\r\n\tBook, “Mites, Ticks and Humans", is written by keeping in vision non-availability of any standard text dealing in different aspects of acarology at one place. Separate chapters in this book are devoted to medical importance of mites and ticks; ectoparasites, endoparasites and disease transmitting mites; classification, biology and epidemiology of dust mites; manifestations, diagnostics and preventions of dust mites allergy; ticks transmission of disease causing pathogens; and measures to mitigate mites and ticks. Book will stimulate interest in the readers for more information about different mites and ticks affecting publics. The knowledge contained in the book may prove as best material for graduate and post-graduate level courses, teachers and researchers in entomology, pestss control advisors, professional entomologists, pesticide industry managers, policy planners, and other experts having interest in mites and ticks.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"1ab684433f948520e8e90a2e74e2801a",bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Sarwar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8964.jpg",keywords:"Basic biology, Diversity of lifestyles, Scabies, Mange, Ecosystem, Soil mite, Dust mites allergy, Asthma, Vectors, Dispersal or spreading modes, Pest management, Detection and survey",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 28th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 16th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 15th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 3rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 3rd 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"272992",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarwar",slug:"muhammad-sarwar",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272992/images/system/272992.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Sarwar, Principal Scientist, is in his thirtieth year of service with the Department of Agriculture, Government of Punjab. He is also currently working for the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. He completed his post doctorate in 2008, funded by the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan from the Institute of Plant Protection in the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China. He has several hundred published papers to his credit and is recipient of the Shield award, letters of appreciation, and certificates of performance from faculty members of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China. In 2010, the Zoological Society of Pakistan presented him with the Prof. Dr. Mirza Azhar Beg Gold Medal. In 2011, the Pakistan Council for Science and Technology awarded him a Research Productivity Award.\n\nHis research activities focus on integrated pest management for rice, cotton, chickpea, and Brassica crops; predatory mites, ladybird beetles, Chrysoperla, Trichogramma, and parasitoids of fruit flies culturing as bio-control agents; integrated management of fruit flies and mosquitos; and other arthropod pest control methodologies. He has also researched vertebrate pest control, especially controls of rodents in field crops and storage. He was the first to explore thirty-six new species of stored grain mites belonging to eight genera, including Forcellinia, Lackerbaueria, Acotyledon, Caloglyphus, and Troupeauia in the Acaridae family; and Capronomoia, Histiostoma, and Glyphanoetus in the Histiostomatidae family. He also planned and designed research trials on the integrated management of cotton leaf curl virus (CLCV), pest scouting, pest monitoring, and forecasting. He conducted training of progressive farmers and field staff, and provided advisory services to the farmers regarding plant protection practices. He also trained pesticide dealers on the proper handling, distribution, and storing of pesticides.\n\nUnder a coordinated research program, Dr. Sarwar collaborated with other institutes to trace resistance sources for cotton, rice, gram, rapeseed, mustard plants, and stored cereals and pulses. He has supervised post-graduate research and is an external examiner for post-graduate studies. He has also organized various workshops, served as a reviewer for scientific journals, and is a member of various working committees. He is responsible for opening up a new avenue on rearing of predatory mites as bio-control agents of insects and mites pests in greenhouse and field crops.\n\t\nDr. Sarwar is an approved supervisor with the Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan. He completed a course in Basic Management organized by the Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Islamabad, in 2011. He has also completed trainings in Beijing, Bangkok, Havana, and Vienna. His is a lifetime member of the Zoological Society of Pakistan.",institutionString:"National Institute for Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8191",title:"Life Cycle and Development of Diptera",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3610997886df57ea1ec1cf71b0ff8ce2",slug:"life-cycle-and-development-of-diptera",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarwar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8191.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"272992",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Sarwar",slug:"muhammad-sarwar",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6418",title:"Hyperspectral Imaging in Agriculture, Food and Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9005c36534a5dc065577a011aea13d4d",slug:"hyperspectral-imaging-in-agriculture-food-and-environment",bookSignature:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado, Humberto Rodríguez Fuentes and Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6418.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105774",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Isabel",surname:"Luna Maldonado",slug:"alejandro-isabel-luna-maldonado",fullName:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10359",title:"Landraces",subtitle:"Traditional Variety and Natural Breed",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0600836fb2c422f7b624363d1e854f68",slug:"landraces-traditional-variety-and-natural-breed",bookSignature:"Amr Elkelish",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10359.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231337",title:"Dr.",name:"Amr",surname:"Elkelish",slug:"amr-elkelish",fullName:"Amr Elkelish"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Recently, PUFA have received considerable attention in both human and animal nutrition, particularly those of the n-3 family; which are distinct due to the placement of the first double bond onto the third carbon atom from the methyl end of the fatty acid molecule. Long-chain fatty acids primarily those with more than 18 carbon atoms, derived mainly from fish oils are consumed quite less along with the other PUFAs. In order to increase their consumption through human diets, has led to studies for enriching the poultry meat infused with these fatty acids and thus enabling people to live healthier lifestyles. Dietary supplementation with n-3 PUFA, such as these found in fish oil and linseed oil, were found to have nutritional benefits in humans [1, 2, 3, 4, 5].
\n
This chapter will shed light on the overview, sources, and metabolism of PUFA, their incorporation into cell membrane structure, their involvement in health and clinical problems, enrichment of poultry products with PUFA, and their involvement in immune system.
\n
\n
\n
2. Overview of fatty acids
\n
All fatty acids are carboxylic acids characterized by a chain-like structure with a carboxyl group (COOH) at one end, and a methyl group (CH3) at the other end. The rest of the chain consists of carbon atoms varying in length from 2 to 20 or more with hydrocarbon bonds (CH2). Fatty acids (FA) differ in the number of hydrogen atoms and the number and location of the double bonds between adjacent carbon atoms if hydrogen atoms are removed. If a fatty acid chain is fully loaded with hydrogen atoms, the FA is termed saturated. Consequently, saturated fatty acids form straight chains as there are no double bonds between carbon atoms. These usually contain between 12 and 24 carbon atoms. This kind of FA is abundantly present in adipose tissues of animals, including poultry and used as a source of energy if needed. An example of a saturated FA is stearic acid (C18:0). This is one way to name a fatty acid (C:D) where C is the number of carbon atoms in the fatty acid and D is the number of double bonds in the fatty acid. Sources of saturated FA include meat, dairy products, palm oil, coconut oil and vegetable shortening [6].
\n
If a pair of hydrogen atoms is removed under the influence of specific enzymes, a double bond is formed between adjacent carbon atoms and the saturated FA becomes monounsaturated. An example of a monounsaturated FA is oleic acid (18:1), an n-9 FA that constitutes 74% of total FA in olives. n-x is a nomenclature of fatty acids where a double bond is located on the xth carbon▬carbon bond, counting from the terminal methyl carbon (designated as n). Other sources of monosaturated FA are avocados, rapeseed, peanuts and soybeans [7]. If two or more double bonds are formed due to removal of more than a pair of hydrogen atoms, the FA is termed polyunsaturated. The more double bonds a fatty acid has, the more unsaturated it is [8, 9, 10]. The main sources of PUFA are seeds and seed oils, oily fish and fish oils [10].
\n
Moreover, the orientation of the fatty acid chain at the site of a double bond determines and characterizes a fatty acid. For example, a FA called cis-configured when both segments of the molecule lie at the same side. On the other hand, in the trans configuration, the two parts of the molecule face opposite with respect to the bond directions (see Figure 1). Most PUFA in plants and sea foods are of cis configuration [11].
\n
Figure 1.
cis and trans configuration of FA molecules.
\n
The two major types of PUFA which play a crucial role in the biological functioning of both, humans and animals are the n-3 and n-6 PUFA. The n-3 PUFA consists of linolenic acid (LNA, C18:3), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6) whereas the n-6 PUFAs comprise mainly linoleic acid (LA, C18:2) and arachidonic acid (AA, C20:4). LA and α-LNA are classified as essential fatty acids (EFA) due to their inability to be synthesized by the body. However, these EFAs should be consumed through the diet because of shortage of specific desaturation enzymes. AA can be synthesized in from LA when the diet is consumed. In a similar manner, EPA along with DHA can be synthesized from α-LNA although synthesis between them is inadequate in most conditions. Due to the absence of specific desaturase enzymes, the n-3 and n-6 fatty acids are not inter-convertible. On the other hand, saturated FA such as palmitic acid (C16:0) and stearic acid (C18:0) and most monounsaturated FA such as oleic acid (C18:1 n-9) can be synthesized in the human body from precursors such as glucose or amino acids [12, 13]. Table 1 shows a list of the common saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Common name
\n
FA name
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Butyric
\n
C4:0
\n
\n
\n
Caproic
\n
C6:0
\n
\n
\n
Caprylic
\n
C8:0
\n
\n
\n
Capric
\n
C10:0
\n
\n
\n
Undecanoic
\n
C11:0
\n
\n
\n
Lauric
\n
C12:0
\n
\n
\n
Tridecanoic
\n
C13:0
\n
\n
\n
Myristic
\n
C14:0
\n
\n
\n
Myristoleic
\n
C14:1
\n
\n
\n
Pentadecanoic acid
\n
C15:0
\n
\n
\n
c10 Pentadecanoic acid
\n
C15:1
\n
\n
\n
Palmitic
\n
C16:0
\n
\n
\n
Palmitoleic
\n
C16:1
\n
\n
\n
cis-10-heptadecanoic
\n
C17:1
\n
\n
\n
Stearic
\n
C18:0
\n
\n
\n
Elaidic
\n
C18:1n9t
\n
\n
\n
Oleic
\n
C18:1n9c
\n
\n
\n
Linolelaidic
\n
C18:2n6t
\n
\n
\n
Linoleic
\n
C18:2n6c
\n
\n
\n
Arachidic
\n
C20:0
\n
\n
\n
γ-Linolenic
\n
C18:3n6
\n
\n
\n
α-Linolenic
\n
C18:3n3
\n
\n
\n
Heneicosanoic
\n
C21:0
\n
\n
\n
c11, 14 Eicosadienoic
\n
C20:2
\n
\n
\n
Behenic
\n
C22:0
\n
\n
\n
c8,11,14 Eicosatrienoic
\n
C20:3n6
\n
\n
\n
Erucic acid
\n
C22:1 n9
\n
\n
\n
c11,14,17 Eicosatrienoic
\n
C20:3n3
\n
\n
\n
Arachidonic
\n
C20:4n6
\n
\n
\n
Tricosanoic
\n
C23:0
\n
\n
\n
c13,16 Docosadienoic
\n
C22:2
\n
\n
\n
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)
\n
C20:5n3
\n
\n
\n
Lignoceric
\n
C24:0
\n
\n
\n
Nervonic
\n
C24:1
\n
\n
\n
Docosapentaenoic acid (DPA)
\n
C22:5n3
\n
\n
\n
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)
\n
C22:6n3
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
List of common saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
\n
\n
\n
3. Sources and metabolism of fatty acids
\n
General speaking, there are small amounts of AA in fish. However Brown et al. [14] have reported that there is 4.8–14.3% AA in some Australian fish species. However, fish oil contains high amounts of EPA and DHA. These fatty acids are synthesized by phytoplankton that are consumed by fish. Some fish species may contain more than 30% n-3 PUFA about 50% of the FA in fish is PUFA, of which about 30% are n-3 FA [15, 16].
\n
Conversely, the presence of α–LNA in seafood is almost nil; although plant sources like chia, linseed, rapeseed, perilla and blackcurrant possess high amounts of this FA, this is because these plant sources have Δ12-desaturase that converts oleic acid into LA, this is further converted into α-LNA under the influence of Δ 15-desaturase [10]. Linseed is one of the richest know sources of α-LNA, as it contains almost 60% of this fatty acid in its oil [17].
\n
Some algal oil and algal biomass obtained from marine regions are known to be good sources of DHA and EPA and thus can be used as a means to enrich meats and eggs using these long chain fatty acids. This has proved to be successful and is well documented in literature, even though DHA is mostly obtained from these algal biomasses [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26].
\n
In addition, echium oil from the plant Echium plantagineum has been recognized as an ideal source of stearidonic acid (C18:4n-3) that is naturally converted to the important long-chain n-3 fatty acid, EPA, when metabolized in the body [27, 28]. In addition, there are considerable amounts of α-linolenic acid and γ-linolenic acid in the echium oil as well. Rymer et al. [29] showed that γ-linolenic acid is accumulated as stearidonic acid increases in the chicken’s diet.
\n
N-3 PUFA, particularly EPA and DHA, are reported to compete with AA for incorporation in the phospholipid bilayer of cell membranes of all body cells, especially erythrocytes, platelets, neutrophils, monocytes and liver cells [30, 31]. Both AA and EPA are parent precursors of different kinds of eicosanoids that play a crucial role in the inflammatory responses in both humans and animals, including poultry.
\n
Initially, the dietary essential fatty acid α-LNA is converted to EPA and DHA while LA is converted to AA by elongation and desaturation reactions [32, 33, 34]. These conversion reactions are mediated in humans by three desaturases, Δ9, Δ6, and Δ5. The desaturases work by introducing a double bond at a specific position of the carbon backbone. Nakamura and Nara [35] have reported that desaturases in mammals are regulated at the transcriptional level and their transcription is genetically controlled. However, regulation of Δ9 desaturase differs from Δ6 and Δ5 desaturases because the Δ 9-desaturase converts the nonessential stearic acid (18:0) to oleic acid (18:1 n-9). Oleic acid can go through the same steps of desaturation and elongation as LA and α-LNA, resulting in the synthesis of the fatty acids 20:3 n-9 and 22:4 n-9. Consequently, the Δ 9-desaturation provides an alternative to Δ6 and Δ5 desaturation when the cell is subject to essential fatty acid deficiency. However in the case of availability of sufficient amounts of essential fatty acids, AA and EPA act as precursors for eicosanoid synthesis, although EPA metabolism predominates [32, 33, 36, 37]. When sources rich in stearidonic acid (SDA) such as echium oil are consumed, the body deposits EPA directly in tissues such as plasma, blood leukocytes, liver, breast and legs of human, rodents and chicken because SDA does not require Δ6 desaturase activity to form EPA [28, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43].
\n
Under the influence of Δ6 desaturase, free α-LNA is converted to SDA (18:4 n-3) then to eicosatetraenoic acid (20:4 n-3) by an elongase. Next, Δ5 desaturase acts on eicosatetraenoic acid and converts it into EPA (20:5 n-3). Elongase converts EPA into the FA (24:5 n-3) that is converted into the FA (24:6 n-3) by the action of Δ6 desaturase. Then, oxidation of (24:6 n-3) by β-oxidase produces DHA. During this metabolic pathway, eicosanoids such as leukotriene 5-series, prostaglandins E3 and thromboxane A3 are derived from EPA [37, 41, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50]. Figure 2 shows the metabolic pathway of the long chain n-3 and n-6 PUFA [35].
\n
Figure 2.
Metabolic pathways of the long chain n-3 and n-6 PUFA.
\n
\n
\n
4. Incorporation into cell membrane structure
\n
Cell membranes consist of a variety of molecules that enable cells to survive via various biological interactions. Proteins and lipids are the main elements of cell membranes. Different cell types have different cell membrane lipids and proteins that reflect different biological functions and specializations of cells.
\n
Lipids in the cell membranes are arranged in a bilayer structure with the hydrophobic moieties in the center of the membrane and the hydrophilic heads at the two surfaces, facing the inner cytoplasm and the outside surrounding. There are three main types of lipids in the cell membranes, namely: phospholipids, glycolipids, and steroids. Both saturated and unsaturated FA are attached to the glycerol moiety in the cell membrane, with the saturated FA attached to the first carbon atom in the glycerol backbone (sn-1), while PUFA occupy the sn-2 position [17]. Membrane fluidity is highly affected by the length and the degree of unsaturation of FA chains. Lipid moieties within the cell membrane determine different biological cellular functions such as intracellular pathways and receptors formation. In humans, EPA, DHA, AA and oleic acid are the main PUFA incorporated into the cell membranes. Interestingly, changes in these lipid moieties leads to changes in biological functions of different cell types due to the production of different cellular intermediates such as leukotrienes, prostacyclins and prostaglandins. These intermediates are involved in the immunomodulatory effect of PUFA [42, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60].
\n
\n
\n
5. Involvement in health and clinical problems
\n
Vitality of living cells depends profoundly on dietary lipids that are incorporated into phospholipid layers of cellular membranes as a result there is a constant competition between the omega-3 fatty acids; eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), with arachidonic acid (AA) for this incorporation. As AA controls the upregulation of eicosanoids such as leukotrienes, this competitive inhibition downregulates inflammation responses related to man, which are associated to numerous diseases and disorders such as cardiovascular disease, increased triglycerides, blood pressure, thrombosis, atherosclerosis, stress, mental problems, asthma and rheumatoid arthritis [21, 50, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79]. These benefits of an optimal ratio of n-3/n-6 PUFAs on health are just a few examples of a wide range of clinical problems that are improved by consumption of the very long chain n-3 fatty acids.
\n
\n
\n
6. n-3 enrichment of poultry diet
\n
Traditionally, fish and fish oil are the main sources of essential, long chain n-3 PUFA that induce modifications in the lipid composition of poultry products because marine sources in general contain high levels of EPA and DHA PUFA. Of less nutritional importance are plant sources such as linseed that is rich in α-linolenic acid (α-LNA). α-LNA is an 18 carbon n-3 fatty acid that is the precursor to the long chain n-3 PUFA, but because the efficiency of conversion is so low in humans, the accumulation of α-LNA is of little real nutritional benefit.
\n
In chickens, there are number of studies that investigated effects of PUFA on fatty acid profile of different tissues, if sources rich in these fatty acids are added to the poultry feed. Bou et al. [80] reported that supplementing the diet of broilers with 2.5% fish oil produced double the amount of EPA and DHA in their carcass than diets supplied with 1.25% fish oil. In another study, Ratnayake et al. [81] fed broiler chickens increasing levels of redfish meal (40–120 g/kg) for a period of 42 days. The effect of this dietary manipulation on fatty acid composition of breast and thigh muscles was investigated. Authors of this study observed a linear relationship between the level of the dietary fish meal and the proportions of DHA, DPA and EPA in the meat muscles. Givens and Rymer [82] also conducted an experiment to investigate the effect of poultry species and genotype on the efficiency of incorporation of n-3 PUFA in poultry meat. The two genotypes of turkeys (Wrolstad and BUT T8) and broilers (Ross 308 and Cobb 500) were fed one or four diets that contained 50 g/kg added oil; either vegetable oil (control), partially replaced with linseed (20 or 40 g/kg), FO (20 or 40 g/kg), or mixture of linseed and FO (20 g linseed and 20 g FO/kg diet). It was observed that on replacement of the control diet with either low or high levels of FO caused a significant increase in the concentration of EPA and DHA in all the meats whereas feeding linseed-enriched diet significantly increased the concentration of α-linolenic acid. No significant difference was noted with the incorporation of n-3 PUFA between the two broiler genotypes. Turkey genotypes were only different in the case of α-linolenic acid incorporation. It was also seen that there was a greater incorporation of DHA in white than in dark meat. In order to confirm the effect of dietary fatty acid modulation in broiler chickens, another study was conducted by Lopez-Ferrer et al. [83]. Here, a diet enriched with 8.2% FO was fed to broilers for duration of 5 weeks, after this it was replaced by diets containing 8.2% linseed or rapeseed in three different periods: the last week before slaughtering, the last 2 weeks and throughout the experiment. The end results for the fatty acid analysis of thigh and breast showed that the total amounts of n-3 PUFA were significantly decreased after removal of FO diet. Upon replacement of FO with the linseed diet caused a substantial increase in α-linolenic acid, furthermore there was an increase in the total amounts of n-6 PUFA and a decrease in the DHA proportions due to its limited conversion to longer n-3 PUFA. When FO was replaced by rapeseed there was an increase in the total amounts of monounsaturated fatty acids, especially oleic acid.
\n
Recently, Zelenka et al. [84] studied the effect of increasing levels of linseed oil in the diets of chickens and its influence on the fatty acid content in breast and thigh meat of chickens. Linseed oil at levels of 1, 3, 5 or 7% were fed to broiler chickens from 25 to 40 days of age. Oils were derived from the linseed cultivar Atalante with a high content of α-linolenic acid or the cultivar Lola with a high content of linoleic acid. Results showed that feeding a diet with a high content of α-linolenic acid significantly increased all n-3 PUFA, decreased n-6 PUFA and decreased the ratio of n-6/n-3 PUFA. On the contrary, when the birds were fed a diet with a high content of linoleic acid, this caused a significant increase in the levels of all n-6 PUFA in thigh and breast of chickens. Similarly, a study by Kartikasari et al. [85] showed that feeding broilers on diets with a high content of α-linolenic acid, while keeping a constant linoleic acid level, significantly increased the incorporation of all n-3 PUFA into breast and thigh meat by 5 and 4-fold compared to chickens fed low α-linolenic acid content. In another experiment [86], the authors fed broiler chickens on diets with constant level of α-linolenic acid (2.1%) and different levels of linoleic acid, which included 2.9–4.4%, and consisted of pure or blended vegetable oils such as macadamia, flaxseed and sunflower oils. The overall lipid content was kept at a constant of 5%. Post analysis it was observed that chickens when fed diets the lowest linoleic acid content (2.9%) contributed towards higher incorporation of total n-3 PUFA in the breast by 16% compared with feeding the highest linoleic acid content (4.4%). When the chickens were fed with a diet with a high content of linoleic acid, this resulted in a significant reduction in EPA levels in both thigh and breast tissues. The levels for DPA and DHA were not affected by dietary linoleic acid. Authors suggested that this could be due to fact that linoleic acid competes with α-linolenic acid for Δ6 desaturase. In other words, high dietary level of linoleic acid might reduce the conversion of α-linolenic to n-3 PUFAs. In a further study [87], the authors fed broiler chickens on diets containing 0, 2, or 4% linseed oil plus tallow to make 8% added fat throughout 38 growth period. The total amounts of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids were significantly decreased after feeding increased levels of linseed. Conversely, the total amounts of PUFA were significantly increased. A recent study [88] showed that upon supplementing n-3 PUFA, in the form of linseed oil (3/100 g mixed feed), in the diet of laying hens resulted in a significant increase in α-linolenic of the plasma. The same study also revealed that, FO administration (same dose as linseed) caused a significant increase in the proportion of plasma EPA and DHA.
\n
\n
\n
7. Involvement in avian immune function
\n
The immunomodulatory effect of PUFA in broiler chickens occurs by affecting intercellular communications and signals that change the reactivity of leukocytes upon antigenic stimulation. This effect is highly associated with down-regulation or up-regulation of different cytokines that are believed to affect the avian immune function such as IL-1β, IFNγ, MGF, IL-1, IL-4, IL-2 [89, 90, 91, 92].
\n
There is some concern that diets enriched with n-3 PUFA have detrimental effects on chicken immunity and impair resistance to infection. However, it is not clear whether this concern is justified, since some studies show no effect [93], some show a detrimental effect [94] while some show an improvement [89, 90, 93, 95, 96, 97] in chicken immune response following feeding of n-3 PUFA.
\n
\n
\n
8. Conclusion
\n
Consumption of omega-3 fatty acids should be increased in human diets to get the beneficial effects of these fatty acids. One way to achieve this goal is by enriching poultry meat and eggs with omega-3 fatty acids, which is proved to be very successful. This role of poultry production in enhancing health aspects of human needs more research and interest from nutritionists and poultry producers.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The authors would like to extend their gratitude and appreciation to the management of Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research for their continuous technical and financial support of scientific research.
\n
Conflict of interest
There is no conflict of interest related to the current work.
\n',keywords:"health, n-3 fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, poultry",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66423.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/66423.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66423",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66423",totalDownloads:1062,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:68,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"December 20th 2018",dateReviewed:"February 11th 2019",datePrePublished:"April 18th 2019",datePublished:"October 9th 2019",dateFinished:"March 28th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In recent years, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) have received considerable attention in both human and animal nutrition. As a mean of increasing the low consumption of long chain n-3 PUFA by humans consuming diets, there has been some interest in the enrichment of poultry meat with these fatty acids for people seeking healthy lifestyles. Dietary supplementation with n-3 PUFA, such as these found in fish oil and linseed oil, were found to have nutritional benefits in humans. Modulation of fatty acid profiles as a result of n-3 PUFA incorporation is well documented in humans, rodents, and poultry. The current chapter focuses on enriching poultry meat with these beneficial fatty acids to increase its consumption by human beings.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66423",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66423",book:{id:"7943",slug:"nutrition-in-health-and-disease-our-challenges-now-and-forthcoming-time"},signatures:"Hanan Al-Khalaifah and Afaf Al-Nasser",authors:[{id:"269782",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanan",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Khalaifah",fullName:"Hanan Al-Khalaifah",slug:"hanan-al-khalaifah",email:"hkhalifa@kisr.edu.kw",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"290297",title:"Dr.",name:"Afaf",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Nasser",fullName:"Afaf Al-Nasser",slug:"afaf-al-nasser",email:"anaser@kisr.edu.kw",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Overview of fatty acids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Sources and metabolism of fatty acids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Incorporation into cell membrane structure",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Involvement in health and clinical problems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. n-3 enrichment of poultry diet",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Involvement in avian immune function",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Al-Khalifa H. Production of added-value poultry meat: Enrichment with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. World’s Poultry Science Journal. 2015;71(2):319-326\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Al-Khalifa H, Al-Nasser A, Al-Bahouh M, Ragheb G, Al-Qalaf S, Al-Omani N, et al. The effect of polyunsaturated fatty acids on avian immune cell subpopulations in peripheral blood, spleen, and thymus. 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Dietary fish oil alters specific and inflammatory immune responses in chicks. Journal of Nutrition. 1997;127(10):2039-2046\n'},{id:"B91",body:'Leshchinsky TV, Klasing KC. Vitamin E and leukocytic cytokine expression in broilers. Poultry Science. 2000;79(1):37\n'},{id:"B92",body:'Koutsos EA, Klasing KC. Effect of intra-abdominal injection of lipopolysaccharide or muramyl dipeptide on the acute phase response in Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). Poultry Science. 2000;79(1):37\n'},{id:"B93",body:'Puthpongsiriporn U, Scheideler SE. Effects of dietary ratio of linoleic to linolenic acid on performance, antibody production, and in vitro lymphocyte proliferation in two strains of Leghorn pullet chicks. Poultry Science. 2005;84(6):846-857\n'},{id:"B94",body:'Adam O. Dietary fatty acids and immune reactions in synovial tissue. European Journal of Medical Research, 2003;8(8):381-387\n'},{id:"B95",body:'Phipps RP, Stein SH, Roper RL. 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1. Introduction
It is no more news that the state or nature of tourist destinations promotes tourist inflows. This is applicable to all kinds of tourist destination not minding the location and/or ownership. Some notable tourism theories, like Sunlust and Wonderlust theory [1], pull and push theory [2] and inner-directed and out-directed theory [3], give further explanations to the position of tourist destinations in the determination of the extent of tourist inflows as a result of tourist choices. The implications being that the destination’s image and nature control over 75% of tourist choices to visit or not to visit the destination. Adequate branding and relevant sustainable management practices are among the solutions to sustainable tourism development.
Various kinds of tourist destinations abound, but emphasis here is on rural tourism which has been defined as a kind of tourism experience that has to do with visits to rural communities or villages that are separated from urban areas. Attractions that motivate such tourism experiences include sociocultural life styles and astonishing natural landscapes, among others [4, 5]. Moreover, Nwankwo et al. [6] informed that rural tourism is a motivation for self-development option for those living in the rural areas. This view was also supported by Tsephe and Obono [7] when they gave benefits of rural tourism to include foreign exchange earnings, creation of employment, opportunities for culture exposition and improved infrastructural and superstructural base, among others.
Many rural communities from various geopolitical zones of Nigeria have made frantic efforts to benefit from the gains of rural tourism, through harnessing of various tourism resources that have been lying fallow in their localities. Also many relevant academic researches and media documentations have directed the focus of these rural communities to those areas they have comparative advantage, to generate more tourist/visitors inflows to their communities. Despite these, rural tourism in Nigeria has been faced with some problems over the years, thereby depriving most of these rural communities of the opportunity to maximize the gains of rural tourism to rural development and sustainability. Among the critical aspects of these challenges is the issue of destination crisis that have ravaged the growth and sustainability of rural tourism initiatives in rural areas in Nigeria. However, this study is an attempt to seek for ways of tackling these challenges and to check various crises that have huge negative implication for sustainable tourism development in rural areas. To this regard, this study is aimed at considering the application of three-way destination safety solution to crisis management in rural Nigeria.
2. Concept definitions
There are some concepts in this study that may need further clarifications to enhance understanding of the basic argument in the study. Some of these concepts include tourist destination, tourist safety, host safety, tourism investment safety and destination safety, among others. Both the general understanding of these concepts and their peculiar understanding for the purpose of this study shall be briefly considered.
First and foremost, tourist destination has to do with a definite location with interesting tourist attractions/motivations. Such locations have the tendencies of attracting tourists and other visitors from different places. Alyward [8], Mannell and Iso-Ahola [9] and Basher and Ajloni [10] in their separate studies see tourist destination as a particular location with active pull factors for tourism experience and that of visitor experience for nontourists.
Tourist safety is another widely used concept in this study that needs clarifications. For the purpose of this study, tourist safety is defined as all the hazards and their control measures that pertain to tourists in a given tourist experience. From this definition, tourist safety is approached from two dimensions. The first looks at all the hazards and threats against the lives, properties and peace of tourists including their causes, while on a particular tourist experience. Measures have to do with all the control measures that have been designed to check those hazards whether sufficient or insufficient, active or passive or efficient or inefficient [11, 12, 13]. The state of tourist safety for a particular tourist destination is among the determining factors for the growth and sustainability of the destination.
Host safety as a concept has to do with the total state of safety for the members of the host community who are living within the tourist destination. For the purpose of this study, this safety has to do with the feeling and condition of safety of the host with respect to tourism activities in their locality. This is pertinent; hence their feeling of perilous in their environment as a result of an existing tourism project in their area could be detrimental to the growth and sustainability of such tourism projects.
Moreover, tourism investment safety is the state of safety of tourism projects or schemes in a given locality. This is comprised of safety threats, their causes and existing measures to check those safety threats, for a particular tourism project or investment. Unsafe tourism investment will not only deter further or future investments but will equally hamper sustainability of the existing tourism projects and undermine the potentialities of various underdeveloped tourism resources in a particular locality. Activities of members of the host community, dubious visitors/tourists and unchecked criminal activities can contribute to poor safety state of tourism projects.
Another notable concept used in the study is destination safety. This is quite different from host safety. Destination safety has to do with overall safety of the tourist destination. In this case, both the safety of hosts, tourists/visitors, tourist attractions, tourism projects and some other safety demands in the destination are considered. Unsafe tourism destination undermines existing and prospective tourism projects in a particular locality [6, 11, 14]. The state of safety for tourist destination has many implications for the pull factors of the destination in tourist’s perceptions and assumptions while making destination choices.
I have tried to briefly look at the definitions and meanings of some of the notable concepts in this study. The next discourse will be on rural tourism and crisis management in rural Nigeria.
3. Rural tourism and crisis management in rural Nigeria
Rural tourism as a concept was briefly considered in the previous subheading as a kind of tourism activity that is motivated by tourism resources in the rural areas. In such tourism activities, the “pull factors” are always from the sociocultural aspects of the people and their natural landscapes, where some natural formations like forests, caves, rivers, rock shelters and mountains, among others, form part of the pull factors. Nigeria as a nation has many rural areas with high poverty level as a result of much public and private sector concentration on the urban and semiurban areas for meaningful development and investments in the infrastructural superstructural base. Also, the incessant rural to urban migration has not helped matters as the constant desire of rural dwellers to migrate to the urban and semiurban areas has contributed to huge instability in the labour and skill force of the rural areas in the country. Agriculture and tourism are being explored to give relevance to these rural communities by boosting their economic base.
Most of the rural communities in Nigeria are blessed with notable tourism resources that have potentialities for socio-economic development if carefully harnessed. These tourism resources in the rural areas in Nigeria are classified into two: natural tourism resources and cultural tourism resources. Natural tourism resources in these rural communities include caves, rock shelters, rock overhangs, waterfalls, mountains, rivers and streams, forests and other natural formations. The cultural tourism resources include the sociocultural aspects of the people like traditional dances, notable festivals, masquerading, attractive ceremonies, food typologies, belief systems and ritual practices and traditional outfits or attire, among others.
However, some of these rural communities have harnessed some of their tourism resources for meaningful tourism development that would improve their standard of living. While some of these communities have actualized their rural tourism base and transform their respective communities to rural tourist destinations, their counterparts have not been able to achieve similar heights, thereby leaving their tourism resources in a deplorable state.
Crisis has been defined as “…negative changes in the security, economic, political, societal, or environmental affairs, especially when they occur abruptly, with little or no warning” ([15], p. 3). In tourism studies or management, crisis can be said to be unwanted circumstance that come with huge negativities on the tourist destination, host community, tourists, visitors, tourist attractions and tourism schemes or project in a given area. The consequences are better imagined than witnessed as it might lead to the closure or abandonment of tourism projects or schemes in a given area. In most cases huge capital investments and natural resources are lost to this situation. The causes could either intrinsic or extrinsic depending on the nature of the crisis. Intrinsic has to do with those crises that are caused from within the tourism project circle, i.e. the stakeholders and/or natural factors. The stakeholders may include members of the host community, visitors/tourists, tourism project managers, tourism project developers and tourism resources (developed or undeveloped), among others. The natural factors has to do with some unforeseen natural occurrences like earthquakes, erosion, heavy rains, weather conditions, volcanoes, land movements and some other similar natural occurrences that are not within the control of man. Then the extrinsic factors have to do with some other factors that could cause crisis that are not within the list given above. It could be persons outside of the defined stakeholders, intercommunal crisis, invaded criminal activities and legal litigations from outside the community, among others.
Crisis management on other hand has been defined as “…the overall coordination of an organisation’s response to a crisis, in an effective, timely manner, with the goal of avoiding or minimizing damage to the organisation’s profitability, reputation, or ability to operate and often involves the need to make quick decisions on the basis of uncertain or incomplete information” ([15], p. 3). In tourism management, crisis management can be said to be programmes designed and implemented to check possible crisis in tourist destinations or on tourism projects with the aim of either avoiding the crisis and its consequences or managing or controlling the consequences of both expected and unexpected crisis at tourist destinations. This view was supported by Colpofer [15] in the following lines:
CM includes the development of plans, based upon an integral approach with internal and external organizations to reduce the risk of a crisis occurring and to deal with any crises that do arise, and the implementation of these plans so as to minimize the impact of crisis and assist the organization to recover from them and restart its normal activities as quickly as possible. ([15], p. 3).
However, safety issues has been identified as among the major sources of crisis at rural tourism destinations [6, 11, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19]. Rural tourism projects in Nigeria of recent have been faced with multiplicity of crisis arising from safety issues. Poorly managed safety issues have given rise to high safety and risk perceptions among major actors in rural tourism projects in Nigeria and in some other sub-Saharan countries. This has sandwiched rural tourism projects in a crisis state with negative consequences on the sustainability of these tourism projects and investments. Untold consequences of crisis at rural tourist destinations in Nigeria are major concerns for the principal actors in this type of tourism. It discourages participation and involvement among these actors who may prefer to be alive and/or unembarrassed than engaging in an adventure or practice that may put his life or properties to avoidable risks. Suspension and/or refusal of rural tourism projects is a major blow for the socio-economic development of rural areas in Nigeria.
4. The concept of three-way destination safety solution to crisis management (TWaDeSS model)
Three-way destination safety solution otherwise known as TWaDeSS model is a new concept in destination management that is proposed for tackling crisis arising from safety issues at rural tourism destinations. This model is product of long-term field/research experience on rural tourism development in Nigeria. It is anchored on three variables of host community, tourism resources and tourists/visitors to guarantee sustainable crisis management in rural tourism destinations. The TWaDeSS model is expected to be conducted by the developer/investors at the various stages of the rural tourism project. The model has three major stages that are to be followed accordingly by the developers/investors of tourism projects in rural areas to yield expected positive results (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
The flow chart for TWaDeSS model and its application.
5. The structure and premise of TWaDeSS model
Stage I: familiarization (pre-project execution). This has to do with sustained efforts to have a prior knowledge of the three principal actors in the tourism destination (host community, tourism resources and tourists/visitors) through provision of answers to some basic questions (Figure 2). The premise of TWaDeSS in this stage is anchored on the following variables and their basic questions:
Host Community: The following findings and considerations are necessary:
Communal Values: what are the indigenous values of this community? What do they hold tenaciously in common since their inception?
Communal Interest: what is their interest as a community with respect to the targeted tourism resources and rural development needs?
Hazards from Tourists/Visitors: what are the possible hazards and other hazards that are likely to be experienced from the presence of tourists/visitors in their community? And how do you intend to handle such hazards on a long-term basis?
Alternative Mechanisms: A close consideration would reveal that the targeted tourism resources serve one or more needs to the community. How do you intend to provide alternative sources to serve the need(s)? Would they appreciate or make do with the alternative provision?
Orientation and Involvement: How do you inform them of the proposed projects? How do you get them involved in the proposed project? Would they be comfortable with the nature of their involvement?
Tourism Resources: The following findings and considerations are necessary:
Nature of the Site: What is the historical background of the site? What is the expected carrying capacity of the site?
Site Values: what is the primary and secondary value of the site to the host community? Does the site have any tourism value? Is the tourism value significant enough to merit tourism development initiatives? What is the nature of tourists/visitors the site is likely to attract?
Dos and Don’ts: What are the dos and don’ts of the site? Can these dos and don’ts be managed if the site is developed? Are these dos and don’ts significant enough to deter possible site development for tourism schemes?
Hazards/Threats: What are the possible hazards the site is likely to experience from visitors/tourists. How can this be checked if developed? What are the possible threats or hazards the site may likely experience from developers? And how can they be checked to guarantee sustainability of the site and the tourism project?
Tourists/Visitors: The following findings and consideration are necessary.
Nature of Tourists/Visitors: What category of tourists/visitors is likely to be attracted to the site? What is the geographic and demographic characteristic of expected tourists/visitors? What are the possible attitudes of the expected tourists/visitors?
Hazards/Threats: What are the possible threats or hazards tourists might face at the site? What are the possible threats tourists/visitors might face from the host community? What are the possible threats tourists visitors might face from the infrastructural and superstructural provisions at the site? Are there possible threats/hazards against tourists and visitors from people outside the community? How do you check these categories of threats?
Destination Accessibility: How is tourists/visitors’ access to information pertaining to the site like? What about physical access to the site? Are there encumbrances to physical access to the site? What is the friendlier medium for access to the site? What is the level of comfort on the site for tourists/visitors as it concerns accessibility? Can tourists/visitors move alone or with guides in the destination?
Information and Orientation: What is the necessary information the tourist/visitor need to know about the site? How do you package the information? How do you put across the information? Will there be need for orientation programmes? How do you package the orientation to yield the needed result?
Figure 2.
Pre-project execution stage of TWaDeSS model.
Stage II: implementation and involvement (project execution). In this stage, answers to basic questions are provided on how best to integrate these principal actors in the project implementation through involvement and other necessary considerations (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Project execution stage of TWaDeSS model.
a. Host Community: What is the role of members of the host community in the project implementation? How can they get involved to achieve sustainable result?
b. Tourism Resources: With the prior knowledge of the tourism resources arising from the first stage, there is need to make necessary considerations on the nature and value of the tourism resources during project implementation and involvement plans.
c. Tourists/Visitors: There is need to factor in the position and preference of the tourist/visitor during implementation to reduce the risk of wasteful investment.
Stage III: sustainability mechanism (post-project execution). This stage comes after the completion of the project, and the project is put to use. It targets the consolidation of the project towards ensuring its sustainability in the rural area. The five mechanisms are to focus on the three principal factors at the tourist destination (Figure 4). And the process is expected to be carefully followed from the first mechanism to the last mechanism. It has the following processes:
Figure 4.
Post-project execution stage of TWaDeSS model.
d. Sustainability Mechanism 1—Consultation and Opinion Gathering Mechanism (SM-1):
Host community
Tourism resources
Tourists/visitors
Consultation and opinion gathering mechanism is aimed at eliciting critical and genuine information on the existing project as it concerns the three principal factors with a view to evaluating the existing project in the subsequent mechanism.
e. Sustainability Mechanism 2—Evaluation and Feedback Mechanism (SM-2):
Host community
Tourism resources
Tourists/visitors
Evaluation and feedback mechanism is targeted at evaluating the existing tourism project as it concerns the three principal actors and giving of feedback to guide future policy directions as it pertains to rural tourism projects in Nigeria and other developing nations.
f. Sustainability Mechanism 3—Restrategization and Consolidation Mechanism (SM-3):
Host community
Tourism resources
Tourists/visitors
This mechanism which comes after the evaluation mechanism is focused on addressing the major concerns of the existing project as was revealed during the evaluation. This is done from the perspectives of the three principal factors in the tourist destination (host community, tourism resources and tourists/visitors).
g. Sustainable Mechanism 4—Future impact concerns (SM-4):
Host community
Tourism resources
Tourists/visitors
This mechanism is focused on impact concerns of those identified strategies as they affect the three principal actors in the tourist destination. This is expected to give direction for the final mechanism which focuses on efforts to bridge the gap between these three principal actors and the tourism project in the rural area.
h. Sustainability Mechanism 5—Dialog and Orientation Mechanism (SM-5):
Host community
Tourism resources
Tourists/visitors
This mechanism is the last of them in stage 3 of TWaDeSS model. The emphasis of this mechanism is on how to maintain cordial relationship and tolerance among the three principal actors in tourist destination. This is expected to motivate the sustainability of the existing tourism project.
6. Conclusion
Safety threats, considerations, perceptions and expectations are the major stimulus for crises at rural tourism destinations. The understanding of this fact within the confines of the three principal actors in tourist destinations is among the responsibilities of investors and developers in rural tourism projects. TWaDeSS model is proposed in this study to manage these challenges at rural tourism destination with a view to maximizing the gains of rural tourism development to rural developments in Nigeria.
The technicality in the application of this model is that it demands great attention to details. Each of the stages of the model demands through consideration and application to yield expected results. Results from the previous stage inform the nature of the next stage. Also the model will be more useful in those rural communities with respected traditional authorities. Both public and private sector investments in rural tourism projects have to understand these technicalities to have a good return on investment. The periodic use and/or involvement of stakeholders and/or constituted management committees is highly recommended; hence it will aid in establishing tolerance and coexistence among these principal actors to manage upsurge of destination crisis at the rural tourism destinations.
Efforts have been made to propose a viable model in this work to enhance the gains of rural tourism initiatives to rural development in Nigeria and some other sub-Saharan countries. Application of this model to other situations and constructive critiques would strengthen the depth of the model in rural tourism development. Each stage of this TWaDeSS model is critical and significant in sustainable crisis management at tourist destinations. It is however the principal responsibility of the developers/planners of tourism projects to follow these stages to completely eradicate crisis at tourist destinations or reduce the occurrence to the barest minimum.
\n',keywords:"crisis management, tourist destinations, destination safety, three-way safety solution, rural areas, tourist safety, rural tourism",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70464.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70464.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70464",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70464",totalDownloads:597,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 24th 2019",dateReviewed:"September 14th 2019",datePrePublished:"December 14th 2019",datePublished:"October 28th 2020",dateFinished:"December 14th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Development of tourist destinations is among topical issues in national discourse for economic growth and sustainability. The past two decades have witnessed massive development and investment in tourist destinations in rural areas. This is owing to the fact that rural tourism has been identified as among the development options for rural communities in most developing nations. Of recent, crisis and other safety issues have been among the militating factors against tourist destinations hence the cry for destination safety. These are said to emanate from the activities of the three major principals in the management of tourist destinations (hosts, tourism resources, and tourists/visitors). Incidentally, destination safety discourse is source of worry for these principal factors in tourist destination management. This has left many tourist destinations devastated, abandoned and abused. However, this chapter proposal would seek to identify the way out of this predicament. It tends to explore the meaning and application of the three-way destination safety (TWaDeSS) model in the management of crisis at tourist destinations in rural Nigeria. This will not only promote harmony among the three major principals in tourist destination but also enhance the rate of investment as a result of quality crisis control in these destinations.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70464",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70464",signatures:"Elochukwu A. Nwankwo",book:{id:"7806",type:"book",title:"Public Sector Crisis Management",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Public Sector Crisis Management",slug:"public-sector-crisis-management",publishedDate:"October 28th 2020",bookSignature:"Alexander Rozanov, Alexander Barannikov, Olga Belyaeva and Mikhail Smirnov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7806.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-982-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-981-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-983-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"233092",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Rozanov",slug:"alexander-rozanov",fullName:"Alexander Rozanov"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"308906",title:"Dr.",name:"Elochukwu",middleName:null,surname:"Nwankwo",fullName:"Elochukwu Nwankwo",slug:"elochukwu-nwankwo",email:"elochukwu.nwankwo@unn.edu.ng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Concept definitions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Rural tourism and crisis management in rural Nigeria",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. The concept of three-way destination safety solution to crisis management (TWaDeSS model)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. The structure and premise of TWaDeSS model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Mclntosh RW, Goeldner CR. Tourism: Principles, Practices and Philosophies. New York: Wiley; 1990'},{id:"B2",body:'Dann G. Anomie, ego-enhancement and tourism. Annals of Tourism Research. 1977;4(4):184-194'},{id:"B3",body:'Gnoth J. Tourism motivation and expectation formation. Annals of Tourism Research. 1977;24(2):283-304'},{id:"B4",body:'Haldar P. Rural tourism: challenges and opportunities. In: International Marketing Conference on Marketing and Society 8-10th April 2007. 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Paris: UIC Additional Global security program; 2017'},{id:"B16",body:'Hasan K, Ismail AR, Islam F. Tourist risk perceptions and revisit intention. A critical review of literature. Cogent Business and Management. 2017;4(1412874):1-21'},{id:"B17",body:'Wong J, Yeh C. Tourist hesitation in destination decision making. Annals of Tourism Research. 2009;36(1):6-23'},{id:"B18",body:'Wu BH, Wang X, Li MM. Chinese college students perceive the evaluation of tourism security research. Journal of Guilin Institute of Tourism. 2001;12(3):62-68'},{id:"B19",body:'Zhang JK. Optimization and empirical model of tourism risk perception. Journal of Tibet National Institute (Philosophy of Social Science). 2012;33(2):45-48'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Elochukwu A. Nwankwo",address:"elochukwu.nwankwo@unn.edu.ng",affiliation:'
Department of Archaeology and Tourism, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
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Based on your preferences and the stage of your scientific projects, you have multiple options for publishing your scientific research with IntechOpen:
The Open Access publishing model followed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, thus enabling readers to access research at no cost to themselves. In order to sustain these operations, and keep our publications freely accessible, we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee on all manuscripts accepted for publication to help cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books.
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\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
\r\n\t
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. His research interests include biochemistry, oxidative stress, reactive species, antioxidants, lipid peroxidation, inflammation, reproductive hormones, phenolic compounds, female infertility.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"41",type:"subseries",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
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He has chaired or acted as a technical committee member for twenty-five international forums (conferences). Dr. Shang graduated from Tsinghua University, China, in 2010 with a Ph.D. in Engineering. Prior to that, he worked as a research fellow at Harvard University from 2008 to 2009. 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