\r\n\tGlobalization does not represent a pure and generous process for humanity or other species, but rather it implies social exclusion and also provokes situations of vulnerability in groups of people, forced exclusion, and apartheid: poor job opportunities, lack of access to education, worse socio-sanitary conditions. Specifically, it can be said that social segregation entails the apartheid of social groups of different ages, genders, and ethnicities; these groups live a reality manifested through the deepening of poverty, in terms of increased vulnerability of the poor and groups with little economic, social, cultural, labor and health stability.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to talk about some topics that are neglected in the discourses of academic communities and political elites. The inequality process is deeply rooted among humans and is part of many people's lives in the form of modern apartheid, gender segregation, lack of health access, and cultural gap. All those structural inequality processes are the product of the biopower perpetuated and produced in the macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem. For many people from the academy, the information-consuming public, and the society in general, it is a problem to talk about these processes, since they have either lost interest or have normalized the structural and social inequity. For this reason, we see it as transcendental to explain how this situation occurs from the most internal fibers to the most evident processes, intending to make it more visible and thus expose the situation for possible solutions.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-406-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-405-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-407-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"cefab077e403fd1695fb2946e7914942",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11473.jpg",keywords:"Wage Gap, Gender Segregation, Fundamental Human Rights, Health Access, Social Inequity Processes, Modern Apartheid, Resilience, Cultural Gaps, Globalization, Geopolitics of Social Inequality, Public Policies, Social Vulnerability",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 29th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"12 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Bykbaev is a member of the UNESCO Chair of Politecnica Salesiana University. She has contributed as co-author and author to approximately thirty scientific publications in the field of statistics, inclusive education, and social and cultural anthropology. These publications focus on the visibility of problems in the field of public health and focus on the creation of proposals to improve community health. Dr. Bykbaev is an active member of the NODO Ecuadorian Network of Women Scientists (REMCI).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"313341",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yaroslava",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Bykbaev",slug:"yaroslava-robles-bykbaev",fullName:"Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313341/images/system/313341.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Politecnica Salesiana University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Politecnica Salesiana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ecuador"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444316",firstName:"Blanka",lastName:"Gugic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444316/images/20016_n.jpg",email:"blanka@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Some use the terms “international” and “global” interchangeably, though others contend that “international” is a more limited term used to describe health issues in the developing world from the perspective of the developed world. In other words, international health is the study of health in countries other than one’s own, especially if the other countries are representatives of the developing world. This perspective on international health expanded during the period of European colonialism [1], contributing to the establishment of many leading public health institutions such as the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (founded in 1908) and the Institute of Tropical Medicine-Antwerp (founded in 1906). In the New World, the construction of the Panama Canal prompted the United States to focus on the tropical conditions that nurtured epidemics of yellow fever and malaria amongst the workers on the canal. Several professional organizations were started during this period to address the health risks provided by international trade and travel, including the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene (founded in 1903) and the Royal Society for Tropical Medicine and Hygiene (founded in 1907).
\nAs Europe and the international community sought to distance themselves from the controversies and outright exploitation of colonialism, public health authorities sought to diminish the perceived paternalism inherent in the accepted definition of international health. Public health events also demonstrated the ability of health issues to transcend borders, presenting threats to rich and poor alike. The Spanish influenza pandemic of 1918 may have killed as much as 5% of the world’s population at the time. Although morbidity reports at the time were suppressed due to concerns about divulging troop vulnerabilities in several combatant countries during WWI, the pandemic clarified the need for greater knowledge about transnational disease threats [2]. And, it was obvious that the developed world was not immune to such pandemics. Over 50 years later, the pandemic of AIDS demonstrated that infectious diseases were resilient and could still threaten the developed and the developing countries of the world alike, though it was obvious that the risk of disease was greater in the developing world. In fact, some relatively wealthy nations such as the Soviet Union and Venezuela suffered catastrophic conditions as their public health and health care systems collapsed as a result of financial and political crises, leading to resurgent tuberculosis, diphtheria, and, in the case of Venezuela, malaria [3, 4]. The perspective of international health from the safe harbor of the developed world was apparently myopic and insufficient.
\nDue in part to the events mentioned above, the term “global health” took on a separate, more inclusive meaning that addressed health issues affecting most countries in the world, especially health issues that crossed national borders. In the past, such issues included many infectious diseases such as influenza, tuberculosis, yellow fever, and cholera. More recently, the chronic diseases or conditions such as obesity and diabetes have become prominent global health issues as well. Of course, health conditions that transcend borders have always been part of the study of international health, so this variable seems insufficient for differentiating between the fields of international health and global health.
\nMore recently, some health authorities have chosen to extend the concept of “global health” to include issues that have political or ideological underpinnings. Those underpinnings help describe global health as a field that truly transcends borders, in part by postulating an alternative explanation of disease etiology. The issues of climate change, urbanization, health equity, social injustice, and income disparity all involve political perspectives and controversies revolving around models of science, governance, ethics, and health policy. For some, these and other politically charged subjects distinguish global health from the more restrictive field of international health. For instance, one definition of global health has been described as:
\n…an area for study, research, and practice that places a priority on improving health and achieving equity in health for all people worldwide. Global health emphasizes transnational health issues, determinants, and solutions, involves many disciplines within and beyond the health sciences, and promotes interdisciplinary collaborations and is a synthesis of population- based prevention with individual clinical care [5].
\nThis definition includes concepts such as “determinants of health” and “health equity” that require a public health perspective much different from the older model that identified health-related deficiencies, then sought to address those deficiencies through direct health interventions aimed at the immediate cause. For instance, the immediate cause of malaria is the parasite transmitted to the victim through the bite of certain mosquitoes. A direct intervention might be the destruction of the mosquitoes that serve as the disease vector, resulting in protection from the disease. The global health focus, however, changed to identifying social or health inequities rather than simpler proximal causes of disease. Such language seems based on political and economic perspectives that lead to a definition of global health and an explanation of disease etiology that is much different than the “paternalistic” definition of international health refined during the period of European colonialism. For instance, in the global health model, the interaction between poverty and disease is no longer seen as a mere association or influence, but a cause-effect relationship (hence use of the word “determinant”). Some observers would argue that “determinant” does not mean “cause,” though this is the generally accepted meaning of the word. This term is defined by Merriam-Webster as “an element that identifies or determines the nature of something or fixes or conditions an outcome” [6]. As an example, lack of education is described by some as the cause of mortality rather than just an influential variable [7]. Using the example of malaria, the global health model suggests that better protection for a human population might be gained by addressing the underlying economic and social inequities that allow disease transmission or the most serious disease manifestations to occur. Those underlying inequities might lead to inadequate housing that lacks window screens and doors, insufficient access to health care, lack of appropriate education, or nutritional deficiencies that lead to more serious manifestations of the disease. The term “inequity” in this usage, however, can be problematic in that it implies these disparities are due, not to a deficiency or the lack of resources, but rather to the social state in which one person has more than another: better housing, more access to health care, or better food. By definition, “inequity” in this context implies an unnecessary and unfair situation. In this definition, poor health is due, not solely to a deficiency of resources or to the disease agent causing the symptoms, but also to a disparity in the distribution of those resources. For some health professionals, this focus on inequities and social justice is key to understanding the difference between international health and global health [8].
\nAt the heart of any discussion of global health must be an accepted definition of public health. This broad field of study is the foundation for both international health and global health. A simple definition of public health is
vaccination programs that have greatly reduced the incidence of many fatal diseases;
fluoridation of drinking water leading to reduction of tooth decay and tooth loss;
improved family planning and contraceptive services;
reduction in the rate of occupational injuries;
safer food and reductions in the rates of food-borne diseases;
greater motor vehicle safety;
identification of tobacco as a major health threat;
improvements in the treatment and prevention of heart disease and stroke;
better hygiene, prenatal health care, and nutrition for mothers and babies; and
reduction in the rates of infectious diseases through improved access to clean water, improved sanitation and through the development and use of antibiotics [9].
These achievements were the result of multidisciplinary efforts and this is the key to understand what public health must be. At times, this multidisciplinary approach has emphasized collaboration between the health sciences and the social sciences [8]. Global health requires more by greater multidisciplinary collaboration that goes well beyond that of the parent field of public health to include the work of professionals outside the health sciences including political scientists, civil engineers, religious leaders, and so on.
\nA final issue that should be addressed in any discussion of global health is the concept of “global health governance.” This concept was developed, in part, due to dissatisfaction with international health governance (perhaps, exemplified by the work of the World Health Organization) and reflects a need for collective action to address shared health challenges [1]. Thus, global health governance has been defined as the “rules and procedures by which collective action is taken to achieve agreed goals that protect and promote health within a global context.” Such governance has been described as “governance beyond government.” In other words, sovereignty of states must be respected. This governance is made possible through a use of non-governmental organizations in collaboration with local governments to address health issues of shared concern, especially as related to the poor, vulnerable, or disadvantaged. Thus, the definition of global health takes on a practical application in a description of how global health issues are addressed and how transnational efforts are governed.
\nIn summary, the definition of global health is still elusive, but there is some consensus that it deals with health issues that transcend borders, that it requires a multidisciplinary response, and that it probably includes a focus on politically and ethically charged global issues such as social justice, urbanization, rapid climate change, and health inequities. That said, the author continues to teach a course titled “International Health” at the university where he is employed. The faculty members chose the name of the course advisedly because they saw the need for students to look at public health issues through perspectives that are different from those of most Americans; that is, from an international perspective independent of American interests. The purpose of the course is to investigate public health issues as they affect others in the world, not as they might affect the local student. Perhaps, this helps to identify the differences between international health and global health even further. International health focuses on public health issues that may not affect the student of public health directly; global health deals with health issues that probably affect everyone, including the student in question. There is room and a need for both perspectives. In conclusion, the concept of global health is still inconsistently defined, yet this has not impeded its use in the health literature nor in practice. Most agree that it is not the same thing as international health, but the lines which divide these two concepts keep moving.
\nThe author does not have any conflicts of interest regarding the subject of this chapter or the publication of this book.
Food safety has become an important key issue worldwide, because of the emergence of several new chemical hazards present in food [1]. In addition to that, maintaining food safety has become very challenging at the operational level, as production of food and their consumptions are currently involved in a series of events that must be adequately accomplished to ensure the safety of food [2]. Therefore, food safety has become an increasingly important public health issue all over the world and due to which governments are escalating their efforts to improve and ensure food safety. These efforts can also be recognized in response to a growing number of food safety problems and increasing consumer health safety concerns [3]. A very well-know proverb from nutritionists or dietitians is “we are what we eat”. Definitely, it does not mean that if we eat apple we become apple, but for good or for ill, the components we eat must be incorporated, transformed, and/or excreted by our bodies. Because, food is an indispensable ingredient of life, and access to food is often the limiting factor in the size of a given populace [4]. There are several incidents of food safety outbreak, which has received major attention from all parts of the world such as occurrence of benzene in carbonated drinks (UK), foods contaminated with pesticides (Japan), presence of dioxins in milk products and pork sample (Belgium), incidence of pesticides in soft drinks (India) and occurrence of melamine in dairy products (China). Such incidents have made people distressful of their food consumption worldwide [5]. In addition to that, such contemporaneous incidents are growing concerns, mainly because of mass production of agronomic products and industrialization at a very fast pace to meet the requirement of current population. Moreover, it has been considered that mainly increasing worldwide population is making farming people to force mass production of agronomic products without giving ample consideration to the safety and quality of food produce. In addition to that, changes in life style patterns of consumers have been called responsible for food safety hazards [6]. Due to fast-paced urbanization, food products such as ready-to-eat, processed food and junk foods has increased, but due to rise in application of chemicals usage, such processed food has also come under the scanner of food safety professionals [1, 7].
Moreover, the scope, relevance, and level of food safety and testing have never been in such complexity than in today’s global marketplace. In recent years, a novel technology UPLC-MS has been developed to estimate the food contaminants as well as food components with better accuracy, sensitivity, precision, and high throughput. In addition to that, this advanced novel technique provided the platform to estimate different analytes at very lower levels, with better accuracy, and more importantly in less time. Moreover, the uniqueness of UPLC-MS has marked several applications to food safety. Various food safety parameters such as residual analysis, vitamins, amino acid, metabolite identification, adulteration, forensic testing, toxicity studies, phytoconstituents analysis, pesticide in agriculture, antibiotic residue, hormones, dyes and pigment analysis can be performed by using UPLC-MS [8, 9]. In addition to that, wide range of analysis makes UPLC-MS as an integral part of food safety laboratory around the globe. Moreover, in this chapter a detailed study and exploration has been made for better understanding of principles and applicability of UPLC-MS in food safety.
Today, our food supply is more diverse and highly processed than ever before. However, to ensure the nutritive value and to improve the food safety several states have disseminated regulations that states the acceptable limit for each components likewise, food additives, food residues and contaminants in food or food products. Consequently, a better and safe food can only be ensured when we have good approach to analyze such food components, contaminants, or chemical contaminants. In past few decades, chromatography has been recognized as one of important tool to identify and quantify food contaminants to ensure food safety. This novel technique allows the separation, purification, and identification from a mixture of the components for both qualitative and quantitative analysis. In current years, a unique technology UPLC-MS has been developed to estimate the food contaminants as well as food components for improving food safety. Therefore to obtain such targets, in 2004 Waters launched a brand of liquid chromatography (LC) called UPLC having a significant advancement in column particle size and column dimension having a small and porous particle (sub 2 μm) [10, 11].
UPLC is a novel technique that offers a new pathway for LC. UPLC enhances the capability of LC in four main areas like increasing speed, sensitivity, resolution and accuracy. UPLC is also known as ultra high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC). In comparison to high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), UPLC has been upgraded with column packing materials of less than 2 μm in diameter, which increases the speed, accuracy, resolution and sensitivity. Moreover, particle size used in HPLC, UPLC column ranges from 3 to 5 μm and < 2 respectively as well as mobile phase flow rate in HPLC is usually 3.0 ml/min compared to UPLC flow rate 0.6 ml/min. The basic difference in the principle of UPLC and HPLC is the column packing material, which makes a huge difference over the sensitivity and accuracy of the novel techniques. Apart from the principle involved in the LC, there is not much change in basic principle except the pressure generated or created in the instruments make it a more efficient technology. The development of UPLC techniques has urged the scientists to improve the prevailing instrumentation capability for LC, which has the advantage of improved parting performance and constant pressure. Efficiency of this technique is equivalent to the dimension of the column and inversely proportional to the radius of the atoms. As the name suggest ultra performance or ultra-pressure, UPLC works under very high pressure up to 1000 bars, however for HPLC, pump pressure not go more than 300–400 bars. A schematic diagram of UPLC and its internal diagram are presented here in Figure 1. In recent years, UPLC has become an integral part of any food safety laboratories, as it reduces the time of run as well as cost of analysis for any analysis [9, 12, 13].
Flow diagram of ultra performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.
UPLC works on the van Deemter principle, which describes the correlation between the flow rate and height of chromatogram. The van Deemter states that, “the flow rate of smaller particles are much faster in compare with large particles as well as unfolding the correlation of flow rate and plate height”. According to van Deemter equation, when the porous particle size reduced to less than 2.5 μm, there will be increase in efficiency; however, the efficiency does not weaken at increased flow rates or linear velocities.
The following equation describes the relationship between linear velocity (flow rate) and plate height [13, 14].
where,
A, B and C = Constants.
A
B
C
According to van Deemter equation, resistance of kinetics is the time lag involved in traveling from the gas phase to the packing stationary phase and back again. Moreover, higher the gas flow, greater will be a molecule to lag behind in the mobile phase on packed stationary phase. Therefore, the term is proportional to
Spectrometry method for the molecular analysis of any compound requires mass spectrometry (MS). The principle of MS was first proposed by Dr. Wien, which suggests that, refraction of charged particle in electric or magnetic field can analyzed by using MS. Mass spectrometer is an important tool to for the molecular mass analysis [18]. MS methods identifies the ionized molecules in gaseous phase in different ways
Qualitative analysis of unknown compounds or mixture
Quantitative estimation of any mixture or solution
Structure characterization
Molecular weight determination
MS works on the principle of fragmentation of molecule and separation or filtration of ions on the basis of their mass-to-charge (m/z) ratio. The molecular mass resulting from mass spectrum and produced ions are a function of mass by charge ratio [19]. Consequently, fragmentation of molecular mass in MS make it principally a very important technique over any other traditional chromatographic techniques. Notwithstanding that, on account of the capacity of MS to create m/z proportion, it considered as an exceptionally novel, straightforward, sensitive, accurate, and particular for the quantitative investigation of any mixture or blend [20, 21].
There are mainly five techniques for analyzing mass of any compound by using MS like, quadrupole mass filter (single and triple), time of flight, quadrupole ion trap and Fourier transform ion-cyclotron resonance instruments. Furthermore, MS gave a thought of molecular mass, however on the other hand it does not give authentication of molecular structure. In this way, to conquer the restriction of past mass spectrometry, improvement of couple mass spectroscopy (MS/MS) rises. This MS/MS system work into two stages, first to choose parent ions generated from parent ion cells and to disintegrate into daughter ions after the collision of parent ion into at least one daughter ions. In mass spectrometry parent ions and daughter ions gets isolated, divided, and distinguished into single ion cell. In addition to that, fast collisions of compounds performed in argon cell, where translational energy gets transformed into ion internal energy to make ions in excited state and unimolecular decay progresses [22]. The breaking of compound in ion cell of MS/MS spectrum is selected based upon parent and daughter ions. Collision of compound can be performed in in single ionization cell or triple quadrupole system (TQS). TQS is the most frequently used now a day MS/MS techniques as compared to other mass analyzer [23].
Small-size particles not only enhance proficiency, nonetheless it also increases the flexibility to enhance linear velocity without losing efficiency of the column. Moreover, efficiency is the essential separation factor in UPLC, as it depends on the selectivity and retention activity as in HPLC. Below equation shows that: (Rs) resolution is directly proportional to the square root of N.
However,
This demonstrates that the narrower the peaks are, the easier would be to separate from each other. Moreover, peak width height is inversely proportional to the peak height:
Therefore, decrease in particle size increases
Van Deemter equation revealed that, as particle size decreases, the optimum flow
Moreover, the column can be shortened by the same factor as the particle size without loss of resolution. Although non-porous, high-efficiency 1.5-μ particles are easily available in market, but these non-porous particles suffer poor loading capacity as well as poor retention because of low surface area. However, silica-based column have good mechanical strength nonetheless, it can undergo to a number of disadvantages, such as limited pH range and tailing of basic analytes. In addition to that, polymeric columns can overcome pH limitations. Moreover, packed column bed and their uniformity are also important, mainly if shorter columns have to uphold resolution while achieving the objective of faster separations [9, 13, 15].
In recent years, the demand of UPLC-MS/MS in food analysis has increased, because of the novel characteristics of UPLC with good resolution, better accuracy and sensitivity and reproducibility. Since its inception, it has reduces the time of food scientists as well as cost of the analysis because of its capability of producing more valuable, reliable, and reproducible data. The UPLC sensitivity has reached to ppb and ppt levels by virtue of which a food analyst would be more confident in ensuring safe food for consumption. Analysis of several food components as well as food contaminants has been performed using UPLC-MS/MS technique. By using this technique, below-mentioned food matrices can be tested for ensuring better food safety and we can also get more accurate qualitative and quantitative data of samples with high standards [11].
Determination of antibiotic residue in food matrices
Multi-drug residue quantitation in food matrix [28]
Metabolomics study in food safety [9]
Analysis of food contaminants in food matrices
Determination of phytoconstituents
Analysis of natural medicine and herbal medicine [9]
Determination of acrylamide in food matrix [29]
Determination of bromate in drinking water [32]
Pesticide in fruit and vegetables [33]
Determination of food-borne carcinogens heterocyclic amines [34]
Capsaicinoids analysis in capsicum species [35]
Analysis of vitamin in food
Lactose content determination in milk
Phenolic content determination in fruits and vegetables
Analysis of food based coloring agent [36]
Several antibiotic residues such as streptomycin (Figure 2), chloramphenicol, tetracycline etc. has been identified and quantified in honey by using UPLC-MS coupled along with electron spray ionization [37, 38].
Chromatogram showing blank honey sample (A) vs. spiked honey sample (B).
Pesticides are chemicals widely used against plant pests in agriculture and farming to increase crop production, either against plant diseases or prophylactic usage. Currently, more than 350 pesticides are known, which are used to protect plants or plant products; however these pesticide are not allowed more than the permitted level. In addition to that, these chemicals could be dangerous to human health. The function of full scan UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS/UPLC-MS is adequate enough to enable detection and accurate analysis of mass measurement of a broad range pesticides residue at very lowest concentration in complex sample matrices [24, 25, 26].
Amino acid profiling is one of the important proximate analyses parameter in food safety, as it contributes major portion of protein and an essential component of human diet. However, among the several protein food resources mammalian milk is purest food available over the globe. However, free amino acids are calculated from total nitrogen present in milk. UPLC coupled to electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) system has been estimated for free amino acid analysis in milks of human, rat, and cow as presented in Figure 3. Moreover, UPLC-ESI-MS/MS allowed the quantitation of 21 free amino acids in 10-minute run time using labeled amino acids as internal standard in mammalian milk [27].
Free amino acid ion chromatogram obtained in human milk (cumulative).
In recent years, the performance of UPLC has set the stage for a myriad of metabolomics analysis in plants and plant products. UPLC along with qTOF (quadrupole time of flight) system has been applied for semi-polar metabolite analysis in tomato fruit model. Moreover, UPLC coupled with qTOF mass spectrometer produces high-resolution and mass accuracy, good dynamic range, and a fast spectral acquisition capacity, which makes UPLC one of the most appropriate techniques for extensive profiling of many plant metabolites. In addition to that UPLC-MS along with multivariate data analysis has been used for metabolomics profiling of Trignella seed. Metabolomic study of all the three Trigonella species
Metabolomic analysis of
In recent year, poultry industries have become million dollar industries due to higher consumption among the world population. However, multi-drug residue is very common in poultry muscles as poultry husbandry people illegally feed several drugs such as quinolones, amantadine, sulfonamides, tetracycline, amoxicillin, lincomycin, and so on. UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS has been used to analyses such veterinary drug residues in poultry muscle ranging from very polar to nonpolar compounds. UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS operating in positive multiple reactions monitoring (MRM) has been operated to quantify most of the multi-drug residue in sample [28].
Method development plays a great role in concluding for any analytical method. In quantitative evaluation, development of method can roughly divided into three parts
Optimization of chromatography conditions
Mass spectrometry parameters
Preparation of sample
Depending upon physical or chemical characteristics of analyzing components method development could be easily performed considering the following factors like selection of column, mobile phase, pH, and particle size and flow rate in any chromatographic setting.
The benefits of using UPLC-MS method over others were better recovery, good repeatability, and amount of extraction solvent volume. The selection of ionization techniques is depending on analytical results with pretreated samples. UPLC-MS/MS tuning parameters and scan modes are decided by uninterrupted infusion of standard solution, depending on the sensitivity and specificity needed. Few key elements for method development are sample pre-treatment, chromatography, internal standard, choice between electrospray ionization (ESI) and APCI, and mass spectrometry [42]. On the other hand, method validation results support for new analytical procedures or new drug development such as Carnosol, Carnosic acid, and Rosmarinic acid in food matrices. Validation required defining performance of developed method and reliability of obtained results. The analytical developed method could be utilized for quantitation application then it would be better to be validated to ensure minimum requirement of validation experiments along with satisfactory results [43].
Acrylamide as a risk factor come to scientists attention recently, as its discovery in food was accidental. Formation of acrylamide in different types of cooked food or processed food at high temperatures reported recently. Several researchers have validated an analytical method for the analysis of acrylamide in food by UPLC-MS/MS as determined in Figure 5. Various reports suggests that processed food such as potato, coffee, bakery and other human dietary products contain acrylamide. One of the study carried out in Cyprus found that potato crisp had highest amount of acrylamide (642 ppb), followed by French fries and biscuits. Concurrently, regular consumption of such food products may lead to carcinogenicity [29].
UPLC-MS chromatogram for acrylamide standard solution at 500 ng ml−1.
Determination of phytoconstituents analysis involves usage of several analytical techniques for the isolation and characterization of phytoconstituents. Primitive techniques basically involved usage of UPLC-MS for the isolation and determination of phytoconstituents. Analysis and identification of chemical constituents of fenugreek by UPLC-MS and UPLC-Q-TOF-MS revealed that, 57 saponins and 19 flavonoid components. In addition to that, characterizations and quantitation of phytoconstituents has been reported in
In current years, various food such as legumes, cereals, potatoes, eggs, aquatic foods, dairy products, vegetables, fruits, and beverages reported to have several mycotoxins such as beauvericin, enniatin A, enniatin B, alternariol, tentoxin, and tenuazonic acid (Figure 6). These mycotoxins have been considered as a major food contaminates. In recent years, UPLC-MS has emerged as one of the most suitable method for the determination of these food contaminants. UPLC-MS has advantages over other instruments because of having better detection level, fast and accurate. UPLC-MS has emerged as a powerful tool for monitoring and measuring dietary exposure assessment of such mycotoxins [30].
Chromatogram (100 ng/mL) showing complete separation of a mixture of 10 mycotoxin standards at (100 ng/mL) using UPLC-MS method.
It’s been well-know that antioxidant has ability to fight against free radicals since free radicals are considered as a causative agent for several diseases. However, use of antioxidant has increased in food industry due to its antimicrobial property. Nowadays, natural as well as synthetic antioxidant such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene has been extensively used in food industry. However, the safety and toxicity of synthetic antioxidant is still a matter of concern for human health. On the other hand, several phenolic compounds have been well known for human nutrition. Moreover, these components are used for retarding microbial growth, increasing shelf life, reducing undesirable fragrances, enhancing nutritional value as well as delaying the formation of toxic oxidation. Phenolic profiling as well as antioxidant activities can be analyzed UPLC-ESI-MS/MS in Salvia species in some of the medicinal plants from South West Anatolia, Turkey. Moreover, it is assumed that, it was first reported for the analysis of individual phenolic profiles of
Most of the drinking water contains bromide, as the primary source of bromide is soils containing bromide or sea water containing excess amount of bromide. During the ozonation process bromide gets converted into carcinogenic bromate [47]. International Cancer research agency has found that, bromate has carcinogenic property in human beings. UPLC-MS techniques have been reported to quantify bromate at very low detection levels, that is, 0.01 ng/mL as found in Figure 7. UPLC-MS method is found to be rapid, selective, and sensitive for routine analysis of bromate at very low level in drinking water as well as sea water [32].
Chromatograms showing a UPLC-MS/MS peak of bromate in drinking water.
Capsaicinoids are the pungent metabolites of the fruit capsicum. Capsaicinoids are a group of more than 13 alkaloids having structure of vanillylamide with branched fatty acid in the 9–11 carbons. Moreover, the most predominant capsaicinoids are capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin. These two major capsaicinoids are responsible for the spiciness of capsicum (Figure 8). UPLC-MS is used to analyze capsaicinoids in various capsicum species. Analysis is carried out to measure the amount of all the capsaicinoids such as capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin, homocapsaicin, and homodihydrocapsaicin in different species of capsicum. Based upon the UPLC-MS analysis limit of detection is calculated 0.05, 0.06, 0.15, 0.2, and 0.1 g/g for capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin, homocapsaicin, and homodihydrocapsaicin, respectively [35].
UPLC-MS chromatogram showing different capsaicinoids extracted from red chili.
Foodborne carcinogens are a metabolic product of food after food processing (e.g., heating, curing, smoking) and during food preparation (e.g., baking, frying, grilling). Sometimes, fungi and plant-derived products also tend to produce foodborne carcinogens. Dietary carcinogens produced by chemical and physical food processing are N-nitroso compounds, heterocyclic aromatic amines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and acrylamide. However, infected grains and peanuts have been reported to contain mold
Vitamins can be defined as biologically active organic compounds that have a relatively low molecular weight. Vitamins are present in minute quantity; however it is very important for human health and overall growth. Vitamin can be fulfilled only from regular diet or nutrition supplement, because these nutrients help in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fat, and proteins. In addition to that, it is also reported that, it reduces damage from free radicals. On the other hand deficiency in vitamin may lead to various diseases. UPLC-MS is very well known for the analysis of vitamins. Several UPLC-MS methods have been reported for the analysis of vitamin B complex (thiamin, riboflavin, biotin, nicotinic acid, pyridoxine, pyridoxamine, pyridoxal, pantothenic acid, FAD, and nicotinamide) analysis in human milk. UPLC-MS coupled with ESI techniques is used to analyze vitamin B from milk sample [49].
Ortega et al. [50] reported identification and quantification of alkaloids, theobromine, and caffeine in cocoa sample using UPLC-MS/MS. UPLC instrumentations are the most common techniques for routine analysis of such components in field of trace analysis. On the other hand, UPLC-MS has also been reported for alkaloid profiling of medicinal plants having cytotoxic properties. It is used for analysis of various alkaloids such as sanguinarine, berberine, protopine, and chelidonine [50].
Sugars are found in a variety of food matrices as either naturally or artificially added. Fructose, glucose, and sucrose are important constituents of various fruit juices. Maltose is found in products derived from corn and grain products. Lactose, also known as milk sugar, exists in dairy products. This set of sugars is known as the five food sugars. Analysis of these sugars is important for quality control purposes, or to determine authenticity or adulteration of food products (Figure 9). In addition to that, lactose is most important source of sugar for infant, kids as well as adult. UPLC-MS/MS can be easily used for determination of lactose in cow’s or human milk as well as other food products [51].
Chromatogram showing standard lactose (A) vs. milk sample (B).
Fruit and vegetables are important crops of horticulture, as they are an integral part of the human diet. Fruit and vegetables provide carbohydrate, protein, vitamins, minerals, fiber and help in the maintenance of a healthy life style. However, in current years demand of fruit and vegetables has increased tremendously, because of high consumption and population demand. Therefore to boost the production, farmers are using so many chemicals in terms insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, acaricides, and rodenticides for prophylactic use or in diseased condition. However, it has been reported that, these chemical has very harmful effect on human health [52]. Savini et al. [33] reported a quick and sensitive UPLC method coupled with Orbitrap for determining highly polar pesticides and contaminants in processed fruits and vegetables.
Synthetic oil-soluble mono-azo coloring agents such as Sudan dyes and Para Red are very common in food industries. Due to minimal expense and high intensity color it is very commonly used as food additives particularly in chili. However, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC 1975) categorized these dyes a potential cancer-causing agent. Moreover, illegal use of these dye such as Sudan Red 7B, Sudan I–IV and Para Red have been still found in food impacting consumer health. UPLC-MS has been reported as one of best choice of instrument analysis of such dyes due to their highest sensitivity.
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\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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