Abstract
Spinose ear tick, Otobius megnini, has a worldwide distribution causing otoacariasis or parasitic otitis in animals and humans. It mainly infests horses and cattle. It is a nidicolous, one-host soft tick spread from the New World to the Old World and is now distributed across all the continents. Only the larvae and nymphs are parasitic, feeding inside the ear canal of the host for a long period. Adult males and females are free-living and nonfeeding, and mating occurs off the host. Being inside the ear canal of the host allows the tick to be distributed over a vast geographic region through the distribution of the host animals. The presence of infectious agents Coxiella burnetii, the agent of Q fever, spotted fever rickettsia, Ehrlichia canis, Borrelia burgdorferi, and Babesia in O. megnini has been reported, but its role as a vector has not been confirmed. Human infestations are mostly associated with horse riding and farming through close contacts with companion animals. Control measures involve use of acaricides, repellants, and biological control methods. However, controlling the tick population and its spread is extremely difficult due to its life cycle pattern, seasonal dynamics, and resistance to certain acaricides.
Keywords
- Otobius megnini
- spinose ear tick
- horses
- otoacariasis
1. Introduction
The spinose ear tick,
The presence of
2. Horse otoacariasis
3. Life cycle
The life cycle pattern of soft ticks varies considerably among the populations of the same species as well as between species of the family
The larvae and nymphs feed for several days to months [6, 38, 41, 42]. Fully engorged nymphs detach after a long parasitic phase, drop off, and molt on the ground to nonfeeding adults [42].
Ticks developing in temperatures between 21 and 28°C typically have oviposition 6–12 days after dropping as nymphs from their hosts. The number of eggs, which are laid in the nesting grounds of potential hosts, can range from 398 to 1187 depending on the weight of the female [40]. Egg incubation ranges from 14 to 19 days in laboratory studies [50] and 18–23 days in field studies [26]. Once hatching occurs, larvae seek hosts for survival; unfed larvae have been found to survive in the laboratory up to 78 days [51]. Larvae feed on the host for 1–5 weeks and then molt into the nymph. The majority of nymphs feed between 2 and 4 months [50] but some up to 6 months [51].
A tropical population of
4. Seasonal dynamics
Studies conducted in Argentina [6, 58], South Africa [59, 60], and Texas, USA [61] have reported discordant results for seasonal activity for
5. Infectious agents
Since
One specimen of
A laboratory study carried out on
6. Human infestations
Presence of ticks in the human external auditory canal is a common parasitic otopathy reported in many parts of the world including South Africa [4, 74], Chile [3], the USA [75], Nepal [76], Malaysia [77], India [78], and Sri Lanka [79]. However, only few cases are presented with
Tick paralysis is the most widespread and dominant form of tick toxicosis. Usually, the intra-aural tick infestation results facial paralysis, edema [81], otitis externa, bleeding [82], and acute labyrinthitis [83]. Human ear infestations by
In addition to the ear, the
7. Control methods
Ticks can be controlled using acaricidal chemicals, natural repellants, and biological control agents. Application of synthetic acaricides: carbamate, organophosphate, synthetic pyrethroid, formamidine, macrocyclic lactone, and pyrazole have played pivotal role in controlling both soft and hard ticks in the world [86]. Combinations of hexachlorocyclohexane, xylol, and pine oil provide protection from
Use of alternative and more sustainable control measures as biological control and host immunization are therefore increasing rapidly [95], and the application of acaricide substitutes such as the extracts of plants like
In the biological control of ticks, Samish and Rehacek [55] have listed three types of potential natural enemies including pathogens like bacteria, fungi, and nematodes that infect ticks, predators like birds and ants, and parasitoid dipterans and hymenopterans that deposit eggs on ticks. Later, Samish et al. [95] have shown that these natural enemies can be used as potential candidates in controlling some hard and soft tick species under field and laboratory conditions. Bacterial species such as
The role of predators in controlling ticks has been well documented. So far, predator-tick relationship of 28 arthropod families has been recognized of which many are ants (
Among the opportunistic parasitoid dipterans,
8. Conclusions
Infestation of
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