Technical specifications of the Arduino Uno.
\r\n\tThe present book intends to provide to the reader a comprehensive overview of the state of art in empathy studies, embracing the different theoretical points of view and illustrating the advanced research such as the application of new technologies to promote perspective-taking. The critical aspects and the future directions of the study on empathy will also be presented.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-612-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-611-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-613-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4c1042dfe15aa9cea6019524c4cbff38",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Sara Ventura",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11443.jpg",keywords:"Theoretical Model, Skill, Perspective Taking, Training Programs, Practical Implications, Advanced Research, Future Directions, Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality, New Trends, Assistive Technology",numberOfDownloads:19,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 1st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 8th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 7th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 26th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 25th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Passionate researcher in the application of new technologies to psychological treatments, neuro-rehabilitation, human behavior, and the evolution of the human-computer interaction. In 2017 Dr. Ventura won a competitive grant (Santiago Grisolia) at the University of Valencia at LABPSITEC group, where she was awarded her Ph.D. degree, supervised by Prof. Rosa Baños at the University of Valencia, and co-directed by Prof. Giuseppe Riva of the Catholic University of Milan.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"227763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura",slug:"sara-ventura",fullName:"Sara Ventura",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/227763/images/system/227763.jpg",biography:"Sara Ventura gained a B.Sc in Psychology at the University of Padua (Italy) in 2013 and an M.Sc. in Ergonomic Psychology at the Catholic University of Milan (Italy) in 2015. In 2016, she carried out a postgraduate training at Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico (Mexico) at the Ciberpsychology lab, working on a rehabilitation protocol for people with acquired brain injury through Virtual Reality. In 2020, Sara gained the Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology at University of Valencia (Spain) working with the LabPsitec group and focusing her research on the study of embodiment and empathy with the support of Virtual Reality. Actually, she is working both with Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna (Italy), and the University of Valencia (Spain) on the fields of embodiment, stroke rehabilitation, empathy and patient care. Her research interests mainly focus on the adoption of new technologies, particularly Virtual/Augmented Reality and Artificial Intelligence for the psycho-social wellbeing with clinical and non-clinical populations, the study of human-computer interaction, and the user experience. She is the author of several scientific papers and various presentations at national and international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Valencia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Valencia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:[{id:"82719",title:"Empathy as a High-Performance Competency",slug:"empathy-as-a-high-performance-competency",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"82888",title:"From Empathy to the Aggression–Compassion Continuum",slug:"from-empathy-to-the-aggression-compassion-continuum",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"191531",title:"Dr.",name:"Neil E.",surname:"Grunberg",slug:"neil-e.-grunberg",fullName:"Neil E. 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It is a two part analysis of product development namely; design for assembly (DFA) and design for manufacturing (DFM), with the aim to increase flexibility and profitability [1, 2], reduce overall cost in terms of material, production, labor and overhead [3, 4], as well as to reduce the complexity of manufacturing process [5]. A complex process increases manufacturing time, cost and rigidity. Design for assembly (DFA) is the method of product design for ease of part assembly which involves optimization of part or subsystem. According to Strienstra [6], DFA is a tool used in the design of product parts or subsystems that will transit into production at an effective cost, focusing on the number of parts, handling and ease of assembly. The aim is to minimize part lists without sacrificing quality, reduce assembly cost and to select the optimum cost of material that will be employed in manufacturing. On the other hand, design for manufacturing (DFM) is a method of design for ease of manufacturing via optimization of the process of product integration into the final product [7]. The process of optimization presents several optimum solutions for the manufacturing process hence DFM select the best solution out of the possible solutions. This reduces overall production cost as well as the complexity of the process of product development without compromising the standard. The process of product development starts with the conceptual design stage to design for assembly from where it transits to design for manufacturing and detailed design of the product. Depending on the orientation and geometry of different component parts, manufacturing processes are utilized as a single approach or in combination. This may include forming or machining processes, etc. Besides designing a component to function and fit for the intended application, it is important to put manufacturing processes into consideration. This proactive step is known as Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DFMA). It reduces the product development cycle while helping in ensuring that rework and time wasting activities are eliminated as parts are produced in the most judicious and economic way. According to [2, 8] other advantages of DFMA includes; correct interpretation of design information, optimization of design and manufacturing methods into one single step, increase in productivity with attendant decrease in production cost as well as high degree of precision in design and manufacturing. The basic principle for DFA involves the minimization of part list via the design for parts with self-locating and fastening ability. This makes the design simple as the use of locators and fasteners are reduced. In addition, parts are designed for ease of handling, insertion and retrieval. This increases design flexibility and minimizes the re-orientation of parts during assembly. Modular design of parts and part assembly from top to bottom is an effective DFA concept that can be employed to optimize the design phase. According to Whitney [9], product assembly can be done via manual, fully automated or semi-automated means. While manual assembly relies on human effort for assembly operations, automatic assembly uses robotic technology and computer controlled systems [3]. Semi-automatic relies partly on both human effort and intelligent systems for assembly operations. The method of assembly however depends on the nature of product, product complexity, environment, manufacturing structure, the efficiency required amongst other factors. Manual method of assembly has the merit of flexibility, cost effectiveness and mostly suitable for simple products with short assembly cycle. The demerits however lies in the low speed of assembly which increases assembly time, poor handling, and lower efficiency due to stress and fatigue on the part of personnel when compared to automatic means and most times not suitable for assembly of complex geometry.
\nRobots are programmable machines which receives signals from the system and environment to carry out programmed activities autonomously or semi autonomously [10]. They take decisions and interact with other interface as well as the central control system via the sensors and actuators. Robots combine the techniques of numerical control and remote control to replace human personnel with numerically controlled mechanical actuators. Robots are classified into two categories; artificially intelligent robots and non-artificially intelligent robots. Artificially intelligent robots are robots which are controlled by artificial intelligent programs involving learning, perception, problem-solving, language-understanding and logical reasoning to perform complex tasks while non-artificially intelligent robots simply carry out a defined sequence of instructions without the use of artificial intelligent programs. Robots possesses good material handling ability and suitable for assembly of complex products at higher efficiency and reduced assembly time. The use of robots for assembly is costly and some robots are not flexible enough when compared to manual method.
\nThe emerging technology in product assembly involves the use of machines operated and controlled by computer programs. There are limitations in the rate of production using manual or robotic means because time is wasted during assembly. The computer controlled system uses some codes of instruction consisting of numbers, letters of the alphabets and symbols. These instructions are converted into electrical pulses which the machine’s controls follow to carry out the assembly operations and the process is automated with the help of micro-controllers. They are costly, but highly efficient and can carry out any type of assembly operation with high degree of precision and accuracy within a short time. The pace of assembly delivery with high precision will offset the high initial cost. This work applies the design principles for design for manufacturing and assembly in the development of a multi-feedstock biodiesel processor limited to the production of 50 L of biodiesel per day. Several researchers have worked on the development of a biodiesel processor. For instance, Leevijit et al. [11] developed a continuous stirred tank reactor for the transesterification of palm oil to biodiesel. Process simulation was performed to optimize the mixing performance of the continuous reactor and the required time for the transesterification of palm oil in the optimized reactor was predicted as 5 h. However, the analysis of plant design was not sufficiently highlighted. Marjanovic et al. [12] also developed a batch reactor for the production of biodiesel from divers’ feedstock but the analysis of integration of plant components was a missing link. Bello et al. [13] developed a batch biodiesel processor that can transesterify used and unused oil to biodiesel but there are some redundant complex geometries which increases manufacturing time, cost and rigidity. Musa [14] designed and constructed a pilot plant for the production of biodiesel from cottonseed. The capacity of the plant is limited to 20 L of biodiesel per day. The biodiesel pilot plant consists of a transesterification reactor with heater, a stirrer, chemical mixing tank, three glycerol settling tanks, and washing tank. However, the analysis of control circuitry and effect of process parameters were not studied. Bhachu et al. [15] designed a mobile biodiesel production plant, which is capable of producing 3000 L of biodiesel per week. The limitation lies in the fact that there are many redundant parts that increased the overall cost of manufacturing. Also, Highina et al. [16] reported on biodiesel production using
The objectives of the work are to:
design a smart multi-feedstock biodiesel processor with a capacity of 50 L per day with reduction in the part list;
consider existing processors and reduce the overall manufacturing cost via redesign and elimination of redundant parts;
increase the versatility and flexibility of the processor.
This work uses the principles of design for manufacturing and assembly for development of a smart biodiesel processor. The design considerations are as follow;
The number of parts and number of interfaces which determines the simplicity or complexity of the overall assembly. The parts are listed in order of assembly and are assigned numbers to identify the parts. The complexity factor is expressed as Eq. (1).
where \n
The practical and theoretical minimum parts as well standard parts with their cost. Parts of different materials are identified and functional analysis is carried out with respect to existing design and possibility of redesign. This is a crucial consideration because the aim of product development is for profitability and to come up with reliable products that will meet customers’ requirement by performing satisfactorily in service. Hence, the right balance must be struck between cost and component parts without sacrificing quality.
The theoretical part list efficiency is expressed by Eq. (2).
where \n
Nature of the parts to be assembled. This determines the method of handling, insertion an alignment.
The method of joining the different parts together. This is followed by evaluation of the assembly and readjustment.
The determination of the right drafting and modeling tools in transforming conceptualized design into reality with parts specifications.
The design novelties of the developed processor are as follow:
Significant reduction in part list and short assembly cycle with parts designed for ease of handling, insertion and retrieval.
Provision of a smart processor that is flexible and versatile enough to process biodiesel from different feedstock via incorporation of all feedstock requirements for the production of biodiesel.
Provision of suitable template for scaling its development; and
Incorporation of intelligent systems for control and monitoring.
The intelligent systems for control and monitoring comprises of the following;
\nThe Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board that provides a simple and modular way of interfacing the real world with the computer to handle basic processing tasks on a chip while working with hardware sensors (Figure 1). The Arduino Uno uses the ATmega328 chip that supports 14 digital pins that can be configured as either input or output and 6 analog inputs [22].
\nThe monitoring system circuit with Arduino Uno microcontroller.
The technical specification of the Arduino Uno is presented in Table 1.
\nS/N | \nItem | \nValue | \nRemarks | \n
---|---|---|---|
1 | \nMicro-controller | \n8-bit Atmel ATmega328p | \n1 mm sheet metal | \n
2 | \nOperational voltage | \n5 V | \nInput range: 7–12 V | \n
3 | \nDigital GPIO | \n14 | \n6 capable of PWM | \n
4 | \nAnalog IO | \n6 | \n10-bit | \n
5 | \nProgram memory | \nFlash 32 kb, EEPROM 1 kb | \nSRAM 2 kb | \n
6 | \nClock speed | \n16 MHz | \n\n |
7 | \nUSB | \nType B socket | \n\n |
8 | \nProgrammer | \nIn-system firmware | \nUSB-based | \n
9 | \nSerial communications | \nSPI, I2C | \nSoftware UART | \n
10 | \nOther | \nRTC, watchdog, interrupts | \n\n |
Technical specifications of the Arduino Uno.
The Arduino is programmed using the Arduino IDE with source code will be written in C.
\nThis measures the pressure of gas with a carbon steel alloy sensor material (Figure 2). It has a working pressure range of 0–1.2 MPa. The normal working temperature range is 0–85°C and the response time is approximately 2 ms.
\nPressure transducer sensor.
It consists of an elastic material that deforms under the application of pressure and an electrical element which detects the deformation and transmits it as changes in voltage.
\nThis is a kit that measures pH of a substance. It is specially designed for the Arduino and has an accuracy of \n
pH meter kit.
This takes temperature readings for the plant to aid process insights. It has a temperature range of 0–400°C.
\nThe processor design involves the determination of a detailed, industrial-scale engineering model for a biodiesel processor and the associated parametric specification. The components parts are linked up with the aim of integrating and optimizing the entire process in the conversion of oil to biodiesel. The design involves the determination of the reactor geometry and capacity as well as the choice of construction material. The first design consideration is the reactor capacity which is determined by the mass balance of input and output streams. The sum of the volume of all streams entering the reactor gives the total liquid volume of the reactor for one batch. In order to meet an annual production of 18,000 L, daily production is calculated as 50 L per day.
\nThe processor part list as well as the materials employed in the construction of a biodiesel processor is presented in Table 2.
\nS/N | \nDescription | \nQuantity | \nRemarks | \n
---|---|---|---|
1 | \nSparkless electric motor (E2A), 3000 Hz, max 700 NCm | \n1 | \n2 kW capacity | \n
2 | \nReactor | \n1 | \n2 mm thick galvanized sheet metal | \n
3 | \nHeater | \n1 | \n3 kW of heat capacity of 0.44 kJ/kgK | \n
4 | \nValve | \n1 | \nregulatory valve | \n
5 | \nInsulator | \n\n | Saw dust | \n
6 | \nThermostat | \n1 | \nTED-2001 (0–400°C) | \n
7 | \nStirrer | \n1 | \nStainless steel | \n
8 | \nFunnel | \n1 | \nGlass | \n
9 | \nArduino Uno | \n1 | \nMicrocontroller | \n
10 | \npH meter kit | \n1 | \n43 × 32 mm | \n
11 | \nPressure transducer sensor | \n1 | \n¼″ 1.2 MPa | \n
12 | \nTemperature sensor | \n1 | \n\n |
13 | \nValves and fitting | \n2 | \n½″ ball valve ½″ adapter ¾″ socket ¾″ × ½″ bushing ¼″ gas outlet valve ½″ T-fitting ½″ PVC pipe | \n
Processor parts list and materials employed.
This is a device powered by electric current to produce continuous motion. It rotates at a maximum speed of 300 rpm and attached to it, is the shaft. The power of the electric motor is rated as 2 kW and it is such that it is a variable speed electric motor from which different stir speed can be selected. It has a maximum frequency of 3000 Hz. The electric motor drives the stirrer which in turn stirred the raw materials inside the reaction chamber tank.
\nAccording to [23] a 2 kW electric motor is adequate to stir fluid of density 800–900 kg/m3 at a speed of 300 rpm. This informs the choice of this type of electric motor.
\nThis is the main chamber where transesterification takes place. The reactor is pressurized and its chamber is constructed into cylindrical shape with galvanized steel. The reaction tank has a galvanized steel lid welded on. The lid for the tank is important in order to prevent escape of methoxide fumes during the process and also allows for distilling out the methanol after each batch. The lid also helps to prevent exposure to poisonous fumes, dangerous chemicals and fire. The capacity of the reaction tank is limited to 25 L per batch of vegetable oil.
\nThe bottom of the cylindrical reaction chamber is fitted with an internal heating element. The heater is a 3 kW, 120 V a/c stainless steel heating element. It is used to raise the temperature of the reaction chamber and its content between 0 and 400°C. The processor chamber is heated by this thermostatically controlled electric heater and the temperature of the content is measured and regulated by means of a thermostat.
\nThe fluid density is expressed as Eq. (3).
\nwhere
The weight of the fluid is expressed as Eq. (4).
\nwhere
Therefore, the weight of the fluid is calculated as 219.84 N.
\nThe specific heat capacity of vegetable oil is 2340 J/kg K, weight (W) of 25 L of vegetable oil is 219.84 N, the heater has a power rating of 3 kW, assuming the ambient temperature of 30°C, and the mixture is heated to a temperature of 60°C, therefore, the heat transferred to the fluid (workdone by the heater) is given as Eq. (5).
\nwhere
Hence, 1573 kJ is the quantity of heat transferred to 25 L of vegetable oil per batch. The assumed electrical to heat conversion efficiency (ηe) is 80%. The heat loss coefficient for the reaction tank is 1.0 J/S-m2-°C and the surface are of the reactor is 0.5430 m3.
\nThe power rating of the heater is expressed as Eq. (6).
\nwhere
Therefore, the estimated heating time for the used vegetable oil is 530 s.
\nThe rate of heat loss is expressed as Eq. (7).
\nwhere
Therefore the rate of heat loss \n
The ball valve is fitted to the bottom of reaction tank in order to control the rate of discharge of reaction products from the reaction chamber.
\nThe reaction tank is well lagged all through to keep the temperature of the reaction tank and its content constant by preventing heat loss. The insulating material employed is saw dust and has a thermal resistivity of 33.3 mK/W. Insulated tanks maintain heat better than un-insulated ones due to continuous escape of heat from the tank.
\nThis is essential for temperature regulation or control. It is a safety device capable of gauging temperature and helps in accurate temperature control as well as prevention of pressure build up within the reaction tank. The temperature range of the temperature regulator is between 0 and 400°C. This allows transesterification reaction to take place at selected temperatures. A temperature probe was attached to sense the temperature inside the reaction tank for two reasons; to indicate that the oil has been pre-heated so that methanol/catalyst can be loaded into the reaction tank and to keep the temperature of the solution between a given temperature range during the reaction loop. The outside temperature probe is to indicate when the inline heater should be engaged or disengaged.
\nA shaft of 20 mm diameter is used, which ensures satisfactory strength and rigidity when the shaft is transmitting power under different operating and loading conditions. It is fabricated from stainless steel because of its high resistance to corrosive effects of chemicals and catalysts, since the shaft often comes in contact with chemicals and catalyst during mixing process at high temperatures.
\nShaft design consists primarily of the determination of the correct shaft diameter to ensure satisfactory strength and rigidity when the shaft is transmitting power under various operating and loading conditions [24].
\nUsing the relationship given in Eq. (8).
\nwhere
From the relation in Eq. (9),
\nThe resisting torque is expressed as Eq. (10).
\nwhere
Hence, the total resisting torque is calculated as 0.80 N.
\nFurthermore, the polar moment of inertia is expressed as Eq. (11).
\nwhere
According to [25], using
Stainless steel was employed for the fabrication of the shaft and galvanized steel for the reaction tank in order to overcome the problem of corrosion.
\nFor a plate of length
where
The maximum bending moment also occur at the centre of the plate and are given by the relationships expressed by Eqs. (13) and (14).
\nThe factors
Furthermore, recall the weight of the fluid given byEq. (4).
\nThen the weight of the fluid is 219.84 N.
\nThe maximum deflection given by Eq. (12) is calculated where
Hence, maximum deflection ymax = 1.5 × 10−3 mm. This small value of the maximum deflection indicates that the processor has satisfactory strength to withstand the loading forces without significant distortion.
\nAfter completion of the reaction, the product is transferred into a separating funnel for a certain time interval (approximately 24 h) for phase separation. Since the solubility of methyl ester is low, the glycerine tends to collect at the bottom. With excess alcohol, the unconverted triglycerides should essentially be zero. However, some monoglyceride and diglycerides must be present [26]. Due to their polarity, partially reacted glycerides should be preferentially attracted to the glycerine phase and then removed when the phase is separated. The funnel is employed during separation of biodiesel from the glycerine. It is also used for separating washed methyl esters from impurities such as water, sodium hydroxide and glycerine.
\nA 2 mm thick galvanized steel was used in the fabrication of the reaction tank because of the following reasons:
It does not catalyze the oil unlike copper;
Its high resistance to pressure and temperature;
Its ability to withstand the actions of chemicals and catalyst without any sign of rust or corrosion.
The volume of the reaction tank (cylinder) is given by Eq. (15).
\nwhere \n
The capacity of the processor is limited to 25 L of vegetable oil per batch.
\nThe total surface area of the reactor is expressed by Eq. (16).
\nwhere \n
Then the total surface area of the tank is 0.5430 m3.
\nExisting biodiesel processor has a separate pre-treatment tank either as a stand-alone facility or in addition to the reactor which makes the overall assembly expensive and cumbersome. The application of the design for manufacturing and assembly (DFMA) in the development of the biodiesel processor eliminates the need of the pre-treatment tank while the reactor serves both functions. Depending on the nature of feedstock, the incorporation of intelligent systems for control and monitoring helps in determining the need for the pre-treatment process or otherwise. In addition existing biodiesel processor has a base which makes drainage of the product a challenge. The application of DFMA in the development of the biodiesel processor replaces the base with a conical base which makes drainage quite easy. Other significant improvements in the new design compared to the existing design via the application of the DFA are discussed in Section 2.9. Autodesk inventor was employed in the design and assembly drawing of the processor the developed processor.
\nFigures 4–9 show the various views of the assembly diagram of the existing processor while Figure 10 shows the new design for the biodiesel processor upon the application of design for manufacturing and assembly.
\nSectional view of the developed processor.
Sectional view (top) of the developed processor.
Right view of the developed processor.
Exploded view of the developed processor.
Isometric view of the developed processor.
The developed biodiesel processor.
The new design for the biodiesel processor.
The procedural steps for the assembly operation are as follow;
Rolling of the inner cylinder of diameter 240 mm and height and height 350 mm.
Rolling of the outer cylinder of diameter 360 mm and height 500 mm.
Lagging of the space in between the inner and outer cylinder followed by welding of the inner and outer diameter to give a single cylinder of diameter 360 mm with an overall height of 600 mm.
Welding of the stand of height 180 mm to the cylinder.
Welding of five blades to the shaft of diameter 20 mm and length 400 mm to form the stirrer assembly.
Welding of the flat cover to the tank and use of hinges to create a top opening for maintenance purposes.
Attachment of the electric motor to the stirrer assembly using bolt and nuts.
Finishing operations: deburring and painting.
Following the application of the design for manufacturing and assembly (DFA) in the development of the biodiesel processor, the following are the differences between the existing and new design;
Existing design involves rolling of the cylinder cover whose inner diameter is 240 mm and outer diameter 360 mm. The space in between the inner and outer cylindrical cover was also lagged after which the two are brought together by welding. In the new design, the cylindrical cover replaced with a flat cover welded to the tank with an opening at the top for maintenance purposes.
Existing design has seven blades welded to the shaft to form the stirrer assembly with four baffles to prevent splashing. In the new design fives blades ensures homogeneity of the mixture with two baffles to prevent splashing of the mixture.
In the existing design, the shaft was joined to the cylindrical cover using bearing, bolt and nuts while this was simplified in the new design with the replacement of the cylindrical cover with a flat cover. There was no joining of the shaft to the cover. This makes disassembly quite easy for maintenance purposes. The shaft was passed through the flat cover with the electric motor attached to the top of the shaft using bearing, bolts and nuts.
Welding of the rectangular control panel whose length is 300 mm and breadth 200 mm, as well as welding of the stand of height 550 mm to the control panel was done in the existing design. In the new design, the fabrication of the control panel was replaced with a smart control panel bought out at price lesser than the cost of fabrication in the existing design.
Smart and intelligent systems were incorporated into the new design for process monitoring and control which was lacking in existing design.
The application of the design for manufacturing and assembly (DFA) in the development of the biodiesel processor replaces the base with a conical base which makes drainage quite easy.
The new design is smart, robust and more efficient than the existing design. The cost comparison of the new and existing design is shown in Tables 3 and 4, respectively
S/N | \nParts | \nProcess | \nMaterials | \nCost (USD) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
1. | \n7 support legs | \nCutting/welding | \nMild steel | \n77 | \n
2. | \nCylindrical body | \nCutting/rolling | \nGalvanized steel | \n30 | \n
3. | \nCylindrical cover | \nCutting/rolling | \nGalvanized steel | \n60 | \n
4. | \nControl panel | \nCutting/welding | \nGalvanized steel | \n60 | \n
5. | \nStirrer assembly | \nCutting/ welding | \nStainless steel | \n75 | \n
\n | \n | \n | Total | \n337 | \n
Cost analysis of the existing design.
S/N | \nParts | \nProcess | \nMaterials | \nCost (USD) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
1. | \n3 support legs | \nCutting/welding | \nMild steel | \n33 | \n
2. | \nCylindrical body | \nCutting/rolling | \nGalvanized steel | \n70 | \n
3. | \nFlat cover | \nCutting/welding | \nGalvanized steel | \n12 | \n
4. | \nControl panel | \nBought out | \nGalvanized steel | \n30 | \n
5. | \nStirrer assembly | \nCutting/welding | \nStainless steel | \n65 | \n
\n | \n | \n | Total | \n210 | \n
Cost analysis of the new design.
The bill of engineering measurements (development and evaluation) is presented in Table 5.
\nItem # | \nName | \nQuantity | \nDescription | \nUnit price (USD) | \nTotal price (USD) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nStainless steel rod | \n1 | \n0.60 m length | \n60 | \n60 | \n
2 | \nMild steel | \n1 | \n2 m length | \n45 | \n45 | \n
3 | \n2 kW electric motor | \n1 | \nAC motor with speed control | \n70 | \n70 | \n
4 | \nBall valve | \n3 | \nOutlet and inlet valves | \n0.55 | \n1.64 | \n
5 | \nGalvanized sheet metal | \n3 rolls | \nSquare cross section | \n41 | \n123 | \n
6 | \nWelding electrodes | \n1 packet | \nE020, E6023 | \n2.73 | \n2.73 | \n
7 | \nHeater | \n1 | \n\n | 8.22 | \n8.22 | \n
8 | \nTemperature probe | \n1 | \n\n | 8.22 | \n8.22 | \n
9 | \nContactor | \n1 | \n\n | 10.95 | \n10.95 | \n
10 | \nFunnel | \n1 | \n\n | 8.22 | \n8.22 | \n
11 | \nNeon and switch light | \n2 | \n\n | 2.73 | \n2.73 | \n
12 | \nArduino Uno | \n1 | \nMicrocontroller | \n17.8 | \n17.8 | \n
13 | \nPressure transducer sensor | \n1 | \n¼″ 1.2 MPa | \n14.79 | \n14.79 | \n
14 | \nAnalog pH meter | \n1 | \n43 × 32 mm | \n34.2 | \n34.2 | \n
15 | \nLCD | \n1 | \n\n | 3.28 | \n3.28 | \n
16 | \nElectric cables | \n5 yards | \n\n | 1.40 | \n6.84 | \n
17 | \nAngle iron | \n\n | 1 | \n20 | \n20 | \n
\n | Control panel | \n\n | 1 | \n30 | \n30 | \n
18 | \nResistors and capacitors | \n\n | \n | 2.75 | \n2.75 | \n
19 | \nTransport | \n\n | \n | 40 | \n40 | \n
20 | \nLabor | \n\n | \n | 12.3 | \n12.3 | \n
21 | \nPerformance evaluation | \n\n | \n | 275 | \n275 | \n
\n | \n | \n | \n | Subtotal | \n752.67 | \n
22 | \nMiscellaneous | \n\n | 10% of total costs | \n\n | 75.267 | \n
\n | \n | \n | \n |
Bill of engineering measurement.
From Tables 4 and 5, the development of the biodiesel processor was cost effective with the elimination of pre-treatment and use of simple manufacturing processes.
\nThe specifications in accordance with design is as follow:
\ni. Size | \nFits in a 1.524 m × 0.609 m space | \n
ii. Operating temperature | \n20–90°C | \n
iii. Stir speed | \n50–600 rev/min | \n
iv. Production amount | \n25 L per batch | \n
v. Production time | \n3 h per batch | \n
vi. Methanol consumption for unused oil | \n200 mL per 33 mL of oil olein vegetable oil | \n
vii. Methanol consumption for used oil | \n200 mL per 25 mL of oil frying oil | \n
viii. Catalyst consumption | \n4.5 g per 200 mL methanol | \n
The work will contribute to knowledge as follows:
Application of the principles of design for manufacture and assembly in the development of a smart biodiesel processor.
Improvement in process control and monitoring via the use of sensors and a micro-controller.
Incorporation of low-cost monitoring system in the biodiesel processor.
Provision of design framework for both small and large scale biodiesel processor for industrial, laboratory and experimental purposes.
Development of a processor for processing biodiesel from different feedstock which could serve as a template for scaling its development.
This work brings about the development of a smart small scale biodiesel processor with a capacity of 50 L per day. The processor incorporate all feedstock requirements for the production of biodiesel hence, both alkali-catalyzed and acid-catalyzed transesterification can be undertaken with the processor. In addition, the assembly operations of the processor was simplified to reduce ambiguity and redundancy. This saves a total cost of 127 USD with increased efficiency and robustness. Hence, the overall processor is cost effective in terms of material requirements, parts production, labor and overhead. The principles of DFMA also minimizes part requirements without sacrificing quality. This reduces the overall assembly and manufacturing cost. The development and performance evaluation of the processor cost a total sum of 827.937 USD. This is relatively cost effective considering the price of ready-made biodiesel processors in the market. Using the principles of DFMA, This work provides a design framework for both small and large scale biodiesel plant for industrial, laboratory and experimental purposes.
\nIt has long been known that the pathophysiology of depression is associated with a reduction in the concentration of monoamines, that is, serotonin (5-HT), noradrenaline (NA), and dopamine (DA), in the brain [1, 2]. Conventional antidepressant drugs for clinical use increase monoamine contents immediately after their administration, whereas it takes several weeks or more before their clinical efficacy becomes evident. The delayed onset of action of antidepressants suggests that antidepressants exert their effects by inducing slowly occurring changes in the brain. Furthermore, over 30–50% of patients with depression show resistance to antidepressant drug treatment [3, 4, 5]. Thus, two major questions remain to be resolved—(1) How do the delayed clinical effects of antidepressant drugs occur, and (2) why does a large percentage of patients with depression show resistance to antidepressant treatment. This review article focuses on addressing these questions based on the evidence that depression is not a disease caused simply by the deficiency of neurotransmitters, but a neurodegenerative disease characterized by axonal degeneration of monoamine neurons without cell death [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11].
Recent animal and human studies have demonstrated that depression is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by the degeneration of monoamine axons without cell death, and the delayed clinical efficacy of antidepressants is due to their regenerative action on damaged monoamine axons. In 1990, it was reported for the first time that antidepressants that increase the extracellular concentration of NA, such as desipramine, maprotiline, and mianserin, have the ability to induce regeneration of NA axons, but fluoxetine, a potent selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), does not [6, 7]. The regenerative effects of antidepressants on NA axons lesioned by 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) could be induced by antidepressant infusions in the rat cerebral cortex for more than 2 weeks but not for less than 1 week. Furthermore, the ability of antidepressants to induce axonal sprouting of 5-HT neurons has been demonstrated by systemic injections of antidepressants for 4 weeks daily in rats without damaging 5-HT axons [9]. In this study, fluoxetine and the 5-HT reuptake enhancer tianeptine, but not the NA reuptake inhibitor desipramine, increased the density of 5-HT axons in the cerebral cortex and some limbic forebrain areas. These findings indicate that antidepressants associated with 5-HT reuptake, but not NA reuptake, induce axonal sprouting of 5-HT neurons. Based on the sprouting or regenerative effects of antidepressants on NA and 5-HT axons, the axonal degeneration of monoamine neurons has been suggested to be involved in the pathophysiology of depression and antidepressants exert their action by inducing the regeneration of monoamine axons. In addition, it is suggested that the pathophysiology of depression includes NA-axon and/or 5-HT-axon degeneration, and NA- and 5-HT-specific antidepressants are effective in inducing NA and 5-HT axon regeneration, respectively.
Further evidence has been provided using animal models of depression to show that axonal degeneration of monoamine neurons is involved in the pathophysiology of depression. The rat model of depression, which was developed by repeated exposure to forced walking stress for 2 weeks, showed depressive behaviors including prolonged inactivity, seclusion, aggression, motor retardation, lack of coupling behavior, fitful sleep, weight loss, and hypersensitivity to light and sound [12]. Subsequent studies have demonstrated that this stress-induced depression model reveals the degeneration of NA axons in the cerebral cortex [8]. In this depression model with NA axon degeneration, imipramine (intraperitoneal injections for 20 days) could induce regeneration of cortical NA axons and ameliorate the depression-like behaviors [8]. A most recent study showed that in a mouse model of poststroke depression with degeneration of NA- and 5-HT axons, chronic treatment with fluoxetine reversed depression-like behaviors and a loss of 5-HT axons, but not NA axons [11]. Furthermore, light deprivation was found to induce a loss of NA axons, but not 5-HT axons, in the frontal cortex and depression-like behaviors in rats, while desipramine improved the NA axon loss and depressive behaviors [10]. Postnatal isolation rearing, which induced depressive behavior in adolescent/young adult rats, reduced the density of 5-HT axons, but not NA axons, in the hippocampus and amygdala [13]. A recent study has shown that exposure to 1-bromopropane, an alternative to ozone-depleting solvents, which is known to induce depressive symptoms in a subset of people exposed to this chemical, induced the degeneration of NA axons, but not 5-HT axons, in the adult rat [14]. It has also been presented that repeated electroconvulsive shock that is most effective in the treatment of clinical depression promotes the regeneration of 5-HT axons of the rat hippocampus damaged by the 5-HT specific neurotoxin [15]. In the chronic social defeat stress model of depression with reduced 5-HT innervation in the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) of mice, chronic deep brain stimulation of vmPFC reversed depression-like behavior and restored 5-HT innervation in the DG and vmPFC [16]. Further evidence for the involvement of the degeneration of monoamine axons in the pathophysiology of depression has been reported: Interferon-α, which is widely used for the treatment of cancers and viral illnesses, is known to frequently induce depressive symptoms [17], reduces the density of NA and 5-HT axons in the frontal cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala of rats [18]. Finally, human brain imaging studies have shown evidence that the degeneration of monoamine axons is associated with depressive symptoms [19, 20, 21]. In these studies, the density of axon terminals of monoamine neurons was measured by positron emission tomography using radiotracers of presynaptic monoamine transporters. Although scant in number and limited to Parkinson’s diseases with depressive symptoms, the imaging studies have provided evidence to support the involvement of loss of monoamine axons in the occurrence of depressive symptoms. Importantly, a recent imaging study reported that depressed patients showing the improvement of depressive symptoms after cognitive behavioral therapy revealed an overall increase in cerebral 5-HT transporter availability, suggesting the occurrence of 5-HT axon regeneration/sprouting after depression treatment [22]. Furthermore, in depressed suicide victims, immunohistochemistry using an antibody to serotonin transporters showed a localized decrease in the density of 5-HT axons in the PFC [23].
All these studies support the view that depressive symptoms are caused by the loss of monoamine axons and antidepressants exert their effects by inducing the regeneration of monoamine axons. Thus, the delayed onset of antidepressant efficacy can be explained by the time required for the regeneration of monoamine axons.
Based on the view that depression is a neurodegenerative disease, the possible causes of treatment-resistant depression are considered due to (1) mismatch of impaired monoamines and prescribed antidepressant drugs, (2) severe degeneration or cell death, (3) persistent inflammation, and (4) omega-3 fatty acid deficiency. Obviously, we cannot exclude other causes of treatment-resistant depression (Figure 1).
Plausible causes of treatment-resistant depression. The causes of resistance to antidepressant drugs may be due to (1) mismatch of impaired monoamines and prescribed antidepressant drugs, (2) severe degeneration or cell death, (3) persistent inflammation, and (4) omega-3 fatty acid deficiency. Others may include deficiency of signaling pathways or molecules related to regeneration of monoamine axons.
One of the causes of treatment-resistant depression could be explained by the possibility that there are different types of depression whose pathophysiology differs in which monoamine is involved (5-HT, NA, DA, or two or more monoamines). The problem is that there are no objective diagnostic tools to differentiate which monoamine is involved in the pathophysiology of depressive symptoms of individual patients. In fact, as mentioned before, animal studies have suggested that there are various types of depression that differ in the monoamine(s) involved [10, 11, 13, 14, 18]. In clinical practice, SSRIs are most commonly prescribed as first-line antidepressant drugs without any distinct evidence that the depressive symptoms of patients are due to 5-HT deficiency. At present, it is difficult for clinicians to correctly administer antidepressant drugs to individual patients with depression. If patients with depression are not administered antidepressant drugs that are able to regenerate the particular monoamine axons that are damaged in their case, they may suffer from treatment-resistant depression.
Another likely cause of treatment-resistant depression may be attributable to the possibility that the degeneration of monoamine axons is not localized at axon terminals, but extends further from the terminals. In the most severe case, retrograde axonal degeneration may result in the degeneration of the neuron soma (cell death). In fact, a great loss of NA neurons in the locus coeruleus has been reported to be associated with depressive symptoms in patients without dementia as well as those with Alzheimer’s disease or Parkinson’s disease [24, 25]. A loss of 5-HT neurons in the raphe nucleus is also reported to be associated with depressive symptoms of patients with Parkinson’s disease [26]. Depressive symptoms due to the loss of monoamine neurons can hardly be treated with the administration of conventional antidepressant drugs as well as electroconvulsive shock therapy. It is noted that at the early stages of Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease the degeneration of the distal axons occurs first, and in the late stages, persistent axonal degeneration finally results in the degeneration of the neuron soma [27, 28, 29]. This implies that in neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease, possibly including depression, the degeneration of the distal axons precedes the loss of the neuron soma. Postmortem and imaging studies have shown that in Parkinson’s disease about 30% of DA neurons of the substantia nigra compacta (SNc) and about 50–70% of striatal DA axon terminals are lost by the time of motor symptom onset [30, 31]. The reason for making the distal axons more vulnerable to insults than the neuron soma can be explained by the fact that the distal portions of axons are most remote from the cell body that supplies proteins and chemicals required for the survival and growth of axons.
Whether distal axon degeneration is prone to cell death or not could be dependent on the length of axons from the neuron soma to the distal axon terminal and the morphological features of axon terminals (Figure 2). In Parkinson’s disease, motor symptoms occur due to the degeneration of SNc DA neurons projecting to the dorsal striatum. Since the distance between the two brain regions is relatively short, retrograde axon degeneration of SNc DA neurons is considered to result in cell death more easily. In contrast, NA neurons of the locus coeruleus and 5-HT neurons of the raphe nucleus send their axons to long distances from the brainstem to the cerebral cortex [32], thus taking a long time to cause soma degeneration. On the other hand, it has been reported that DA neurons of the ventral tegmental area (VTA), which project their axons to the ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens) and are responsible for reward-related behavior, are involved in the pathophysiology of depression [33, 34]. Similar to SNc DA neurons, VTA DA neurons project relatively short axons to the nucleus accumbens. Although the axon length of both DA neurons is almost the same, however, DA neurons of the SNc are more prone to cell death in Parkinson’s disease, compared to DA neurons of the VTA [35, 36]. A single-neuron tracing study demonstrated that a single DA neuron of the SNc forms highly overlapping innervation with extremely dense axonal arborizations in the dorsal striatum [37], while that of the VTA has much smaller axonal arbors in the ventral striatum (Figure 2) [27, 36]. A large and dense axonal arborization in the terminal field is considered to contribute to cell death of DA neurons of the SNc in Parkinson’s disease [36]. Thus, in addition to axonal length, the spread and size of terminal axon arbors may play a pivotal role in vulnerability to neuronal cell death. It is also noted that because 5-HT, NA, and DA axons all have a great capacity to spontaneously regenerate or sprout in response to damage in the adult brain [38, 39, 40, 41], the competition between degenerative and regenerative mechanisms may occur after axonal damage, finally resulting in either axonal regeneration or cell death.
Retrograde axonal degeneration and cell death of monoamine neurons depend on axonal length and morphological features of axon terminals. NA neurons of the locus coeruleus and 5-HT neurons of the raphe nucleus have long axons, rarely causing cell death, and depressive symptoms can occur predominantly due to axonal degeneration without cell death. In contrast, DA neurons of the VTA and SNc have relatively short axons. Although the axon length of both DA neurons is almost the same, DA neurons of the SNc are more prone to cell death in Parkinson’s disease, compared to DA neurons of the VTA. A single DA neuron of the SNc forms highly overlapping innervation with extremely dense axonal arborizations, while that of the VTA has much smaller axonal arbors. A large and dense axonal arborization in the terminal field is considered to contribute to cell death of DA neurons of the SNc in Parkinson’s disease. NA: Noradrenaline, 5-HT: Serotonin, DA: Dopamine, VTA: Ventral tegmental area, and SNc: Substantia nigra compacta.
In recent years much evidence has been accumulating that inflammation is a key player in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease [42, 43]. Many researchers also reported that inflammation plays an important role in the occurrence of depressive symptoms and is associated with treatment-resistant depression [4, 5, 44, 45]. A subset of patients with depression and animal models of depression revealed increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the periphery and brain, including IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, and a variety of stresses including psychosocial stress could induce activation of key inflammatory pathways to elevate the serum levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 [44, 45, 46, 47, 48]. Based on these findings, as mentioned previously, long-term repeated intraperitoneal injection of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interferon-α induces the degeneration of 5-HT and NA axons in the rat brain, though there is no apparent change in the number and shape of 5-HT and NA neuronal somata [18]. Accordingly, it is reasonable to assume that prolonged inflammation and persistent release of pro-inflammatory cytokines produce the degeneration of 5-HT and/or NA axons without cell death, resulting in the occurrence of depressive symptoms. If inflammation as a cause of the axonal degeneration of monoamine neurons persists without anti-inflammatory treatment during repeated administration of antidepressants, patients are likely to suffer from treatment-resistant depression.
Chronic treatment with antidepressants is reported to cause the downregulation of β-adrenergic receptors [49]. On the other hand, the denervation of cortical NA axons with the neurotoxin 6-OHDA causes upregulation (supersensitivity) in cortical β-adrenergic receptors [50]. As upregulation of β-adrenergic receptors is associated with NA axon degeneration, it is possible that downregulation of β-adrenergic receptors results from regeneration or sprouting of NA axons. If upregulation of β-adrenergic receptors occurs due to the degeneration of NA axons in the brains of patients with depression, antidepressants could normalize the sensitivity of β-adrenergic receptors by the downregulation following the regeneration of NA axons. Further studies have shown that downregulation of β-adrenergic receptors following repeated application of β-adrenergic agonists or chronic stress treatment is blocked by phospholipase A2 (PLA2) inhibitors, while this downregulation can be induced by the activation of PLA2 [51, 52]. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that PLA2 activation is involved in the downregulation of β-adrenergic receptors induced by chronic desipramine treatment [53]. A possible link between the downregulation of β-adrenergic receptors and the regeneration of NA axons raised the possibility that PLA2 is involved in the molecular mechanisms of the antidepressant-induced regeneration of NA axons. Based on these findings, the PLA2 inhibitor mepacrine or 4-bromphenacyl bromide could attenuate the regeneration of NA axons induced by desipramine, while the PLA2 activator melittin induced NA axon regeneration [54]. These findings suggested that the PLA2 signaling pathway is involved in the pathophysiology of depression.
PLA2 generates the omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid arachidonic acid (AA) and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) by acting on membrane phospholipids. PLA2 enzymes are subdivided into several groups and among them, two groups of PLA2, cytosolic PLA2 (cPLA2) and calcium-independent PLA2 (iPLA2), play a major role in the release of AA, EPA, and DHA from the cell membrane [42, 55]. PLA2 and its products, omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, reveal the capacity to produce axon outgrowth of adult mouse sensory neurons
Recently, many reports have shown lower levels of EPA and/or DHA being associated with depression [63, 64, 65, 66]. Animal studies demonstrated that administration of EPA and DHA had an antidepressant-like effect, reducing immobility in the forced swim test [67, 68]. Moreover, it has been reported that the antidepressant effect of maprotiline, an NA reuptake inhibitor, is mediated by DHA released by activation of iPLA2 in the mouse prefrontal cortex [69]. Notably important is that EPA and DHA are essential fatty acids and must be obtained from the diet. Consequently, if patients with depression do not get enough of these fatty acids from their diet during the administration of antidepressant drugs, they may suffer from treatment-resistant depression. Notably, in adolescents with SSRI-resistant depression who exhibited robust DHA deficits, DHA supplementation with fish oil increased DHA status and enhanced the antidepressant effects of SSRI [70].
Depression is considered a neurodegenerative disease, such as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease. Parkinson’s disease with the degeneration of DA neurons of the SNc related to motor function produces motor symptoms, while the degeneration of 5-HT and NA neurons related to mood regulation results in depressed mood and anxiety of patients with depression. In addition, the degeneration of DA neurons of the VTA may be associated with anhedonia in patients with depression. Nonspecific symptoms of depression, such as sleep problems, tiredness, and changes in appetite, may be attributable to the degeneration of 5-HT and NA axons, because loss of these monoamine axons, which are distributed to almost the entire brain, could likely produce a variety of symptoms. A major difference between depression and Parkinson’s disease as well as Alzheimer’s disease is that the neuropathology of depression is characterized predominantly by the degeneration of axons, while the neurodegenerative changes of Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease include a great loss of the neuron cell somata. The depressive symptoms of patients with depression can occur due to axonal degeneration of monoamine neurons even without soma degeneration, whereas the motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease and cognitive impairment of Alzheimer’s disease become evident after the occurrence of soma degeneration. This is well consistent with the fact that depression often precedes symptoms of neurodegenerative diseases, typically including Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease [71, 72]. Thus, depression may be useful as a predictor of the future occurrence of neurodegenerative diseases characterized by cell death. In any case, detection of axonal degeneration before cell death is important for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease. It is noted that DHA supplementation before the onset of dementia results in beneficial outcomes in patients with Alzheimer’s disease [55, 73, 74]. Omega-3 supplementation, as a primary intervention, also reduces cognitive decline in patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer’s disease [75]. These results suggest that in Alzheimer’s disease omega-3 fatty acids reduce mild cognitive impairment by producing axonal regeneration before the occurrence of cell death.
As mentioned earlier, neuroinflammation is reported to play a key role in neurodegenerative changes of neurological diseases, such as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease. In addition, the possibility is also discussed that the degeneration of monoamine axons, which is considered to occur in patients with depression, may be due in part to neuroinflammation. In recent years much attention has been paid to the roles of the PLA2 signaling pathway in neuroinflammation in relation to neurodegenerative diseases. It has been reported that cPLA2 releases AA and EPA, while iPLA2 preferentially releases DHA. In addition, AA and its products, such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes, play a major role in pro-inflammatory responses, whereas DHA and EPA and their products, such as resolvins and protectins, are involved in anti-inflammatory responses [55, 76, 77]. Omega-3 fatty acids and their metabolites play a regulatory role in the transition from pro-inflammatory to anti-inflammatory phases by inhibiting pro-inflammatory signaling pathways [55]. Thus, the release of AA and its products in the brain induces inflammatory neuronal damage such as axonal degeneration, whereas omega-3 fatty acids and their metabolites exert anti-inflammatory actions to induce the resolution of inflammation and recovery, including the process of axonal regeneration (Figure 3). Therefore, it is possible, at least in part, that antidepressants, which can activate iPLA2 signaling pathways, induce the axonal regeneration of monoamine neurons by anti-inflammatory and regenerative actions of omega-3 fatty acids and their metabolites.
A possible mechanism of degeneration and regeneration of monoamine axons related to pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory actions of PLA2. In the pro-inflammatory phase, cPLA2 and its pro-inflammatory metabolites cause the degeneration of monoamine axons, whereas iPLA2 and its anti-inflammatory metabolites (omega-3 fatty acids) play pivotal roles in inflammation-resolution and recovery by exerting anti-inflammatory and regenerative actions. There are distinct interactions between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory signaling pathways. Antidepressants are considered to activate iPLA2 signaling pathway and induce anti-inflammatory response and the regeneration of monoamine axons through omega-3 fatty acids and their metabolites. PLA2: Phospholipase A2, cPLA2: Cytosolic phospholipase A2, iPLA2: Calcium-independent phospholipase A2.
As noted in this review, many recent studies have clearly demonstrated that depression is a neurodegenerative disease and shares many similarities with well-known neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease. Particularly, axonal degeneration is a common phenomenon that occurs at the early stages of Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease, and possibly in depression. It is thus essential to devise new tools for the detection of axonal degeneration of affected neurons. If this is realized, Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease at early stages, characterized by axonal degeneration without cell death, will be treatable with drugs with the ability to induce axonal regeneration. In depression, one of the promising and powerful tools for detecting monoamine axon degeneration is neuroimaging of monoamine axon terminals using radiotracers of transporters of each monoamine axon. Interestingly, a more recent study reported that plasma phosphoethanolamine is a reliable biomarker of depression because it was significantly decreased in patients with depression and inversely correlated with the severity of depressive symptoms, including depressed mood, loss of interest, and psychomotor retardation [78]. Similarly, plasma levels of ethanolamine and phosphatidylethanolamine were found to be reduced in early-stage Parkinson’s disease [79], while ethanolamine and phosphoethanolamine were also decreased in cerebrospinal fluid [80] and postmortem brains [81, 82] of Alzheimer’s disease patients. Because ethanolamine and phosphoethanolamine are the precursors of the phospholipid phosphatidylethanolamine that plays a role in the incorporation of omega-3 fatty acids in the cell membrane, it is possible that phosphatidylethanolamine and its precursors are one of the reliable biomarkers of axonal degeneration of at least a subset of patients with depression as well as neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease.
Recent animal and human studies have demonstrated that similar to early-stage Parkinson’s disease, depression is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by the degeneration of monoamine axons without cell death. This review may contribute not only to understanding the pathophysiology of depression but also to new approaches to the diagnosis and therapy of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease.
I would like to deeply thank Dr. James M Tepper, Distinguished Professor of Rutgers University-Newark, and Dr. Satoshi Kida, Professor of the University of Tokyo, for reviewing the manuscript and offering many helpful comments and suggestions.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
AA | arachidonic acid |
cPLA2 | cytosolic phospholipase A2 |
DA | dopamine |
DG | dentate gyrus |
DHA | docosahexaenoic acid |
EPA | eicosapentaenoic acid |
5-HT | serotonin |
iPLA2 | calcium-independent phospholipase A2 |
NA | noradrenaline |
6-OHDA | 6-hydroxydopamine |
PFC | prefrontal cortex |
PLA2 | phospholipase A2 |
SNc | substantia nigra compacta |
SSRI | selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor |
vmPFC | ventromedial prefrontal cortex |
VTA | ventral tegmental area |
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This study addresses to define experimentally the self-healing ability and efficiency of the Araldite 2011 epoxy adhesive reinforced with the thermoplastic co-polyester (TPC). Heating the joint results in melting the co-polyester in adhesive, and then it is expected to repair the damaged region by the melted co-polyester. Firstly, before applying the self-healing process, a preliminary study was applied to define whether selected adhesive is compatible with the thermoplastic particles in terms of self-healing. From the initial results, it is seen that Araldite 2011 adhesive is suitable for use in the self-healing mechanism. In the healing cycle, initial crack in the reinforced adhesive was propagated until 30 mm during the double cantilever beam (DCB) testing. The fractured specimens were repeatedly healed in terms of the close-then-heal (CTH) scheme until no healing has taken place. After the healing process was completed, the healing efficiency was defined using the fracture energy values. In this study, the healing process was repeated two times with the acceptable healing efficiencies. 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Chemical modification reviewed includes chemical modification without introducing new atom such as cyclized natural rubber and deproteinized natural rubber (DPNR), modification by introducing a chemical group such as hydrogenated natural rubber (HNR), chlorinated natural rubber (CNR) and epoxidized natural rubber (ENR) and lastly modification by grafting on NR. Grafting can be carried out using DPNR latex to yield styrene‐grafted‐NR, methyl methacrylate‐grafted‐NR and styrene and methyl methacrylate‐grafted‐NR. The NR derivatives are reviewed in terms of their preparation, mechanism, properties and applications.",book:{id:"5919",slug:"elastomers",title:"Elastomers",fullTitle:"Elastomers"},signatures:"Azanam Shah Hashim and Siew Kooi Ong",authors:[{id:"200848",title:"Prof.",name:"Azanam Shah",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"azanam-shah-hashim",fullName:"Azanam Shah Hashim"},{id:"205691",title:"Dr.",name:"Siew Kooi",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"siew-kooi-ong",fullName:"Siew Kooi Ong"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"153",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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He previously worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Ben-Gurion University of Negev, Israel; University of the Free State, South Africa; and Central University of Technology Bloemfontein, South Africa. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan. He has published more than seventy-four journal articles and attended several national and international conferences as speaker and chair. Dr. Kendrekar has received many international awards. He has several funded projects, namely, anti-malaria drug development, MRSA, and SARS-CoV-2 activity of curcumin and its formulations. He has filed four patents in collaboration with the University of Central Lancashire and Mayo Clinic Infectious Diseases. His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",institution:null},{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. K. Kantharaju has received Bachelor of science (PCM), master of science (Organic Chemistry) and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry from Bangalore University. He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/63204",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"63204"},fullPath:"/chapters/63204",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()