghyun",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"sanghyun-lee",fullName:"Sanghyun Lee"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6625",title:"Disruptive Wide Bandgap Semiconductors, Related Technologies, and Their Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"daf5c4f40f80aca648eaed4f4310c2b7",slug:"disruptive-wide-bandgap-semiconductors-related-technologies-and-their-applications",bookSignature:"Yogesh Kumar Sharma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6625.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"198130",title:"Dr.",name:"Yogesh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"yogesh-kumar-sharma",fullName:"Yogesh Kumar Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6524",title:"Heterojunctions and Nanostructures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fefc5b353d60c5125f1783fc4208194b",slug:"heterojunctions-and-nanostructures",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Stavrou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6524.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99725",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasilios N.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavrou",slug:"vasilios-n.-stavrou",fullName:"Vasilios N. Stavrou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6695",title:"Design, Simulation and Construction of Field Effect Transistors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"304929bc541d961dff8977432a49075e",slug:"design-simulation-and-construction-of-field-effect-transistors",bookSignature:"Dhanasekaran Vikraman and Hyun-Seok Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6695.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199404",title:"Prof.",name:"Dhanasekaran",middleName:null,surname:"Vikraman",slug:"dhanasekaran-vikraman",fullName:"Dhanasekaran Vikraman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6100",title:"Nonmagnetic and Magnetic Quantum Dots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"78673eed1e24eaecb8331eb0efcae2de",slug:"nonmagnetic-and-magnetic-quantum-dots",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Stavrou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6100.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99725",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasilios N.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavrou",slug:"vasilios-n.-stavrou",fullName:"Vasilios N. Stavrou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6083",title:"Semiconductors",subtitle:"Growth and Characterization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"53bed47ef5d839f8d10d5f1a3b050c49",slug:"semiconductors-growth-and-characterization",bookSignature:"Rosalinda Inguanta and Carmelo Sunseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6083.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"174858",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosalinda",middleName:null,surname:"Inguanta",slug:"rosalinda-inguanta",fullName:"Rosalinda Inguanta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5597",title:"Field",subtitle:"Programmable Gate Array",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee9b6139297123dec4d906c950913c0d",slug:"field-programmable-gate-array",bookSignature:"George Dekoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5597.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9833",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Dekoulis",slug:"george-dekoulis",fullName:"George Dekoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5699",title:"Thin Film Processes",subtitle:"Artifacts on Surface Phenomena and Technological Facets",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"164177fc1e3eca542ebad5fd34a79d1e",slug:"thin-film-processes-artifacts-on-surface-phenomena-and-technological-facets",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5699.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5541",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"076a9d5440634eb52d02bd45a8ce7cfd",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",bookSignature:"Nikolay N. Nikitenkov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5541.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16402",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikolay",middleName:"N.",surname:"Nikitenkov",slug:"nikolay-nikitenkov",fullName:"Nikolay Nikitenkov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:16,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"17728",doi:"10.5772/22607",title:"Defect Related Luminescence in Silicon Dioxide Network: A Review",slug:"defect-related-luminescence-in-silicon-dioxide-network-a-review",totalDownloads:9477,totalCrossrefCites:46,totalDimensionsCites:98,abstract:null,book:{id:"332",slug:"crystalline-silicon-properties-and-uses",title:"Crystalline Silicon",fullTitle:"Crystalline Silicon - Properties and Uses"},signatures:"Roushdey Salh",authors:[{id:"48391",title:"Dr.",name:"Roushdey",middleName:null,surname:"Salh",slug:"roushdey-salh",fullName:"Roushdey Salh"}]},{id:"52684",doi:"10.5772/65702",title:"Advance Deposition Techniques for Thin Film and Coating",slug:"advance-deposition-techniques-for-thin-film-and-coating",totalDownloads:7650,totalCrossrefCites:32,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:"Thin films have a great impact on the modern era of technology. Thin films are considered as backbone for advanced applications in the various fields such as optical devices, environmental applications, telecommunications devices, energy storage devices, and so on . The crucial issue for all applications of thin films depends on their morphology and the stability. The morphology of the thin films strongly hinges on deposition techniques. Thin films can be deposited by the physical and chemical routes. In this chapter, we discuss some advance techniques and principles of thin-film depositions. The vacuum thermal evaporation technique, electron beam evaporation, pulsed-layer deposition, direct current/radio frequency magnetron sputtering, and chemical route deposition systems will be discussed in detail.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Asim Jilani, Mohamed Shaaban Abdel-wahab and Ahmed Hosny\nHammad",authors:[{id:"192377",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Jilani",slug:"asim-jilani",fullName:"Asim Jilani"},{id:"192972",title:"Dr.",name:"M.Sh",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel-Wahab",slug:"m.sh-abdel-wahab",fullName:"M.Sh Abdel-Wahab"},{id:"192973",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:"H",surname:"Hammad",slug:"ahmed-hammad",fullName:"Ahmed Hammad"}]},{id:"17722",doi:"10.5772/23174",title:"Study of SiO2/Si Interface by Surface Techniques",slug:"study-of-sio2-si-interface-by-surface-techniques",totalDownloads:14143,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:null,book:{id:"332",slug:"crystalline-silicon-properties-and-uses",title:"Crystalline Silicon",fullTitle:"Crystalline Silicon - Properties and Uses"},signatures:"Rodica Ghita, Constantin Logofatu, Catalin-Constantin Negrila, Florica Ungureanu, Costel Cotirlan, Adrian-Stefan Manea, Mihail-Florin Lazarescu and Corneliu Ghica",authors:[{id:"50919",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodica V.",middleName:null,surname:"Ghita",slug:"rodica-v.-ghita",fullName:"Rodica V. Ghita"},{id:"57132",title:"Dr.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Logofatu",slug:"constantin-logofatu",fullName:"Constantin Logofatu"},{id:"57133",title:"Dr.",name:"Catalin-Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Negrila",slug:"catalin-constantin-negrila",fullName:"Catalin-Constantin Negrila"},{id:"57134",title:"Mrs.",name:"Florica",middleName:null,surname:"Ungureanu",slug:"florica-ungureanu",fullName:"Florica Ungureanu"},{id:"57135",title:"Dr.",name:"Costel",middleName:null,surname:"Cotirlan",slug:"costel-cotirlan",fullName:"Costel Cotirlan"},{id:"57136",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrian-Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Manea",slug:"adrian-stefan-manea",fullName:"Adrian-Stefan Manea"},{id:"57137",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihail-Florin",middleName:null,surname:"Lazarescu",slug:"mihail-florin-lazarescu",fullName:"Mihail-Florin Lazarescu"},{id:"101735",title:"Dr.",name:"Corneliu",middleName:null,surname:"Ghica",slug:"corneliu-ghica",fullName:"Corneliu Ghica"}]},{id:"53225",doi:"10.5772/66396",title:"Radio Frequency Magnetron Sputter Deposition as a Tool for Surface Modification of Medical Implants",slug:"radio-frequency-magnetron-sputter-deposition-as-a-tool-for-surface-modification-of-medical-implants",totalDownloads:2272,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"The resent advances in radio frequency (RF)‐magnetron sputtering of hydroxyapatite films are reviewed and challenges posed. The principles underlying RF‐magnetron sputtering used to prepare calcium phosphate‐based, mainly hydroxyapatite coatings, are discussed in this chapter. The fundamental characteristic of the RF‐magnetron sputtering is an energy input into the growing film. In order to tailor the film properties, one has to adjust the energy input into the substrate depending on the desired film properties. The effect of different deposition control parameters, such as deposition time, substrate temperature, and substrate biasing on the hydroxyapatite (HA) film properties is discussed.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Roman Surmenev, Alina Vladescu, Maria Surmeneva, Anna Ivanova,\nMariana Braic, Irina Grubova and Cosmin Mihai Cotrut",authors:[{id:"193921",title:"Dr.",name:"Alina",middleName:null,surname:"Vladescu",slug:"alina-vladescu",fullName:"Alina Vladescu"},{id:"193922",title:"Prof.",name:"Roman",middleName:null,surname:"Surmenev",slug:"roman-surmenev",fullName:"Roman Surmenev"},{id:"193923",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Surmeneva",slug:"maria-surmeneva",fullName:"Maria Surmeneva"},{id:"193948",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Braic",slug:"mariana-braic",fullName:"Mariana Braic"},{id:"194047",title:"Ms.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Ivanova",slug:"anna-ivanova",fullName:"Anna Ivanova"},{id:"194048",title:"BSc.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Grubova",slug:"irina-grubova",fullName:"Irina Grubova"},{id:"196398",title:"Prof.",name:"Cosmin Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Cotrut",slug:"cosmin-mihai-cotrut",fullName:"Cosmin Mihai Cotrut"}]},{id:"21157",doi:"10.5772/24330",title:"Compilation on Synthesis, Characterization and Properties of Silicon and Boron Carbonitride Films",slug:"compilation-on-synthesis-characterization-and-properties-of-silicon-and-boron-carbonitride-films",totalDownloads:5200,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:null,book:{id:"326",slug:"silicon-carbide-materials-processing-and-applications-in-electronic-devices",title:"Silicon Carbide",fullTitle:"Silicon Carbide - Materials, Processing and Applications in Electronic Devices"},signatures:"P. Hoffmann, N. Fainer, M. Kosinova, O. Baake and W. Ensinger",authors:[{id:"56722",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Hoffmann",slug:"peter-hoffmann",fullName:"Peter Hoffmann"},{id:"56726",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Kosinova",slug:"marina-kosinova",fullName:"Marina Kosinova"},{id:"56727",title:"Prof.",name:"Wolfgang",middleName:null,surname:"Ensinger",slug:"wolfgang-ensinger",fullName:"Wolfgang Ensinger"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52684",title:"Advance Deposition Techniques for Thin Film and Coating",slug:"advance-deposition-techniques-for-thin-film-and-coating",totalDownloads:7639,totalCrossrefCites:32,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:"Thin films have a great impact on the modern era of technology. Thin films are considered as backbone for advanced applications in the various fields such as optical devices, environmental applications, telecommunications devices, energy storage devices, and so on . The crucial issue for all applications of thin films depends on their morphology and the stability. The morphology of the thin films strongly hinges on deposition techniques. Thin films can be deposited by the physical and chemical routes. In this chapter, we discuss some advance techniques and principles of thin-film depositions. The vacuum thermal evaporation technique, electron beam evaporation, pulsed-layer deposition, direct current/radio frequency magnetron sputtering, and chemical route deposition systems will be discussed in detail.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Asim Jilani, Mohamed Shaaban Abdel-wahab and Ahmed Hosny\nHammad",authors:[{id:"192377",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Jilani",slug:"asim-jilani",fullName:"Asim Jilani"},{id:"192972",title:"Dr.",name:"M.Sh",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel-Wahab",slug:"m.sh-abdel-wahab",fullName:"M.Sh Abdel-Wahab"},{id:"192973",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:"H",surname:"Hammad",slug:"ahmed-hammad",fullName:"Ahmed Hammad"}]},{id:"68467",title:"Semiconductor Nanocomposites for Visible Light Photocatalysis of Water Pollutants",slug:"semiconductor-nanocomposites-for-visible-light-photocatalysis-of-water-pollutants",totalDownloads:1803,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Semiconductor photocatalysis gained reputation in the early 1970s when Fujishima and Honda revealed the potential of TiO2 to split water in to hydrogen and oxygen in a photoelectrochemical cell. Their work provided the base for the development of semiconductor photocatalysis for the environmental remediation and energy applications. Photoactivity of some semiconductors was found to be low due to larger band gap energy and higher electron-hole pair recombination rate. To avoid these problems, the development of visible light responsive photocatalytic materials by different approaches, such as metal and/or non-metal doping, co-doping, coupling of semiconductors, composites and heterojunctions materials synthesis has been widely investigated and explored in systematic manner. This chapter emphasizes on the different type of tailored photocatalyst materials having the enhanced visible light absorption properties, lower band gap energy and recombination rate of electron-hole pairs and production of reactive radical species. Visible light active semiconductors for the environmental remediation purposes, particularly for water treatment and disinfection are also discussed in detail. Studies on the photocatalytic degradation of emerging organic compounds like cyanotoxins, VOCs, phenols, pharmaceuticals, etc., by employing variety of modified semiconductors, are summarized, and a mechanistic aspects of the photocatalysis has been discussed.",book:{id:"7671",slug:"concepts-of-semiconductor-photocatalysis",title:"Concepts of Semiconductor Photocatalysis",fullTitle:"Concepts of Semiconductor Photocatalysis"},signatures:"Fatima Imtiaz, Jamshaid Rashid and Ming Xu",authors:[{id:"292882",title:"Dr.",name:"Jamshaid",middleName:null,surname:"Rashid",slug:"jamshaid-rashid",fullName:"Jamshaid Rashid"},{id:"302498",title:"Ms.",name:"Fatima",middleName:null,surname:"Imtiaz",slug:"fatima-imtiaz",fullName:"Fatima Imtiaz"},{id:"308434",title:"Prof.",name:"Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"ming-xu",fullName:"Ming Xu"}]},{id:"17728",title:"Defect Related Luminescence in Silicon Dioxide Network: A Review",slug:"defect-related-luminescence-in-silicon-dioxide-network-a-review",totalDownloads:9472,totalCrossrefCites:46,totalDimensionsCites:98,abstract:null,book:{id:"332",slug:"crystalline-silicon-properties-and-uses",title:"Crystalline Silicon",fullTitle:"Crystalline Silicon - Properties and Uses"},signatures:"Roushdey Salh",authors:[{id:"48391",title:"Dr.",name:"Roushdey",middleName:null,surname:"Salh",slug:"roushdey-salh",fullName:"Roushdey Salh"}]},{id:"58469",title:"The Electrochemical Performance of Deposited Manganese Oxide-Based Film as Electrode Material for Electrochemical Capacitor Application",slug:"the-electrochemical-performance-of-deposited-manganese-oxide-based-film-as-electrode-material-for-el",totalDownloads:1736,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The transition metal oxide has been recognized as one of the promising electrode materials for electrochemical capacitor application. Due to the participation of charge transfer reactions, the capacitance offered by transition metal oxide can be higher compared to double layer capacitance. The investigation on hydrous ruthenium oxide has revealed the surface redox reactions that contributed to the wide potential window shown on cyclic voltammetry curve. Although the performance of ruthenium oxide is impressive, its toxicity has limited itself from commercial application. Manganese oxide is a pseudocapacitive material behaves similar to ruthenium oxide. It consists of various oxidation states which allow the occurrence of redox reactions. It is also environmental friendly, low cost, and natural abundant. The charge storage of manganese oxide film takes into account of the redox reactions between Mn3+ and Mn4+ and can be accounted to two mechanisms. The first one involves the intercalation/deintercalation of electrolyte ions and/or protons upon reduction/oxidation processes. The second contributor for the charge storage is due to the surface adsorption of electrolyte ions on the electrode surface.",book:{id:"6083",slug:"semiconductors-growth-and-characterization",title:"Semiconductors",fullTitle:"Semiconductors - Growth and Characterization"},signatures:"Chan Pei Yi and Siti Rohana Majid",authors:[{id:"197956",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"S.R.",middleName:null,surname:"Majid",slug:"s.r.-majid",fullName:"S.R. Majid"},{id:"216449",title:"Ms.",name:"Pei Yi",middleName:null,surname:"Chan",slug:"pei-yi-chan",fullName:"Pei Yi Chan"}]},{id:"60792",title:"TCAD Device Modelling and Simulation of Wide Bandgap Power Semiconductors",slug:"tcad-device-modelling-and-simulation-of-wide-bandgap-power-semiconductors",totalDownloads:2113,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Technology computer-aided Design (TCAD) is essential for devices technology development, including wide bandgap power semiconductors. However, most TCAD tools were originally developed for silicon and their performance and accuracy for wide bandgap semiconductors is contentious. This chapter will deal with TCAD device modelling of wide bandgap power semiconductors. In particular, modelling and simulating 3C- and 4H-Silicon Carbide (SiC), Gallium Nitride (GaN) and Diamond devices are examined. The challenges associated with modelling the material and device physics are analyzed in detail. It also includes convergence issues and accuracy of predicted performance. Modelling and simulating defects, traps and the effect of these traps on the characteristics are also discussed.",book:{id:"6625",slug:"disruptive-wide-bandgap-semiconductors-related-technologies-and-their-applications",title:"Disruptive Wide Bandgap Semiconductors, Related Technologies, and Their Applications",fullTitle:"Disruptive Wide Bandgap Semiconductors, Related Technologies, and Their Applications"},signatures:"Neophytos Lophitis, Anastasios Arvanitopoulos, Samuel Perkins and\nMarina Antoniou",authors:[{id:"236488",title:"Dr.",name:"Neophytos",middleName:null,surname:"Lophitis",slug:"neophytos-lophitis",fullName:"Neophytos Lophitis"},{id:"247344",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Antoniou",slug:"marina-antoniou",fullName:"Marina Antoniou"},{id:"247347",title:"Mr.",name:"Anastasios",middleName:null,surname:"Arvanitopoulos",slug:"anastasios-arvanitopoulos",fullName:"Anastasios Arvanitopoulos"},{id:"247349",title:"Mr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Perkins",slug:"samuel-perkins",fullName:"Samuel Perkins"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"159",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:320,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"109268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ataby",slug:"ali-al-ataby",fullName:"Ali Al-Ataby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109268/images/7410_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Liverpool",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"3807",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo",middleName:"Jose Albanez",surname:"Bastos-Filho",slug:"carmelo-bastos-filho",fullName:"Carmelo Bastos-Filho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3807/images/624_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",slug:"efren-gorrostieta-hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/38850/images/system/38850.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"239041",title:"Prof.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Yi",slug:"yang-yi",fullName:"Yang Yi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/239041/images/system/239041.jpeg",institutionString:"Virginia Tech",institution:{name:"Virginia Tech",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"asim-bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"joao-luis-garcia-rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"antonio-jose-ribeiro-neves",fullName:"António José Ribeiro Neves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"220565",title:"Dr.",name:"Jucheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"jucheng-yang",fullName:"Jucheng Yang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/220565/images/5988_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tianjin University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"29299",title:"Prof.",name:"Serestina",middleName:null,surname:"Viriri",slug:"serestina-viriri",fullName:"Serestina Viriri",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOalQAG/Profile_Picture_1620817405517",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of KwaZulu-Natal",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"315933",title:"Dr.",name:"Yalın",middleName:null,surname:"Baştanlar",slug:"yalin-bastanlar",fullName:"Yalın Baştanlar",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002qpr7hQAA/Profile_Picture_1621430127547",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. Dadios",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/111683/images/system/111683.jpg",institutionString:"De La Salle University",institution:{name:"De La Salle University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Philippines"}}},{id:"106873",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongwei",middleName:null,surname:"Ge",slug:"hongwei-ge",fullName:"Hongwei Ge",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"171056",title:"Dr.",name:"Sotirios",middleName:null,surname:"Goudos",slug:"sotirios-goudos",fullName:"Sotirios Goudos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9IuQAK/Profile_Picture_1622623673666",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"15895",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Kuremoto",slug:"takashi-kuremoto",fullName:"Takashi Kuremoto",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLrqQAG/Profile_Picture_1625656196038",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"125844",title:"Prof.",name:"Wellington",middleName:"Pinheiro Dos",surname:"Santos",slug:"wellington-santos",fullName:"Wellington Santos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125844/images/4878_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas",slug:"ciza-thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/43680/images/system/43680.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government of Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"16614",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Alonso",slug:"juan-ignacio-guerrero-alonso",fullName:"Juan Ignacio Guerrero Alonso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6HB8QAM/Profile_Picture_1627901127555",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3095/images/1592_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"214067",title:"Dr.",name:"W. David",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"w.-david-pan",fullName:"W. David Pan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSEI9QAO/Profile_Picture_1623656213532",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alabama in Huntsville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72920/images/system/72920.jpeg",institutionString:"Dalarna University, Faculty of Data and Information Sciences",institution:{name:"Dalarna University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}}]},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"275140",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinh Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"dinh-hoa-nguyen",fullName:"Dinh Hoa Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRbnKQAS/Profile_Picture_1622204093453",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kyushu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"20259",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbin",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",slug:"hongbin-ma",fullName:"Hongbin Ma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhDJQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-05-02T08:25:21.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"28640",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Kambayashi",slug:"yasushi-kambayashi",fullName:"Yasushi Kambayashi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOQxQAO/Profile_Picture_1625660525470",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:23,paginationItems:[{id:"82392",title:"Nanomaterials as Novel Biomarkers for Cancer Nanotheranostics: State of the Art",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105700",signatures:"Hao Yu, Zhihai Han, Cunrong Chen and Leisheng Zhang",slug:"nanomaterials-as-novel-biomarkers-for-cancer-nanotheranostics-state-of-the-art",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11405.jpg",subseries:{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering"}}},{id:"82184",title:"Biological Sensing Using Infrared SPR Devices Based on ZnO",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104562",signatures:"Hiroaki Matsui",slug:"biological-sensing-using-infrared-spr-devices-based-on-zno",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Hiroaki",surname:"Matsui"}],book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82122",title:"Recent Advances in Biosensing in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104922",signatures:"Alma T. Banigo, Chigozie A. Nnadiekwe and Emmanuel M. Beasi",slug:"recent-advances-in-biosensing-in-tissue-engineering-and-regenerative-medicine",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82080",title:"The Clinical Usefulness of Prostate Cancer Biomarkers: Current and Future Directions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103172",signatures:"Donovan McGrowder, Lennox Anderson-Jackson, Lowell Dilworth, Shada Mohansingh, Melisa Anderson Cross, Sophia Bryan, Fabian Miller, Cameil Wilson-Clarke, Chukwuemeka Nwokocha, Ruby Alexander-Lindo and Shelly McFarlane",slug:"the-clinical-usefulness-of-prostate-cancer-biomarkers-current-and-future-directions",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Cancer Bioinformatics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10661.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6692",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6692.jpg",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",publishedDate:"July 4th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Robert Koprowski",hash:"e75f234a0fc1988d9816a94e4c724deb",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",editors:[{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7218",title:"OCT",subtitle:"Applications in Ophthalmology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7218.jpg",slug:"oct-applications-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",hash:"e3a3430cdfd6999caccac933e4613885",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"OCT - Applications in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",biography:"Michele Lanza is Associate Professor of Ophthalmology at Università della Campania, Luigi Vanvitelli, Napoli, Italy. His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. He has also edited two international books and authored more than 150 communications or posters for the most important international and Italian ophthalmology conferences.",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6843",title:"Biomechanics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6843.jpg",slug:"biomechanics",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hadi Mohammadi",hash:"85132976010be1d7f3dbd88662b785e5",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Biomechanics",editors:[{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11570",title:"Influenza - New Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11570.jpg",hash:"157b379b9d7a4bf5e2cc7a742f155a44",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 10th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"139889",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyyed Shamsadin",surname:"Athari",slug:"seyyed-shamsadin-athari",fullName:"Seyyed Shamsadin Athari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11569",title:"Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Infections - New Findings, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11569.jpg",hash:"069d6142ecb0d46d14920102d48c0e9d",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 31st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"189561",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela Laura",surname:"Vica",slug:"mihaela-laura-vica",fullName:"Mihaela Laura Vica"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11568",title:"Staphylococcal Infections - Recent Advances and Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11568.jpg",hash:"92c881664d1921c7f2d0fee34b78cd08",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 8th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"59719",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Bustos-Martínez",slug:"jaime-bustos-martinez",fullName:"Jaime Bustos-Martínez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"435274",title:null,name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Shahid Khan",slug:"muhammad-shahid-khan",fullName:"Muhammad Shahid Khan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Islamia University of Bahawalpur",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"26",type:"subseries",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas",slug:"ciza-thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/43680/images/system/43680.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government of Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"16614",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Alonso",slug:"juan-ignacio-guerrero-alonso",fullName:"Juan Ignacio Guerrero Alonso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6HB8QAM/Profile_Picture_1627901127555",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3095/images/1592_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"214067",title:"Dr.",name:"W. David",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"w.-david-pan",fullName:"W. David Pan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSEI9QAO/Profile_Picture_1623656213532",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alabama in Huntsville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72920/images/system/72920.jpeg",institutionString:"Dalarna University, Faculty of Data and Information Sciences",institution:{name:"Dalarna University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{},publishedBooks:{},testimonialsList:[{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/66655",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"66655"},fullPath:"/chapters/66655",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()