Abstract
The brown adipose tissue (BAT) evolved as a specialized thermogenic organ in mammals. Nutrients (i.e., fatty acids and glucose) from the intracellular storage and peripheral tissues are critical to the BAT thermogenic function. The BAT converts the chemical energy stored in nutrients to thermo energy through UCP1-mediated nonshivering thermogenesis (NST). Activated BAT contributes significantly to the whole body energy substrate homeostasis. It is now well-recognized that adult humans possess BAT with functional thermoactivity. Thus, BAT energy metabolism has a significant therapeutic potential in the management of metabolic disorders, such as obesity, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and lipid abnormality in humans.
Keywords
- brown adipose tissue
- brown adipocyte
- metabolism
- fatty acid
- glucose
- metabolic disorders
1. Introduction
Brown adipose tissue (BAT) evolved as a specialized thermogenic organ in the modern eutherian mammals, including
Brown adipocyte, which is endowed with mitochondria, is the most important thermogenic functional unit of BAT [4, 28]. In the mitochondrion of brown adipocyte, energy generated from nutrients is initially stored as proton gradient membrane potential across the mitochondrial inner membrane, and then converted directly to thermo energy by the uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1)-mediated proton flow [4, 29]. In BAT, brown adipocytes are surrounded by abundant capillaries. The heat generated in the brown adipocyte mitochondria can be quickly distributed by the blood flow to maintain the steady core body temperature in mammals [4]. In addition to classical brown adipocytes, beige/brite adipocytes can be induced from the white adipocytes to conduct thermogenesis upon the cold challenge or catecholamine stimulation [26, 30, 31]. This process is termed as “browning” [26, 30, 31]. Thermogenesis in beige/brite adipocytes can also contribute to mammals’ body temperature maintenance and whole body metabolism [26, 30, 31]. Beige/brite adipose tissue generates heat through both UCP1-independent thermogenesis, including calcium cycling in and out of endoplasmic reticulum, futile cycle between creatine and phosphocreatine, and UCP1-dependent thermogenesis in mitochondria [26, 30, 31, 32, 33]. The energy metabolism is essential for the optimal UCP1-mediated mitochondrial thermogenic function of brown and beige/brite adipocytes [4, 34, 35]. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of energy metabolism in maintaining brown adipocyte thermogenic function and the proceeding of targeting metabolic disorder through BAT activation in human studies.
2. Fatty acid metabolism in brown adipocytes
Thermogenic brown adipocyte possesses a high capacity for fatty acid β-oxidation that has been reported in both rodent and humans [4, 12, 14, 36]. Fatty acids serve as the activator for UCP1, which is a fatty acid/H+ symporter directly mediating proton flow and thermogenesis [37]. Fatty acids also serve as the main energy substrate mediating the uncoupling and thermogenic function in brown adipocytes [2, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41]. In addition, fatty acids can enhance brown adipocyte thermogenic capacity through the nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), which are the master transcription regulators for the expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, and the key thermogenic protein UCP1 in brown adipocytes [42, 43].
Intracellular fatty acids are stored in the format of triglyceride in the heterogeneous multilocular lipid droplets in the brown adipocyte [4]. Upon the cold challenge, triglycerides stored in the brown adipocyte lipid droplet are lipolysed. Triglyceride lipolysis is a sequential process that involves different enzymes, resulting in the liberation of glycerol and fatty acids for heat production [44]. The lipid droplet is composed of triglycerides and cholesterol esters, which are surrounded by a monolayer of phospholipids [44]. Important proteins with regulatory and enzymatic functions, including perilipin and CGI58, coexist on the phospholipid monolayer to regulate the lipid trafficking and other functions of the lipid droplet [44, 45, 46, 47]. Perilipin stabilizes the lipid droplet and prevents it from lipolysis under basal condition. Upon cold challenge, β-adrenergic stimulation leads to the activation of G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) and adenylate cyclase, which subsequently increases the cAMP level in brown adipocyte [48]. cAMP then activates protein kinase A (PKA), which phosphorylates perilipin at its serine residues [49, 50, 51, 52]. The phosphorylated perilipin releases CGI-58, an adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL)-activating protein. CGI-58, subsequently, binds and actives ATGL. Activated ATGL hydrolyzes triglycerides and generates free fatty acids and diglycerides [50, 53, 54, 55]. Upon the cold challenge, PKA also phosphorylates serine residues on another key lipolysis enzyme hormone sensitive lipase (HSL) [56]. Although HSL is capable of hydrolyzing triglycerides, diglycerides, monoglycerides, and a broad array of other lipid substrate, it is the rate-limiting enzyme for hydrolyzing the diglycerides
Given the importance of fatty acid in brown adipocyte thermogenic function, it is reasonable to predict that the deficiency of the key lipolysis enzymes and fatty acid transportation proteins in brown adipocytes can lead to a defected BAT thermogenic function. Human and rodent
One caveat from both the aforementioned human and rodent
Further studies in genetically manipulated mice showed similar results. The ATGL-knockout mouse presented defective triglyceride lipolysis function with increased BAT weight (8.5-fold), enlarged lipid droplet (20-fold), and decreased BAT explant lipid hydrolysis activity (−85%) [38]. The impaired triglyceride lipolysis activity in the
These studies highlight the cardinal role of intracellular triglyceride liberation in the brown adipocyte thermogenic function, but raise the question if the brown adipocyte intracellular lipolysis is essential for BAT to maintain the adaptive thermogenesis
Long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs) are the most abundant format of fatty acid energy substrate in mammals [63, 64, 65, 66]. The liberated LCFAs from intracellular lipid droplet are facilitated and transported to mitochondrion and nucleus by fatty acid-binding proteins (FABPs) to conduct their functions [67]. Of the six FABP isoforms, FABP4 (also termed adipocyte p2) and FABP5 are the major FABP isoforms in brown adipocytes [68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74]. Mice mutated in both
The LCFAs-mediated mitochondrial oxidation and UCP-1 activation function require sequential carnitine acyltransferases in order to translocate the LCFA into mitochondrial matrix. Carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT1), located on the mitochondrial outer membrane, is the rate-limiting enzyme that mediates LCFAs inward translocation into mitochondrial matrix [63, 64, 65, 66]. CPT1 exists in tissue-specific isoforms, and CPT1b is the major isoform expressed in brown adipocytes [75, 76, 77]. Mouse embryos-carried homozygous knockout of
The intramitochondrial LCFAs contribute to the thermogenesis through UCP-1 activation and β-oxidation. A detailed study confirmed that mice with impaired fatty acid β-oxidation are cold-intolerant [80]. The acyl-CoA dehydrogenases, which catalyze the initial steps of fatty acid β-oxidation, are composed of a group of enzymes, including very long-chain acyl CoA dehydrogenase (VLCAD), long-chain acyl CoA dehydrogenase (LCAD), and short-chain acyl CoA dehydrogenase (SCAD) [81, 82]. A detailed experiment showed that fetal hypothermia was presented in all of the homozygous knockout mice (
In summary, these studies highlight the importance of the brown adipocyte lipolysis and the liberated intracellular fatty acid transportation and oxidation during thermogenesis. In addition, these studies indicate that brown adipocytes not only use the intracellular lipid storage, but also the circulating energy substrate to maintain the critical thermogenic function for the organismal survival and optimal function in mammals [2, 12, 38, 44, 56, 59, 60, 80]. In modern days, BAT’s ability to metabolize fatty acids mobilized from other peripheral storages, including white adipose tissue and liver, makes it a good potential therapeutic target in humans. Studies have shown that BAT mediates significant plasma lipid clearance during the cold challenge in rodent and humans under both physiological and pathological conditions [83, 84, 85].
One study showed that the activated BAT is involved in the basal and post-prandial triglyceride metabolism in rodents [83]. In this study, compared to mice kept at 22°C, mice kept at 4°C had significantly lower triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (TRLs)-triglyceride concentration [83]. The study also showed that the activated BAT was involved in the post-prandial triglyceride metabolic process, evidenced by an oral 3H-triolein tolerance test. Under cold challenge condition, the BAT 3H-triolein uptake was significantly higher than that of either liver or skeletal muscle, suggesting the significant triglyceride/triglyceride-rich lipoprotein metabolism in activated BAT. For the triglyceride clearance, circulating triglycerides rose to a peak at 2 hours postprandial and declined subsequently in mice kept at 22°C. In contrast, the triglyceride level reminded persistently low in mice kept at 4°C, suggesting that the BAT possesses a high postprandial triglyceride clearance function [83]. Most interestingly, the cold challenge increased the uptake of radio-labeled lipoprotein in BAT and reduced the uptake in liver [83]. The cold challenge-induced lipid clearance shift suggests that BAT can be targeted for lipid metabolism
Although the studies in rodent strongly support the importance of BAT in lipid clearance, the significance of BAT in human lipid metabolism is still unclear. The contribution of activated BAT in human body was studied using a dietary radio-labeled LCFAs tracer 14(R,S)-[18F]-fluoro-6-thia-heptadecanoic acid (18FTHA) [88]. This study showed that a 4-hour mild cold-challenge at 18°C significantly increased dietary fatty acids distribution in BAT in humans [88]. However, given the relative small volume of BAT tissue, the dietary fatty acids clearance contribution from the BAT is less significant compared to other organs including heart, liver, white adipose tissue, or skeletal muscles, and only contributed to ~0.3% of total body dietary fatty acids clearance upon the mild cold challenge [88]. Similarly, another study using fatty acid tracer 18F-fluoro-thiaheptadecanoic acid (18FTHA) showed that a 3-hour cold challenge at 18°C led to four times higher radio-labeled tracer uptake and ~80% metabolic rate increase in the BAT, contributing <1% of total fatty acids clearance rate in human subjects [12]. Nevertheless, these experiments suggest that BAT not only exists, but also is functionally active and can contribute to systemic metabolism in humans. One possible reason for the relatively low BAT contribution in fatty acids metabolism in humans could be due to the short cold challenge time and mild cold challenge conditions. It is possible that during the acute cold challenge, intracellular lipid lipolysis serves as the main energy resource so that it ameliorates the clearance of circulating TRLs or fatty acids.
The circulating TRLs or fatty acids are transported into brown adipocyte by a group of proteins, including lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and fatty acid transport proteins [83, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93]. LPL is a multifunctional protein produced by many tissues, including the adipose tissue [94]. LPL serves as a rate-limiting enzyme mediating extracellular lipolysis [94]. It hydrolyzes triglycerides into lipid-rich proteins into fatty acids and monoacylglycerol. It also mediates the cellular uptake of triglyceride and other lipids [94]. Studies have shown that cold challenge or catecholamine-stimulation induce the expression and activity of LPL in brown adipocytes through a cAMP-mediated mechanism [89, 90, 91]. After activation, LPL is released from the brown adipocyte, transferred to the capillary endothelium lumen, and serves as the anchor between the endothelium cell surface and the TRLs [95, 96, 97]. Next, the LCFAs liberated from LPL channel into brown adipocyte for thermogenic function [98, 99]. A study indicated that the local LPL activity is required for TRLs uptake into the BAT [83]. In this study, it is shown that either LPL-specific inhibitor tetrahydrolipstatin pretreatment or releasing LPL from endothelium by heparin significantly blocked the uptake of TRL and fatty acids in BAT [83].
The liberated LCFAs in circulation can be transported into cells and activated by both transmembrane fatty acid transporter proteins (FATPs) and scavenger receptor CD36 [92, 93]. FATPs are composed by a family of six proteins mediating circulating LCFAs uptake and distribution in cells [83, 92, 93, 100]. Among the six isoforms, FATP1 (SLC27A1) is the major isoform in brown and white adipose tissue [83, 92, 93, 100]. Studies showed that postprandial lipid uptake is highly dependent on the adipose tissue FATP1 [101]. The FATP1-knockout mice have decreased lipid uptake in adipose tissue and a compensatory lipid redistribution in liver and heart, where FATP1-mediated lipid uptake function is not required under normal conditions [101]. The cold challenge can induce FATP1 expression in BAT [100]. In line with this, the isolated FATP1-null brown adipocytes showed significantly less fatty acids uptake upon catecholamine stimulation [100].
In summary, fatty acid is indispensable for the brown adipocyte thermogenic function. Fatty acid mediates brown adipocyte thermogenesis through mitochondrial β-oxidation, UCP1-activation, and fatty acid-mediated thermogenic gene regulation. Both the intracellular fatty acids from brown adipocyte lipolysis and the liberated fatty acids from peripheral tissues play essential roles mediating the critical BAT adaptive thermogenic function to main the adequate core body temperature in mammals. In modern days, activating BAT thermogenic function to increase fatty acids uptake and utilization may offer new therapeutics to treat human metabolic disorders.
3. Glucose metabolism in BAT
The radio-labeled glucose analog 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG), in combination with positron emission tomography (PET) and computed tomography (CT), provides a reliable method for the
Glucose uptake is regulated in brown adipocytes.
The importance of glucose metabolism in BAT is a long-standing question. Glucose transporters, which facilitate glucose across the cell plasma membrane is the first rate-limiting step of the glucose metabolism [34, 118, 119]. Intracellular glucose is subsequently phosphorylated to glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) by the enzyme hexokinase (HK). Glucose-6-phosphate serves as the substrate into different pathways, including glycolysis, glycogen synthesis, and the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) [34, 118, 119]. Glycolysis breaks down glucose to pyruvate to generate small amount of ATP and NADH [34, 118, 119]. The pyruvate is then transported into mitochondria for oxidation and energy production. Under hypoxia condition, pyruvate is disposed in the form of lactate [34, 118, 119].
Early study indicates that glucose and its metabolites contribute to the brown adipocyte thermogenesis by showing that catecholamine-induced glucose uptake was decreased when mitochondrial β-oxidation was inhibited in brown adipocytes [120]. Other studies in brown adipocyte glucose transportation also indicate the importance of the glucose in brown adipocyte metabolism [6, 112, 121, 122]. Both glucose transporter 1 (Glut1) and glucose transporter 4 (Glut4) are abundantly expressed in brown adipocytes and the insulin sensitive Glut4 is the major isoform [112, 122]. The
The dissociation between high glucose uptake and low glucose-mediated thermogenesis in activated BAT raises an important question: what is the function of the intracellular glucose in brown adipocytes? The importance of glucose in the
4. Energy storage in BAT
The cold challenge not only enhances catabolic processes mediating energy substrate metabolism and heat generation, but also induces anabolic processes mediating fatty acid synthesis and lipogenesis, as well as glycogenesis [36, 111, 136, 137, 138, 139].
Glucose can be stored as glycogen in brown adipocytes [36, 139]. Studies showed that glycogen synthases (GStot) and uridine diphosphate glucose pyrophosphorylase (Udgp), which mediates glycogenesis, were upregulated upon the cold challenge in BAT [36, 139]. Interestingly, glycogen hydrolysis enzyme, glycogen phosphorylase (Pygl), was also upregulated after cold challenge [36]. Although cold-challenge upregulates both glycogen synthesis and degradation, it is reported that the stored glycogen is used up shortly after the cold challenge [139]. Indicating that glycogen is not an efficient format for energy storage and a sustainable energy resource in brown adipocytes.
The glucose uptaken by brown adipocyte can also be converted to fatty acid through the
Sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1 (SREBP-1) is another transcription factor mediating the
In summary, these studies suggest that in activated brown adipocytes, glycogenesis and lipogenesis are upregulated to store/restore energy substrates, which is parallel with energy substrate metabolism and thermogenesis. These coordinated anabolic and catabolic processes are important to maintain the brown adipocyte energy homeostasis.
5. The proceeding of targeting BAT in human metabolic disorders
The understating of BAT energy homeostasis and the discovery of the functional BAT in humans lead to significant interests in targeting BAT for metabolic disorders, for example, obesity, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and lipid profile abnormality. The ability of BAT metabolizing fatty acid and glucose from the intracellular storage, the peripheral tissues liberation, and teh dietary nutrition absorption makes it a good potential therapeutic target for combating metabolic disorders in humans. In addition to the BAT, beige/brite fat, which is coexisted in white adipose tissue, can be recruited and activated (browning) in respond to cold challenge or pharmacological stimulation and serves as a target for metabolic disorders [151, 152, 153, 154].
It has been reported that the BAT 18F-FDG uptake in humans correlates inversely with aging, adiposity, diabetic status, and BMI, indicating that the manipulation of BAT function is a possible approach for combating metabolic disorders [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 21, 22, 23, 24, 155, 156]. The studies in mouse models and humans provide evidences for the metabolic benefit of BAT. Mice with genetic ablation of BAT and the
Cold challenge can also enhance BAT lipid metabolism. Studies showed that cold challenge led to significantly enhanced lipid mobilization, increased plasma fatty acid levels, as well as upregulated genes for lipid metabolism in human BAT [12, 58, 156, 160]. It is reported that circulating fatty acids were uptaken by BAT in cold-challenged humans by using the 18FTHA tracing method [88]. In addition, it has been shown that cold-activated BAT significantly contributed to whole body fatty acid utilization in healthy humans [17]. The fatty acid uptake is significantly lower in overweight human subjects compare to healthy humans [156]. Importantly, BAT activation upon mild cold challenge significantly increased systemic lipid metabolism, whole body lipolysis, triglyceride-fatty acid cycling, and fatty acid oxidation in overweight/obese subjects [14]. These studies suggest that BAT contributes to whole body lipid metabolism and homeostasis in healthy humans as well as in humans with metabolic disorders, suggesting that BAT can serve as a target for lipid abnormality in humans.
The significance of BAT/beige adipose tissue in human whole body metabolism has been studied and remarkable progress has been made in recent years. The acknowledgment that BAT can be activated and subsequently contributes to the human whole body energy expenditure is encouraging. Although the capacity and relative significance of BAT’s contribution to whole body energy substrate metabolism has not been elucidated, it should be noticed that majority of the studies in humans were conducted for relative short time period with mild cold challenge conditions. Given, humans usually live under thermoneutrality, we can assume that their BAT functions are repressed under this condition. In addition, the prevalence of BAT in humans varies significantly, which depends on individual’s life style, physical activity, and health conditions, which makes it harder to evaluate the contribution of BAT in whole body metabolism [7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 88, 156, 157]. Hence, a sustainable chronic mild cold challenge strategy aiming to recruit more BAT/beige adipose tissue and enhance their oxidative capacity might provide more significant therapeutic potential in humans over time, especially the human subjects with metabolic disorders. Future studies should also delineate the relative contribution from glucose and fatty acid in human BAT under physiological and pathological conditions; as well as compare the glucose and fatty acid partitioning in different tissues and organs, including skeletal muscle, heart, liver and BAT. These details will guide us to establish better strategies targeting metabolic disorders through BAT activation in the future.
6. Conclusion
The energy metabolism plays critical role in maintaining BAT thermogenic function in mammals. Through the energy metabolism, the chemical energy stored in nutrients (i.e., fatty acids and glucose) can be converted to thermoenergy and dissipated as heat in the BAT. Activated brown adipocytes not only contribute to the intracellular substrate homeostasis, but also contribute significantly to the whole body energy metabolism. BAT with functional thermoactivity is present in adult humans. Thus, BAT activation has remarkable therapeutic implications in human metabolic disorder management.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by American Heart Association National Scientist Development grant, AHA SDG grant, 12050558 to Yuan Lu; and NIH R35HL135789 to Mukesh K. Jain.
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